5 6057685414024578370

G.ANBUSELVAM, PG ASST. IN CHEMISTRY, GHSS, POTHUMBU, MADURAI – 18.
11TH STANDARD CHEMISTRY – IMPORTANT QUESTION AND ANSWER FOR SLOW LEARNERS from
reduced syllabus 2021-22.
Unit 1 – Basic Concepts of Chemistry and Chemical Calculation.
What is/ what are / write about/ list out / Give structure
1. What is Avogadro Number? Give its value.
The total number or entities present in one mole of any substance is known as Avogadro number. Its
value is 6.022 x 1023.
2. What is an equivalent mass of an acid?
Equivalent mass of an acid is the ratio of the molar mass of the acid to the basicity of that acid.
3. What is an equivalent mass of a base?
Equivalent mass of a base is the ratio of the molar mass of the base to the acidity of that base.
4. What is an equivalent mass of an oxidising agent?
Equivalent mass of an oxidising agent is the ratio of the molar mass of an oxidising agent to the
number of moles of electrons gained by one mole of oxidising agent.
5. What is an equivalent mass of the reducing agent?
Equivalent mass of the reducing agent is the ratio of the molar mass of reducing agent to the
number of moles of electrons lost by one mole of the reducing agent.
6. What is empirical formula?
Empirical formula of a compound is the formula written with the simplest ratio of the number of
different atoms present in one molecule of the compound as subscript to the atomic symbol.
7. What is molecular formula?
Molecular formula of a compound is the formula written with the actual number of different atoms
present in one molecule as a subscript to the atomic symbol.
8. What is limiting reagent?
When a reaction is carried out using non-stoichiometric quantities of the reactants, the product yield
will be determined by the reactant that is completely consumed. It limits the further reaction from taking
place and is known as the limiting reagent.
9. What is excess reagent?
When a reaction is carried out using non-stoichiometric quantities of the reactants, all other
reactants except limiting reagent are called excess reagents.
10. What is oxidation number (state)?
Oxidation number is the imaginary charge left on the atom when all other atoms of the compound
have been removed with its charge.
11. What is the empirical formula of the following?
i) Fructose (C6H12O6) found in honey
ii) Caffeine (C8H10N4O2) a substance found in tea and coffee.
i) CH2O ii) C4H5N2O
Definitions
1. Define relative atomic mass.
2. Define Molecular mass.

Molecular mass is defined as the ratio of the mass of a molecule to the unified atomic mass unit.
3. Define Mole.
One mole is the amount of substances of a system, which contains as many elementary particles as
there are atoms in 12g of carbon-12 isotope.
4. Define gram equivalent mass.
Gram equivalent mass is defined as the mass of an element that combines or displaces 1.008g of
hydrogen or 8gm of oxygen or 35.5gm of chlorine.
1
Differentiation:
1. Differentiate oxidation and reduction.
Sl. No. Oxidation Reduction
1 Addition of Oxygen Removal of Oxygen
2 Removal of Hydrogen Addition of Hydrogen
3 Increase in oxidation number Decrease in oxidation number
4 Loss of electron Gain of electron
2. Distinquish oxidation and reduction by electron concept.
Oxidation: Loss of electron is known as oxidation
eg.
Reduction: Gain of electron is known as reduction.
eg.
3. What is the difference between molecular mass and molar mass? Calculate the molecular mass
and molar mass for carbon monoxide.
The numerical value is same for both molecular mass and molar mass but they have different units.
The molecular mass of CO is 28 amu and the molar mass of CO is 28 gmol-1.
Explanation / Explain / Prove:
1. Give the expression to calculate the whole number which is required to convert empirical formula
into molecular formula.
Calculation / Problem:
1. Calculate the equivalent weight of H2SO4.
2. Calculate the oxidation number of oxygen in H2O2.
3. If the vapour density of a compound with empirical formula C 6H6O is 47, find its molecular
formula.
The empirical formula of a compound is C6H6O.
Empirical formula mass = = 6(12)+6(1)+1(16) = 94.
Molar mass = 2 x vapour density = 2 x 47 = 94.
Whole number (n) = Molar mass / empirical formula mass = 94/94 = 1
Molecular formula = n x empirical formula = 1 x C6H6O = C6H6O
4. An organic compound present in vinegar has 40% carbon, 6.6% hydrogen and 53.4% oxygen.
Find the empirical formula. If its molar mass is 60 find its molecular formula.
2
Empirical formula is CH2O
Unit – 2 : Quantum mechanical model of atom

1. What is an orbital?
Orbital is the three dimensional space around the nucleus within which the probability of finding an
electron is maximum.
2. Write the electronic configuration of Copper and Chromium.
Copper Cu(z=29) = 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1 Chromium Cr(z=24) = 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1
3. Which quantum number reveal information about the shape, energy, orientation and size of
orbitals?
Shape = Azimuthal quantum number(l) Energy = Principle quantum number(n)
Orientation = Magnetic quantum number(m) Size = Principle quantum number(n)
4. Give the electronic configuration of M2+ and Cr3+.
M2+ = 1s22s22p63s23p63d5 and Cr3+ = 1s22s22p63s23p63d3
th
5. What is the energy of n orbit of atom which have only one electron like Hydrogen?
(or)
3
n = principle quantum number Z = atomic number
6. What is Zeeman effect?
The splitting of spectral lines of atoms in the presence of magnetic field is known as Zeeman effect.
7. What is Stark effect?
The splitting of spectral lines of atoms in the presence of electric field is known as Stark effect.
8. How many orbitals are possible for n = 4?
Number of orbitals in n = 4 are 4s + 4p + 4d + 4f = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16.
9. How many radial nodes for 2s, 4p, 5d and 4f orbitals exhibit? How many angular nodes?
Orbital n l Radial node Angular node Total node
n-l-1 l n-1
2s 2 0 1 0 1
4p 4 1 2 1 3
5d 5 2 2 2 4
4f 4 3 0 3 3
Definition / Statements:
1. Define Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
It is impossible to accurately determine both the position and the momentum of a microscopic
particle simultaneously.
2. Define Aufbau Principle.
In the ground state of atoms, the orbitals are filled in the order of their increasing energies.
3. Define Pauli’s exclusion principle.
No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of values of all four quantum numbers.
4. Define Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.
Hund’s rule states that electron pairing in the degenerate orbitals does not take place until all the
available orbitals contains one electron each.
Why / How / Give reason
1. The stabilisation of a half-filled d-orbital is more pronounced than that of the p-orbital. Why?
In case of half filled d-orbital, maximum possibility in exchange of electrons causes large energy
release and that in p-orbital, exchange can take place in three orbitals causes lesser energy.
1. Explain the assemptions of Boh atomic model.
1. The energies of electrons in an atom are quantised.
2. The electron is revolving around the nucleus in a certain fixed circular path called stationary orbit.
3. The angular momentum of the electron must be equal to an integral multiple of h/2π
mvr = nh/2π
4. In the stationary orbit electron doesn’t lose its energy. However, when an electron jumps from higher
energy state to a lower energy state, the excess energy emitted as radiation. Conversely, when suitable
energy is supplied to an electron, it will jump from lower energy orbit to a higher energy orbit.
2. Explain the Quantum numbers.
Principal quantum number (n):
This quantum number represents the energy level in which the electron revolves around the nucleus and is
denoted by the symbol n.
values of n = 1,2,3,4,… which represents K,L,M,N,… shells respectively.
maximum number of electrons in an orbit can be calculated using formula 2n2.
energy of orbit is given by distance of electron from nucleus is given by
4
Azimuthal quantum number (l):
It is represented by the letter ‘l’ and its values l = 0,1,2,…(n-1) where n is the principal quantum number. l =
0,1,2,3 and 4 represents the s,p,d,f and g orbitals respectively. maximum number of electrons in an orbitals
(subshell)can be calculated by the formula 2(2l+1).
Magnetic quantum number (ml):

It is denoted by the letter ‘ml’. It takes the integral values ranging from -l to +l through 0. i.e if l = 1; m=
-1,0,+1. Different values of m for a given l value, represent different orientation of orbitals in space.
Spin quantum number (ms):
It represents the spin of the electron and is denoted by the letter ‘m s’. Its values are -1/2 and +1/2
represents electron spins in anticlockwise direction and clockwise direction respectively.
3. Explain the stability of half filled and completely filled orbitals by symmetrical distribution of
electron.
Symmetry leads to stability. The half filled and fully filled configurations have symmetrical distribution
of electrons and hence they are more stable than unsymmetrical configurations. Due to this symmetrical
distribution, the shielding of one electron on the other is relatively small and hence the electrons are
attracted more strongly by the nucleus and it increases the stability.
4. Explain the stability of half filled and completely filled orbitals by exchange energy.
If two or more electrons with the same spin are present in degenerate orbitals, there is a possibility
for exchanging their positions. During exchange process the energy is released is called exchange energy.
If more number of exchanges are possible, more exchange energy is released. More number of exchanges
are possible only in case of half filled and fully filled configuratios.
Derive / Derivation:
1. Derive De Broglie equation.
Light photon has dual nature i.e., particle nature and wave nature. De broglie derive an equation ro
relate this dual nature. 1. As per Planck’s quantum hypothesis E = hʋ --------------------(1)
2. As per Einstein’s mass – energy relationship E = mc2 -----------------------(2)
From (1) and (2)
this equation is the De – broglie equation of light photon. He extend this equation to the particle of matter
with mass m with a velocity v, thus the above equation can written as
Limitation:
1. Give the limitation of Bohr’s atom model.
1. This is applicable only to species having one electron such as hydrogen, Li 2+ etc., and not applicable to
multi electron atoms.
2. This model could not explain Zeeman effect and Stark effect.
3. Bohr predict the angular momentum of electron in an orbit mvr = nh/2π. But he could not explain why it is
so.
Unit – 3; Periodic Classifications of Elements.

1. Give the modern periodic law.
5
The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers
2. What would be the IUPAC name and the symbol for the element with atomic number 120? Predict
the possible electronic configuration of this element.
Atomic number = 120 temp.name = Unbinilium temp.symbol = Ubn Electronic Config.= [Og]8s2
3. What is atomic radius?
Atomic radius is the distance between the centre of its nucleus and the outermost shell containing
the valence electron.
4. What is covalent radius?
It is one-half of the internuclear distance between two identical atoms linked together by a single
covalent bond.
5. What is metallic radius?
It is one-half of the distance between two adjacent metal atoms in the closely packed metallic crystal
lattice.
6. What is effective nuclear charge?
The net nuclear charge experienced by valence electrons in the outermost shell is called effective
nuclear charge.
7. What is shielding effect?
The inner shell electrons act as a shield between the nucleus and the valence electrons. This effect
is called shielding effect.
8. What are isoelectronic ions? Give example.
Ions having the same number of electrons but different nuclear charge. Eg. N3-, O2-, F-
9. Give the general electronic configuration of lanthanides and actinides.
Lanthanides = [Xe]4f1-145d16s2 Actinides = [Rn]5f0,1-146d0-27s2
10. In what period and group will an element with Z=118 will be present?
Period = 7 and Group = 18
11. Give any two anomalous properties of second period elements.
1. Unlike the alkali and alkali earth metals which predominantly form ionic compounds, lithium and beryllium
form more covalent compounds.
2. Maximum covalence of second period elements is 4, where as other members of subsequent periods
show higher valences.
Definitions
1. State modern periodic law.
The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic
numbers.
2. Define Ionisation energy. Give its periodic variation along the group and periods.
Ionisation energy is defined as the minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely
bound electron from the valence shell of the isolated neutral gaseous atom in the ground state. It
decreases down a group and increases along the period from left to right.
3. Define Electron affinity. Give its periodic variation along the group and periods.
Electron affinity is defined as the amount of energy released when an electron is added to the
valence shell of an isolated neutral gaseous atom in its ground state to form its anion. It decreases down a
group and increases along the period from left to right.
4. Define Electronegativity. Give its periodic variation along the group and periods.
Electronegativity is defined as the relative tendency of an element present in a covalently bonded
molecule, to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself. It decreases down a group and increases
along the period from left to right.
1. Magnesium loses electrons successively to form Mg+, Mg2+ and Mg3+ ions. Which step will have
the highest ionisation energy and why?
Mg + I.E1 →Mg+ + e- ; Mg+ + I.E2 → Mg2+ + e- ; Mg2+ + I.E3 → Mg3+ + e-
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I.E1< I.E2 < I.E3. Hence the formation of Mg3+ ion requires the highest ionisation energy.
2. Second ionisation energy is always higher than the first ionisation energy. Why?
First ionisation energy is the energy required to remove electron from neutral atom and Second
ionisation energy is the energy required to remove electron from unipositive ion. The removal of electron
from unipositive ion is higher since the electron possess higher binding energy.
3. Why halogens act as oxidising agents?
Halogen has valence electronic configuration is ns 2np5. Therefore, they have high tendency to gain
an electron. Hence they act as strong oxidising agents.
4. Why the first ionisation enthalpy of sodium is lower than that of magnesium while its second
ionisation enthalpy is higher than that of magnesium?
2 2 6 1 2 2 6 2
11Na = 1s 2s 2p 3s 12Mg = 1s 2s 2p 3s
Since the nuclear charge of Mg is higher than Na, the first ionisation energy of Na is lower than Mg.
For second ionisation energy the electron from Na+ with stable electronic configuration has to be removed.
So the second ionisation energy is higher than that of magnesium.
5. The ionisation energy of N is higher than O. why?
2 2 3 2 2 4
7N = 1s 2s 2p 8O = 1s 2s 2p
Since electron has to be removed from stable half filled 2p orbital in N is higher than the electron to
be removed from partially filled 2p orbital in O. Hence the ionisation energy of N is higher than O.
6. First ionisation potential of C atom is greater than that of B atom, where as the reverse is true is
for second ionisation potential. Give reason.
Carbon having more nuclear charge than Boron. So it requires higher energy to remove the valence
electron. After removal of one electron C+ = 1s22s22p1 and B+ = 1s22s2, the second electron removal from
2p1 is easier than 2s2(which is stable). Hence for I.E1, C is greater than B and for I.E2, B is greater than C.
7. The electron affinity value is very low for N and P. Why?
2 2 3 2 2 6 2 3
7N = 1s 2s 2p 15P = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p Both N and P have stable half filled 2p and 3p orbitals.
So they have low affinity to take another electron. Hence the electron affinity value is very low for N and P.
8. The electron affinity values of Be, Mg and nobe gases are zero. Why?
2 2 2 2 6 2
4Be = 1s 2s 12Mg = 1s 2s 2p 3s valence shell of noble gas = ns2np6
Since all of the above have stable electronic configuration, the electron affinity of them are zero.
9. The formation of F- from F is exothermic while that of O2- from O is endothermic. Why?
O + e- → O- ΔH = -141 KJmol-1 : O- + e- → O2- ΔH = +780 KJmol-1
F + e- → F - ΔH = -328KJ mol-1.
In oxygen first electron affinity is exothermic and second electron affinity is endothermic and over all
O from O is endothermic. Whereas F- from F is exothermic.
2-
10. Why the electron affinity of fluorine and oxygen are lower than chlorine and sulphur
respectively?
Because 1. Fluorine and Oxygen are smaller in size.
2. Both Fluorine and oxygen have high electron density and so repulsive force of electrons are high.
3. It repel new incoming electron.(since 2p orbitals which is relatively compact compared to 3p orbitals in
chlorine and sulphur)
11. Ionization enthalpy of Be is higher than B. why?
Be = 1s22s2 B = 1s22s22p1 The energy required to remove one electron from
symmetrically filled 2s orbital in Beryllium is more than from partially filled 2p1 orbital in Boron.
2
12. Why the elements in a group shows similar property?

The outer electronic configuration of elements in a group are similar and hence they have similar
properties.

1. Explain pauling method to calculate electronegativity.
7
Pauling assigned arbitrary value of electronegativities of hydrogen and fluorine as 2.1 and 4.0
respectively. Based on this the electronegativity values for other elements can be calculated using the
following expression.
Where EAB, EAA and EBB are the bond dissiociation energies of AB, A2 and B2 molecules respectively.
The electronegativity of any given element is not a constant and its value depends on the element to which
it is covalently bound. The electronegativity values play an important role in predicting the nature of the
bond.
2. Explain Diagonal relationship.
On moving diagonally across the periodic table, the second and third period elements show certain
similarities. Eventhough the similarity is not same as we see in a group, it is quite pronounced in the
following pair. The similarity in properties existing between the diagonally placed elements is called
diagonal relationship.
3. The electronic configuration of atom is one of the important factor which affects the value of
ionisation potential and electron gain enthalpy. Explain.
Generally the ionisation energy and electron affinity values are increased when we move along a
period from left to right. But there are some deviation in this because of electronic configuration.
eg.1. The ionistion energy of beryllium is higher than boron due to the fact that symmetrically filled 2s orbital
in beryllium. For the same electron affinity of beryllium is low.
eg. 2. The ionisation energy of nitrogen is more than oxygen due to half filled 2p orbital and for the same
nitrogen has nearly zero value of electron affinity.
eg. 3. The ionisation energy of noble gas are very high and their electron affinity values are zero due to
their stable electronic configuration of ns2np6.
4. Explain pauling method to calculate ionic radius.
where d = the distance between the centre of the nucleus of cation C+ and anion A-
rC+ = radius of cation and rA- = radius of anion.
The radius of the ion having noble gas elecrtonic configuration,
where Zeff (effective nuclear charge)= Z(atomic number) – S(screening constant)

Dividing the equation 1 by 3
On solving equation (1) and (4) the values of

Unit – 4: Hydrogen
1. What is isotopes? What are the isotopes of Hydrogen?
8
Atoms having identical atomic number and different mass number of same element are known as
isotopes. Isotopes of hydrogen are 1. Protium(1H1 or H), 2. Deuterium(1H2 or D) and 3. Tritium(1H3 or T).
2.What are ortho and para Hydrogen?
When molecular hydrogen is formed, if the spins of two hydrogen nuclei in the same direction is
known as ortho hydrogen and if the spins of two hydrogen nuclei in the opposite direction is known as para
hydrogen.
3. What are the properties of hydrogen similar to that of alkali metals?

1. It forms unipositive ion (H+)
2. It forms halides, oxides, peroxide and sulphides like alkali metals. Eg. HX, H 2O, H2O2, H2S (NaX, Na2O,
Na2O2, Na2S)
3. It also acts as a reducing agent.
4. What is the property of hydrogen similar to that of halogens?
It forms uni negative ion (hydride ion (H-)) similar to that of halogen (halide ion (X-)).
5. In what way hydrogen differs from alkali metals and halogen?
1. The ionisation energy of alkali metals ranging from 377 to 520KJmol-1, but the hydrogen has 1314KJmol-1
2. The electron affinity of halogen is -55kcalmol-1, but for hydrogen is +36kcalmol-1.
6. What are the methods to convert para hydrogen into ortho hydrogen?
1. The para-form can be catalytically transformed into ortho-form using platinum or iron.
2. by passing an electric discharge.
3. by heating 800oC and above.
4. by mixing with paramagnetic molecules such as O2, NO, NO2
5. by mixing with nascent / atomic hydrogen.
7. What are hard and soft water?
If water soluble salts of calcium and magnesium present in water is known as hard water. It doesn’t
give lather with soap. Where as if water soluble salts of calcium and magnesium not available in water is
known as soft water. It gives lather with soap.
8. What is heavy water?
Heavy water (D2O) is the oxides of heavy hydrogen. One part of heavy water is present in 5000
parts of ordinary water.
9. What are hydrides? How are they classified?
Hydrogen forms hydrides with many electropositive elements including metals and non-metals.
Hydrides are classified as 1. Ionic (saline) hydride, 2. Covalent (molecular) hydride and 3. Metallic
(interstitial) hydrides.
10. What are Ionic hydride (Saline hydride)?
These are hydride which dissociated into ions. These are hydrides composed of an electropositive
metal generally an alkali or alkaline-earth metal except beryllium and magnesium.
11. What are Covalent (Molecular) Hydride? Give its classification.
They are compounds in which hydrogen is attached to another element by sharing of electrons.
They are classified as 1. Electron precise (eg. CH 4, SiH4, GeH4) 2. Electron deficient (B2H6) and 3. Electron
rich hydrides (NH3, H2O).
12. What are Metallic (Interstitial) hydrides?
The hydrides usually obtained by hydrogenation of metals and alloys in which hydrogen occupies
the interstitial sites(voids) are called interstitial hydrides. These are non-stoichiometric with variable
composition.
1. Explain why hydrogen is not placed with the halogen in the periodic table.
9
Though the properties of hydrogen resembles both alkali metals and halogen, hydrogen is placed
along with the alkali metals in the periodic table but not placed with the halogen due its valence shell
electronic configuration is similar to that of alkali metals.
Uses / Application / Importance:
1. What are the uses of heavy water?
1. as a moderator in nuclear reactors as it can lower the energies of fast neutrons.
2. as a tracer to study organic reaction mechanism.
3. as a coolent in nuclear reactor.
Explain / Explanation / Prove:
1. Explain the exchange reactions of deuterium.
2. Explain the removal of temporary hardness of water.

Temporary hardness is primarily due to the presence of soluble bicarbonates of magnesium and
calcium. This can be removed by boiling the hard water followed by filteration of formed carbonates which
is insoluble.
Clerk’s method:
3. Explain the method to remove permanent hardness of water.

Permanent hardness of water is due to the presence of soluble salts of magnesium and calcium in
the form of chlorides and sulphates in it. It can be removed by adding washing soda, which reacts with
these metal chlorides and sulphates in hard water to form insoluble carbonates.
4. What is the role of zeolite in removal of permanent hardness of water? (Explain the ion exchange
method in removal of permanent hardness of water)
In this method, hardness can be removed by passing through an ion-exchange bed like zeolites.
Zeolites are hydrated sodium alumino – silicates with a general formula Na 2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O (x = 2 to
10, y = 2 to 6). Zeolites have porous structure in which the monovalent sodium ions are loosely held and
can be exchanged with hardess producing magnesium and calcium ions in water. Thus the permanent
hardness of water can be removed.
The exhausted zeolite can be regenerated by treating with aqueous sodium chloride.
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Preparation:
1. How is deuterium prepared?
2. How is tritium prepared?
Unit – 5: Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals.

1. What are the similarities between lithium and magnesium?
1. Both lithium and magnesium are harder than other elements in the respective groups.
2. Both are reacting with water slowly.
3. Both form a nitride Li3N and Mg3N2 by direct combination with nitrogen.
4. They do not form super oxides
5. They do not form bicarbonates.
2. What are the similarities between beryllium and aluminium?
1. Beryllium chlorides forms a dimeric structure like aluminium chloride with chloride bridges.
2. As in excess of alkali aluminium hydroxide gives aluminate ion, Beryllium hydroxide gives beryllate ion.
3. Both beryllium and aluminium hydroxides are amphoteric in nature.
4. On hydrolysis of their carbides gives methane.
5. Both are rendered passive by nitric acide.
Why / How / Give reason:
1. Why alkali and alkaline earth metals gives coloured flame?
The heat in the flame excites the valence electron to a higher energy level. When it drops back to its
actual energy level, the excess energy is emitted as light, whose wavelength is in the visible region.
2. Alkali metals dissolved in liquid ammonia gives the blue colour and conducting in nature. Why?
Alkali metal atom readily loses its valence electron (solution becomes conducting in nature). Hence
ammoniated metal ion and ammoniated electron are produced. The blue colour of the solution is due to the
ammoniated electron which absorbs energy in the visible region of the light.
3. Why alkali metals behaves as a good reducing agent?
Alkali metals can lose their valence electron readily hence they act as good reducing agents.
4. Why lithium possess distinctive behaviour?
The distinctive behaviour of Li+ ion is due to its exceptionally small size, high polarising power, high
hydration energy and non availability of d – orbitals.
5. Why sodium hydroxide is much more water soluble than sodium chloride?
Sodium hydroxide is a strong base. It dissolve in water with evolution of heat on account of intense
hydration.
6. Beryllium halides are covalent where as magnesium halides are ionic. Why?
Due to the smaller size of beryllium ion, beryllium halides are covalent and magnesium halides are
ionic.
7. Why alkaline earth metals are harder than alkali metals?
Since alkaline earth metals having two electrons in the valence shell, it is harder than alkali metals
having one electron in the valence shell. More over alkaline earth metals have stronger metallic bond than
alkali metals.
8. Which would you expect to have a higher melting point, magnesium oxide or magnesium
fluoride? Explain your reasoning.
In both there is no change is size of magnesium ion. When compared fluoride and oxide, fluorine
has lower size due to its high electron affinity than oxide ion. Magnesium fluoride is covalent in nature
11
where as magnesium oxide is ionic in nature. Hence magnesium oxide has higher melting point than
magnesium fluoride.
9. Among alkaline earth metals, BeO is insoluble in water where as other oxides are soluble in
water. Why?
Because BeO is covalent in nature where as other alkaline earth metal oxides are ionic in nature.
1. What are the uses of alkali metals.
1. In alloy formation.
2. to make lithium electrochemical cells.
3. lithium carbonate in medicine.
4. Sodium is used to make Na/Pb alloy needed to make Tetra Ethyl Lead which is antiknock additives to
pertrol.
5. Liquid sodium metal is used as a coolant in fast breeder nuclear reactors.
6. Potassium hydroxide is used to manufacture soft soaps and excellent absorbent of carbon di oxide.
7. Caesium is used in devising photoelectric cells.
2. What are the uses of magnesium?
1. Removal of sulphur from iron and steel.
2. Used as photoengrave plates in printing industry.
3. Its alloys are used in aeroplane and missile construction.
4. in Grignard reagent synthesis.
5. as a desiccant.
6. as sacrificial anode in controlling galvanic corrosion.
3. What are the uses of Calcium?
1. As a reducing agent in the metallurgy of uranium, zirconium and thorium.
2. as a deoxidiser, desulphuriser or decarboniser.
3. In making cement and mortar to be used in construction.
4. as a getter in vacuum tubes.
5. in dehydrating agent.
6. In fertilisers, concrete and plaster of paris.
4. What are the uses of plaster of paris?
1. in the building industry as well as plasters.
2. in immobilising bandage for fracture of bone and sprain.
3. employed in dentistry and in ornamental work.
4. for making casts of statues and busts.
Difference / Distiquish:
1. How is lithium differs from other elements of the family?
Sl.No. Lithium Other elements of the family
1 Hard, high melting and boiling point Soft and lower melting and boiling point
2 Least reactive More reactive
3 Reacts with nitrogen to give Li3N No reaction
4 Reacts with bromine slowly React violently
5 Reacts directly with carbon to form ionic Do not react with carbon directly, but can react
carbide with carbon compounds
6 Lithium nitrate decomposes to give an oxide Decomposes to give nitrite
2.How is Beryllium differs from other elements of the family?
Sl. No. Beryllium Other elements of the family
1 Forms covalent compounds form ionic compounds
2 High melting and boiling point Low melting and boiling point
3 Does not react with water React with water
4 Does not combine with hydrogen directly Combined directly with hydrogen
5 Does not combine directly with halogens. combined directly with halogen. Halides are
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Halides are covalent ionic
6 its hydroxide and oxides are amphoteric in Basic in nature
nature
7 Due to the presence of oxide film, it is not Readily attacked by acids
readily attacked by acids
8 Beryllium Carbide evolves methane with evolve acetylene with water
water
9 salts of Be are extensively hydrolysed hydrolysed

1. Explain the structures of Beryllium chloride.
Chain structure in solid state.
Chloro bridged dimer in vapour phase
Linear monomer at high temperatures of the order of 1200 K
Preparation:
1. How is Plaster of Paris (Calcium Sulphate Hemihydrate) prepared?
2CaSO4.2H2O + 393K→ 2CaSO4.1/2H2O + 3H2O
Unit – 6: Gaseous State

What is/ what are / write about/ list out / Give structure:
1. What are Ideal gas?
Gases that obeys the equation PV = nRT or Gaseous laws under all conditions.
Definitions
1. Define Boyle’s law.
At a given temperature the volume occupied by fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure.
2. Define Charles law.
For a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its
temperature.
3. Define Gay-Lussac’s law.
At constant volume the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to temperature.
4. Define Avogadro’s Hypothesis.
Avogadro’s Hypothesis states that equal volume of all gases under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.
5. Define Graham’s law of diffusion or effusion.
The rate of diffusion or effusion is inversely proportional to the square root of molar mass.
6. Define Dalton’s law of partial pressure.
At constant temperature, the total pressure of a mixture of non-reacting gases is the sum of partial
pressures of the gases present in the mixture.

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1. Aerated water bottles are kept under water during summer. why?
The gas in the aerated bottles exapand in summer and its pressure becomes too high. The bottle
may explode. To avoid this the bottles are kept under water.
2. Liquid ammonia bottle is cooled before opening the seal. why?
The vapour pressure of ammonia at room temperature is very high. To reduce this liquid ammonia
bottle is cooled before opening the seal. Otherwise the bottle may explode.
3. The tyre of an automobile is inflated to slightly lesser pressure in summer than in winter. why?
In summer gas expanded more than in winter. Hence the tyre of an automobile is inflated to slightly
lesser pressure in summer than in winter. Otherwise the tyre may burst.
4. The size of a weather balloon becomes larger and larger as it ascends up into larger altitude.
Why?
As we go to higher altitudes, the atmospheric pressure decreases. Thus pressure outside the balloon
decreases. The pressure inside the balloon decreases by expansion. Hence it becomes larger and larger.
5. Suggest why there is no hydrogen (H2) in our atmosphere? and Why does the moon have no
atmosphere?
The density of hydrogen is low and hence there is no hydrogen in our atmosphere. The gravitational
force is very low in moon and hence the moon have no atmosphere.
6. Aerosol cans carry clear warning of heating of the can. Why?
Aerosol cans carry clear warning of heating of the can, because on heating the can will burst as the
pressure goes up too far and also the conent in the can may be inflammable and so the warning is must.
7. When the driver of an automobile applies brake, the passengers are pushed toward the front of
the car but a helium balloon is pushed toward back of the car. why?
Helium has lower density than other gases in air. When brake is applied, high density gases are
pushed forward where as the low density Helium ballon is pushed toward opposite direction (backward of
the car) as the diver coming out of the water.
8. Would it be easier to drink water with a straw on the top of Mount Everest?
It is difficult to drink water with a straw on the top of the mount Everest. This is because the reduced
atmospheric pressure is less effective in pushing. The air pressure flls off, there is not enough atmospheric
pressure to push the water up in the straw the way to the mouth.
9. Why do Astronauts have to wear protective suits when they ar on the surface of moon?
Space is extremly cold and filled with dangerous radiation without protection an astronauts would
quickly die in space. Space suits are specially designed to protect astronauts from the cold, radiation and
low pressure they also provide air to breathe. This suit will be heavier on earth, but on moon it appears to
be less weight due to low gravity.
10. When ammonia combines with HCl, NH4Cl is formed as white dense fumes. Why do more fumes
appear near HCl?
It can be explained by diffus in property of gas. Ammonia and HCl solution are placed in a separate
test tube. After some, the gases diffuses to meet HCl and solid NH4Cl is formed near the HCl.
Differences / Differentiate / Distinquish:
1. Distinquish between diffusion and effusion.
Diffusion Effusion
The movement of gas molecules through another Effusion is another process in which a gas escapes
gas is called diffusion. from a container thfough a very small hole.
1. Derive ideal gas equation.
14
We can combine these equations into the following general equation that describes the physical
behaviour of all gases.
Where R is the gas constant. The above equation can be rearranged to give the ideal gas equation.
Unit – 7; Thermodynamics
1. What are System, Surrounding and Boundary in thermodynamics?
The system is the part of universe which is under thermodynamic consideration.
Everything in the universe that is not the part of the system is called surroundings.
Anything which separates the system from its surrounding is called boundary.
2. What is isolated system?
A system which can exchange neither matter nor energy with its surroundings is called an isolated
system. Eg. Thermos flask.
3. What is closed system?
A system which can exchange only energy but not matter with the surroundings is called closed
system. Eg. Hot water contained in a closed beaker.
4. What is open system?
A system which can exchange both matter and energy is transferred to the surrounding. Eg. Hot
water contained in an open beaker.
5. What is reversible process?
The process in which the system and surrounding can be restored to the initial state from the final
state without producing any changes in the thermodynamic properties of the universe is called a reversible
process.
6. What is irreversible process?
The process in which the system and surrounding cannot be restored to the initial state from the
final state is called an irreversible process.
7. What is an adiabatic process?
Those processes in which no heat can flow into or out of the system are called adiabatic process.
Here q = 0.
8. What is isothermal process?
It is defined as one in which the temperature of the system remains constant, during the change
from its initial to final state. Here dT = 0.
9. What is isobaric process?
It is defined as one in which the pressure of the system remains constant during its change from the
initial to final state. Here dP = 0.
10. What is isochoric process?
It is defined as one in which the volume of the system remains constant during its change from the
initial to final state. Here dV = 0.
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11. What is cyclic process?
When a system returns to its original state after completing a series of changes, then it is said that a
cycle is completed. This process is known as cyclic process. For this dU=0,dH=0,dP=0,dV=0 and dT=0.
12. What is internal energy?
The internal energy of a system is equal to the energy possessed by all its constituents. Or the total
energy of all the molecules of the system is called internal energy.
13. What is heat?
The heat(q) is regarded as an energy in transit across the boundary separating a system from its
surrounding.
14. What is work?
Work is defined as the force(F) multiplied by the displacement(x). -w=F.x
15. What is enthalpy?
Enthalpy(H) is defined as the sum of the internal energy(U) of a system and the product of pressure
and volume of the system. H=U+PV.
16. What is standard heat of formation?
It is defined as the change in enthalpy that takes place when one mole of a compound is formed
from its elements, present in their standard states.
17. What is heat of combustion?
It is defined as the change in enthalpy of a system when one mole of the substance is completely
burnt in excess of air or oxygen.
18. What is entropy? Give its unit.
Entropy is a measure of the molecular disorder (randomness) of a system. Or energy (q) divided by
constant temperature (T). dS = qrev/T. SI unit = JK-1. cgs unit = calK-1.
19. What is standard entropy of formation?
It is defined as the entropy of formation of 1 mole of a compound from the elements under standard
conditions.
20. What is entropy of fusion?
It is defined as the entropy change during the heat absorbed when one mole of a solid melts at its
melting point reversibly.
21. What is entropy of vapourisation?
It is defined as the entropy change during the heat absorbed when one mole of liquid is boiled at its
boiling point reversibly.
22. What is entropy of transition?
The heat change, when one mole of a solid changes reversibly from one allotropic form to another
at its transition temperature is called entropy of transition.
23. What is efficiency and efficiency in percentage for an engine?
Efficiency = Work performed / heat absorbed
Th = temperature of hot reservoir & Tc = temperature of cold reservoir.

24. What is standard entropy change for a chemical equation?
Standard entropy change is the difference between the sum of entropies of product and the sum of
entropies of reactants at standard condition.

25. What is Gibb’s free energy?
The isothermally available energy associated with a chemical reaction that can be used to do work.
G=H-TS. G=Gibb’s free energy H=enthalpy and S = entropy.
26. What is spontaneous and nonspontaneous process?
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A process that occurs under the given set of conditions without any external driving force is called a
spontaneous process. Otherwise it is said to be non-spontaneous process.
27. What are the conditions for the spontaneity of a process?
ΔH and ΔG should have negative sign and ΔS should have positive sign are the conditions for the
spontaneity of a process.
28. What is Lattice energy?
It is defined as the amount of energy required to completely remove the constituent ions from its
crystal lattice to an infinite distance.
Definition;
1. State zeroth law of thermodynamics.
It states that if two systems are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third one, then they tend to
be in thermal equilibrium with themselves.
2. State first law of thermodynamics.
It is also known as law of conservation of mass. It states that the energy can neither be created nor
be destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another.
3. Define Hess’s law of constant heat summation.
The enthalpy change of a reaction either at constant volume or constant pressure is the same
whether it takes place in a single or multiple steps. Provided the initial and final states are same.
4. Define entropy statement of second law of thermodynamics.
The entropy of an isolated system increases during a spontaneous process.
5. Define Kelvin-Plank’s statement of second law of thermodynamics.
It is impossible to construct a machine that absorbs heat from a hot source and converts it
completely into work by a cyclic process without transferring a part of heat to a cold sink.
6. Define Clausius statement.
It is impossible to transfer heat from a cold reservoir to a hot without doing some work.
7. State third law of thermodynamics.
The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of pure crystalline substance at absolute
zero is zero.
Differentiation / Differences / Distinquish:
1. Differentiate Extensive and intensive properties.
Sl.No. Extensive Properties Intensive Properties
1 Depends on the mass or the size of the Independent on the mass or the size of the
system system
2 e.g. Volume, number of moles, mass, etc., eg. surface tension, density, boiling point, etc.,
2. Differentiate state funcion and path function.
Sl.No. State function Path function
1 Thermodynamic property of a system which Thermodynamic property of a system whose
has a specific value for a given state and value depends on the path by which the system
does not depend on the path. changes from its initial to final state.
2 eg. Pressure, Volume, Temperature, etc., eg. work, heat, etc.
1. Explain how the lattice energy of a crystal is calculated using Born – Haber cycle. (or) Explain
Born-Haber cycle.
The Born – Haber cycle ia an approach to analyse reaction energies. The cycle is considered with the
formation of an ionic compound from the reaction of a metal with a halogen or other non-metallic element
such as oxygen. This cycle is primarily used in calculating lattice energy, which cannot be measured
directly. This cycle applies Hess’s law to calculate the lattice enthalpy. For example consider the formation
of a simple ionic solid such as an alkali metal halide MX, the following steps are considered.
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ΔH1 – enthalpy change for the sublimation M(s) to M(g)

ΔH2 – enthalpy change for the dissociation of ½ X2(g) to X(g)
ΔH3 – Ionisation energy for M(g) to M+(g)
ΔH4 – electron affinity for the conversion of X(g) to X-(g)
U – the lattice enthalpy for the formation of solid MX
ΔHf – enthalpy change for the formation of solid MX directly form elements.
According to Hess’s law of heat of summation
2. Suggest and explain an indirect method to calculate lattice enthalpy of sodium Chloride crystal.
ΔH1 – enthalpy change for the sublimation of sodium

ΔH2 – Ionisation energy for sodium
ΔH3 – enthalpy change for the dissociation of Chlorine
ΔH4 – electron affinity for the conversion of Chlorine
U – the lattice enthalpy of NaCl
ΔHf – enthalpy change for the formation of NaCl
3. Write down the Born – Haber cycle for the formation of CaCl2.
4. List the characteristics of Gibbs free energy?
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1. Free energy is defined as G = H – TS. G is a state function.
2. G is an extensive property. But ΔG is the intensive property when mass remains constant between initial
and final states.
3. G has a single value for the thermodynamic state of system.
4. G and ΔG values correspond to the system only.
5. There are three cases of ΔG predicting the nature of process
ΔG = -ve for spontaneous process
ΔG = 0 for equilibrium process
ΔG = +ve for Non-spontaneous process
1. Derive the relation between enthalpy H and internal energy U.
Enthalpy H = U + PV
In the initial state H1 = U1 + PV1
In the final state H2 = U2 + PV2
Change in Enthalpy (H2 – H1) = (U2 – U1) + P(V2 – V1)
Therefore ΔH = ΔU + PΔV ----------------(1)
As per the first law of thermodynamics ΔU = q + w
Hence ΔH = q + w + PΔV (w = - PΔV)
qp = heat absorbed at constant pressure and is considered as heat content.

Consider a closed system of gases which are chemically reacting to form gaseous products at constant
temperature and pressure with Vi and Vf as the total volumes of the reactant and product gases
respectively and ni and nf as the number of moles of gaseous reactants and products, then,
for reactants PVi = niRT and for products PVf = nfRT
for difference between product and reactant P(Vf – Vi) = (nf – ni)RT
PΔV = Δn(g)RT
Substitute this in equation (1)
ΔH = ΔU + Δn(g)RT
2. Derive the relationship between Gibbs free energy and the net workdone by the system.
For any system at constant temperature and pressure ΔG = ΔH – TΔS
-ΔG = -w – PΔV
-PΔV represents the workdone due to expansion against a constant external pressure.
Problem / Calculation:
1. Calculate the entropy change during the melting point of one mole of ice into water at 0 oC and 1
atm pressure. Enthalpy of fusion of ice is 6008 Jmol-1.
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2. Calculate the standard entropy change for the following reaction (ΔS of), given the standard
entropies of CO2(g), C(s), O2(g) as 213.6, 5.740 and 205JK-1 respectively.
Unit – 8; Physical and Chemical Equilibrium

1. What is physical equilibrium?
A system in which the amount of matter constituting different phases does not change with time is
said to be in physical equilibrium. Eg. Solid-liquid equilibrium.
2. What is chemical equilibrium?
The reversible chemical reaction attain equilibrium after certain time, at equilibrium the amount of
reactant and product remain constant.
3. What is reaction quotient? In what way it helps to justify the direction of reaction?
At non-equilibrium condition the ratio of the product of active masses of reaction products to the
respective stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced chemical equation to that of the reactants. If Q>Kc,
the reaction will proceed in the reverse direction. If Q=Kc, the reaction will be in equilibrium. If Q<Kc, the
reaction will proceed in the forward direction.
4. What is the relation between Kp and Kc. Give one example for which Kp is equal to Kc.
Kp = Kc(RT)Δng when Δng =0; Kp = Kc(RT)0, Kp = Kc. Eg.

5. Write a balanced chemical equation for a equilibrium reaction for which the equilibrium constant
is given by expression
4NO + 6H2O 4NH3 + 7O2

6. What is Homogeneous equilibrium? Give example.
In a homogeneous equilibrium, all the reactants and products are in the same phase. Eg.
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7. What is Heterogeous equilibrium? Give example.
If the reactants and products of a reaction in equilibrium, are in different phases, then it is called
heterogeneous equilibrium. Eg.

Definition:
1. State Law of mass action.
At any instant, the rate of a chemical reaction at a given temperature is directly proportional to the
product of the active masses of the reactants at that instant.
2. State Le-chatelier principle.
If a system at equilibrium is disturbed then the system shifts itself in a direction that nullifies the
effect of that disturbance.
1. If there is no change in concentration, why is the chemical equilibrium state considered
dynamic?
At equilibrium the forward and the backward reactions are proceeding at the same rate and no
macroscopic change is observed. So chemical equilibrium is in a state of dynamic equilibrium.
2. How the Kc value used in predicting the extent of reaction?
Sl. No. Kc Value extend of a reaction
1 large value of Kc high product yield
2 Low value of Kc low product yield
3 Kc > 103 nearly to completion
-3
4 Kc < 10 reaction rarely proceeds
5 Kc = 10-3 to 103 neither forward nor reverse reaction predominates
3. Why ice melting slowly in higher altitude?
In the above equilibrium, forward reaction proceeds when the pressure

increases. Because volume decreases towards forward reaction.In the higher altitude the atmospheric
pressure will be low and hence the forward reaction proceeds slowly. Thus the melting of ice is slow there.
4. Why the concentration terms of pure liquid and pure solids are excluded from the expression of
the equilibrium constant Kc?
The concentration of pure liquid does not change at a given temperature. A pure solid always has
the same concentration at a given temperature, as it does not expand to fill its container. i.e. it has the
same numner of moles L-1 of its volume. Therfore the concentration of a pure solid is a constant. Hence
these two terms are excluded from the expression of Kc.
5. At 0oC water and ice are in equilibrium, if pressure is increased at this stage what will occur and
why?
If the pressure is increased at this stage, ice is melted to water since the
equilibrium shif towards side where volume decreases.
1. What are the application of equilibrium constant?
1. predict the direction in which the net reaction will take place.
2. predict the extent of the reaction and
3. calculate the equilibrium concentrations of the reactants and products.
1. Explain the equilibrium constants for heterogeneous equilibrium with an example.
Consider the following heterogeneous equilibrium.
The equilibrium constant for the above reaction can be written as

21
The concentration of a pure solid is a constant. The above expression can be modified as follows.
or
2. Explain the effect of a added inert gas on the reaction at equilibrium.
1. The total number of moles of gases present in the container increases, that is, the total pressure of
gases increases.
2. The partial pressure of the reactants and the products are unchanged. Hence at constant volume,
addition of inert gas has no effect on equilibrium.
3. Explain the effect of concentration on equilibrium.
1. At equilibrium, the concentration of the reactants and the products does not change.
2. The addition of more reactants or products at equilibrium causes an increase in their respective
concentrations.
3. According to Le Chatelier’s principle, the effect of increase in concentration is to shift the equilibrium in a
direction that consumes the added substances.
4. What is the effect of pressure on equilibrium? Explain with an example.
1. When the pressure is increased, the volume decreases proportionately and the system responds by
shifting the equilibrium in a direction that has fewer moles of gaseous molecules.
2. When Δng = 0, pressure has no effect on equilibrium. When Δng is not equal to 0, pressure has effect.
e.g. 1. If we increase the pressure, the volume decreases. The

system responds to this effect by reducing the number of gas molecules. i.e. if favours the formation of
ammonia.
2. If we reduce the pressure, the volume increases. it favours the decomposition of ammonia.
5. Explain the effect of temperature on equilibrium.
1. If the forward reaction is exothermic then the backward reaction is endothermic.
2. When temperature of the system increases it favours endothermic reaction.
3. When temperature of the system decreases it favours exothermic reaction.
1. Derive the relationship between Kc and Kp.
Let us consider the general reaction in which all the reactants and products are ideal gases.
For this reaction,
and
The ideal gas equation is PV = nRT or P = nRT/V
Since Active mass = molar concentratin = n/V
Therefore P = Active mass x RT
On substitution to equation (2)
22
Where Δng = sum of number of moles of products – sum of number of moles of reactants.
2. Derive the values of Kp and Kc for the equilibrium reaction of formation of HI.
We know , For this reaction Hence
therefore
3. Derive the values of Kp and Kc for the equilibrium reaction of dissociation of PCl 5.
for this reaction Hence
We know that PV = nRT or Here n is the total number of moles at equilibrium

Therefore n = a – x + x + x = a + x
4. Derive the values of Kp and Kc for the equilibrium reaction of formation of NH3.
23
Here, n = a – x + b – 3x + 2x = a + b – 2x
1. Write a balanced chemical equation for a equilibrium reaction for which the equilibrium constant
is given by expression
Unit – 9; Solutions
1. What is molality?
Molality(m) is the ratio of number of moles of solute to the mass of the solvent (in kg).
2. What is molarity?
Molarity(M) is the ratio of number of moles of solute to the volume of solution (in Litre).
3. What is normality?
Normality(N) is the ratio of number of gram equivalents of solute to the volume of solution (in Litre).
4. What is formality?
Formality(F) is the ratio of number of formula mass of solute to the volume of solution (in Litre).
5. What is mole fraction?
Mole fraction of a component is the ratio of number of moles of the component to the total number
of moles of all the components present in solution.
6. What is mass percentage?
24
Mass percentage(%w/w) =
7. What is volume percentage?
Volume percentage(%v/v) =
8. What is mass by volume percentage(%w/v)?
Mass by volume percentage(%w/v) =

9. What is parts per million?
Parts per million(ppm) =

10. What are standard solutions and working standards?
A standard solution or a stock solution is a solution whose concentration is accurately known. At the
time of experiment, the solution with required concentration is prepared by diluting the stock solution. This
diluted solution is usually called working standards.
11. What is solubility of the solutes?
The solubility of a substance at a given temperature is defined as the amount of the solute that can
be dissolved in 100g of the solvent at a given temperature to form a saturated solution.
12. What are the factors influencing the solubility?
1. Nature of solute and solvent 2. Temperature 3. Pressure.
13. What is vapour pressure of liquid? What are the factors influencing vapour pressure?
At a particular temperature evaporation and condensation process occurred when it is carried out in
a closed system. When rate of evaporation becomes equal to the rate of condensation, equilibrium
established between liquid and its vapour. The pressure of the vapour in equilibrium with its liquid is called
vapour pressure of the liquid at the given temperature. It depends on its nature, temperature and surface
area.
14. What is ideal solution?
An ideal solution is a solution in which each component i.e. the solute as well as the solvent obeys
the Raoult’s law over the entire range of concentration. E.g. Benzene and toluene solution.
15. What is non ideal solution?
The solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of concentration are called non-
ideal solutions.
16. What is colligative properties?
Colligative properties are the properties which do not depend on the chemical nature of solute but
depends only on the number of solute particles (ions/molecules).
17. List out the colligative properties.
1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure 2. Elevation of boiling point 3. Depression of freezing point
and 4. Osmotic pressure
18. What is relative lowering of vapour pressure?
The ratio of the lowering of vapour pressure to the vapour pressure of the pure solvent and it is
equal to the mole fraction of a solute.
19. What is molal boiling point elevation constant or Ebullioscopic constant?
The elevation of boiling point of one molal solution is known as molal boiling point elevation constant
or ebullioscopic constant.
20. What is molal freezing point depression constant or cryoscopic constant?
The depression of freezing point of one molal solution is known as molal freezing point depression
constant or cryoscopic constant.
21. What is Osmosis and Osmotic pressure?
25
Osmosis is a spontaneous process by which the solvent molecules pass through a semipermeable
membrane from a solution of lower concentration to a solution of higher concentration.
Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure applied over solution of higher concentration so that
osmosis do not occur.
22. Write the Van’t Hoff equation for osmotic pressure.
π = cRT π=osmotic pressure c = concentration of solution in molarity T= Temperature R=
Gas constant.
23. What is isotonic solution?
Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a giver temperature are called isotonic solution.
24. What is evaporation?
If the kinetic energy of molecules in the liquid state overcomes the intermolecular force of attraction
between them, then the molecules will escape from the liquid state. This process is called evaporation and
it happens on the surface of the liquid.
25. What is condensation?
The vapour molecules are in continuous random motion collide with each other and on walls of the
container. As the collision is inelastic, they lose their energy and as result the vapour returns back to liquid
state. This process is called condensation.
26. At what circumstances the solution behaves ideally?
1. In very dilute solution.
2. When the two components present in the solution are identical in size, structure and having almost
similar intermolecular attractive forces between them.
27. What are the factors responsible for deviation from Raoult’s law?
1. solute – solvent interactions 2. Dissociation of solute 3. Association of solute
4. Temperature 5. Pressure 6. Concentration.
28. What are Hypotonic and Hypertonic solutions?
A solution having less osmotic pressure than the other solution is called Hypotonic solution.
A solution having more osmotic pressure than the other solution is called Hypertonic solution.
Definition:
1. State Henry’s law.
The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase is directly proportional to the mole fraction (x) of the
gaseous solute in the solution at low concentration.
2. State Raoult’s law.
In the case of a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure (p) of each component of the
solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction (x). p α x.
1. Why the solubility of a solid solute in a liquid solvent increases with increase in temperature?
When the temperature is increased the average kinetic energy of the molecules of the solute and
the solvent increases. The increase in kinetic energy facilitates the solvent molecules to break the
intermolecular attractive forces and hence the solubility increases.
2. In gaseous solute in liquid sovent, the solubility decreases with increase in temperature – justify
your answer.
The gaseous solute molecules interact with solvent molecules with weak intermolecular forces.
When the temperature increases, the average kinetic energy of the molecules increases and decreases the
dissolution of gaseous molecules. It breaks the weak intermolecular forces between the solute and solvent
which results in the release of the dissolved gas molecules to the gaseous state. It is an exothermic
process.
3. Why the intervenous fluids are prepared as isotonic to blood?
If the intravenous solutions are too dilute that is hypotonic, the solvent from outside of the cells will
flow into the cell to normalise the osmotic pressure and this process which is called hemolysis, cause the
cells to burst.
26
If the solution is too concentrated, that is hypertonic, the solvent molecules will flow out of the cells,
which causes the cells to shrink and die. Hence the osmatic pressure of blood and intervenous fluids
should be similar i.e. isotonic.
4. When non-volatile solute is dissolved in a solvent its vapour pressure decreases. Why?
When non-volatile solute is dissolved in a solvent, some of the solute molecules occupies the
surface of the solution i.e. surface area for vapourisation decreases and hence the vapour pressure of
solution lowers from pure solvent.
5. Why the ethylene glycol is mixed with water to fill the car radiator in mountain region?
Since ethylene glycol decreases the freezing point of water, the water in car radiator will not freezes
easily to ice.
6. Why it is said to swell in saline solution which causes sore throat due to infection?
Throat pain is caused by bacteia or virus. Since saline solution is a hypertonic solution, it drawn out
the water from the infected cell and destroy germs and thus cures the throat pain.
7. When temperature increases, why molarity of solution decreases?
When temperature increases, the volume of solution increases. Hence the solute molecules
dissolved in one litre solution decreases i.e. the number of moles dissolved in one litre solution decreases
(molarity decreases).
8. NH3 and HCl do not obey Henry’s law. Why?
The gases which are reacted with solvent will not obey Henry’s law. Both NH3 and HCl are reacted
with water. and HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-

1. What are the advantages of using standard solution?
1. The error in weighing the solute can be minimised by usingt concentrated stock solution that requires
large quantity of solute.
2. We can prepare working standards of different concentrations by diluting the stock solution, which is
more efficient since consistency is maintained.
3. Some of the concentrated solutions are more stable and are less likely to support microbial growth than
working standards used in the experiments.
2. What are the significance of osmotic pressure?
1. The osmotic pressure can be measured at room temperature.
2. Even for a very dilute solution, the osmotic pressure is large.
Difference / Differentiate / Distinquish / Compare:
1. Compare the Raoult’s law with Henry’s law.
Sl.No. Raoult’s law Henry’s law
1 For non volatile solution For non volatile solution
2 Applicable to non-volatile solid solute in a Applicable to solution containing gaseous

liquid solvent. solute in liquid solvent
3 For very dilute solutions the sovent obeys The solute obeys Henry’s law.
Raoult’s law
1. Explain positive deviation of non-ideal solution from Raoult’s law with an example.
Considering a solution ethyl alcohol and water. In this solution the hydrogen bonding interaction
between ethanol and water is weaker than those hydrogen bonding interactions amongst themselves. This
results in the increased evaporation of both components from the aqueous solution of ethanol and the
vapour pressure of the solution is greater than the vapour pressure predicted by Raoult’s law. Here, the
mixing process is endothermic. i.e. ΔHmixing > 0, ΔVmixing > 0.
2. Explain negative deviation of non-ideal solution from Raoult’s law with an example.
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Considering a solution of phenol and aniline. When mixed with aniline, the phenol molecule forms
hydrogen bonding interactions with aniline, which are stronger than the hydrogen bonds formed amongst
themselves. Formation of new H – bonds considerably reduce the escaping tendency of phenol and aniline
from the solution. As a result, the vapour pressure of the solution is less and there is a slight decrease in
volume. ΔVmixing < 0, ΔHmixing < 0 (exothermic)
3. Explain the effect of pressure on the solubility.
The change in pressure does not have any significant effect in the solubility of solids and liquids as
they are not compressible. The solubility of gases increases with increase of pressure. Consider a
saturated solution of a gaseous solute dissolved in a liquid solven in a closed container. eg.
. Accordfng to Le-Chatelier principle, the increase in pressure will

shift the equilibrium in the direction which will reduce the pressure. i.e., Forward reaction. Therefore , more
number of gaseous molecules dissolves in the solvent and the solubility increases.
1. Derive the expression for relative lowering of vapour pressure when non-volatile solute is
dissolved in solvent.
Vapour pressure of solution is direcly proportional to mole fraction of solvent.
, Where XA is the mole fraction of solvent.
where XB is the mole fraction of solute.

The above expression gives the relative lowering of vapour pressure.
2. Derive expression for determination of molar mass of solute from lowering of vapour pressure.
The relative lowering of vapour pressure is,
The weight and Molar mass of solvent are wA and MA.

The weight and molar mass of solute are wB and MB.
mole fraction of solute is , where nA and nB are number of moles of solvent and solute.
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For dilute solution
where
Molar mass of solute MB can be calculated from the above equation if values of wA, wB, MA and relative
lowering of vapour pressure.
3. Derive an expression for determination of molar mass of solute from elevation of boiling point.
Elevation of boiling point is directly proportional to the molality of solute.
where m is the molality of solute.ΔTb is the elevation of boiling point.
where
If the solution is prepared by dissolving wB g of solute in wA g of solvent. Then the

molality is
where MB is the molar mass of solute.
and
4. Derive an expression for determination of molar mass of solute from depression of freezing
point.
Depresssion of freezing point is directly proportional to the molality of solute.
Here m is the molality of solute and Kf is the molal freezing point

depression constant or cryoscopic constant.
If the solution is prepared by dissolving wB g of solute in wA g of solvent. Then the

molality is
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where MB is the molar mass of solute.
and The molar mass of solute

5. Derive an expression for determination of molar mass of solute from osmotic pressure.
and
Here n is the number of moles of solute dissolved in V litre of solution. Therefore
or If the solution is prepared by dissolving wB g of solute in wA g of non-

volatile solvent. Then the number of moles soluter n is
Where MB is the molar mass of the solute.
Then or
Limitation:
1. What are the limitation of Henry’s law?
1. It is applicable at moderate temperature and pressure only.
2. Only the less soluble gases obeys.
3. The gases reacting with the solvent do not obey Henry’s law. e.g. NH3 or HCl reacts with water.
4. The gases obeying Henry’s law should not associate or dissociate while dissolving in the solvent.
Unit – 10; Chemical Bonding
1. Write the Lewis structures of H2, O2 and N2?
2. Give the Lewis structures of the following. H2O, HNO3, SO3, NH3, CH4, N2O5, NO3-.
H2O = HNO3 = SO = NH3 =
CH4 = N2O5 = NO3- =

3. What is formal charge? Give the formula to calculate formal charge.
Formal charge of an atom in a molecule, is the electrical charge difference between the valence
electron s in an isolated atom and the number of electron assigned to that atom in the Lewis structure.
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Nv = number of valence electron of atom in its isolated state.
Nl = number of electrons present as lone pairs around the atom in the Lewis structure
Nb = number of electrons present in bonds around the atom (bond pairs) in the Lewis structure.
4. What are the types of chemical bonds?
1. Ionic bond 2. Covalent bond 3. Coordinate covalent bond
5. What is ionic bond? Explain the bond formation in NaCl.
Chemical bond formed by the transfer of electron from one atom to another is called ionic bond.
During transfer of electron the atom which loses electron become cation and atom which gains electron
become anion. These two charged ions are held together by electrostatic attractive force.
6. What is covalent bond? Give example.

The mutual sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between two combining atoms results in
formation of a chemical bond called a covalent bond. Eg. H-H
7. What is co-ordinate covalent bond? Give example.
In certain bond formation, one of the combining atom donates a pair of electrons and shared by two
combining atoms is called co-ordinate covalent bond. Eg. H3N→BF3
8. What is bond length? Name the technique through which the length of a bond can be determined.
The distance between the nuclei of the two covalently bonded atoms is called bond length. The
methods to measure this is 1. Spectroscopic 2. X-ray diffraction and 3. Electron diffraction.
9. What is bond order?
The number of bonds formed between the two bonded atoms in a molecule is called the bond order.
10. What is bond angle?
Covalent bonds are directional in nature and are oriented in specific directions in space. The angle
formed between two covalent bonds in a molecule is known as bond angle.
11. What is bond enthalpy(energy)?
It is defined as the minimum amount of energy required to break one mole of a particular bond in
molecules in their gaseous state. The unit is KJmol-1.
12. What is resonance? Give example.
When we write Lewis structures for a molecule, more than one valid Lewis structures are possible in
certain cases. Such structures are called resonance structures and this phenomenon is called resonance.
Eg.
13. What is dipolemoment?
Dipolemoment ( ) is the measure of degree of polarity and is defined as the product of the
magnitude of the charge(q) and the distance between the centres of positive and negative charge.
14. What is σ and π bond?

When two atomic orbitals overlap linearly along the axis, the resultant bond is called sigma (σ)
bond. This overlap is also called head- on overlap or axial overlap.
When two atomic orbitals overlaps sideways, the resultant covalent bond is called a pi(π) bond.
15. What is hybridisation?
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Hybridisation is the process of mixing of atomic orbitals of the same atom with comparable energy
to form equal number of new equivalent orbitals with same energy. The resultant orbitals are called
hybridised orbitals.
16. What do you understand by Linear combination of atomic orbitals is MO theory?
The formation of bonding molecular orbital can be considered as a result of constructive
interference of the atomic orbitals and the formation of antibonding molecular orbital can be the result of the
destructive interference.
17. What type of hybridisations are possible in the following geometries? a) octahedral b)
tetrahedral c)square planer
a) octahedral = sp3d2 (or) d2sp3 b) tetrahedral = sp3 c) square planer = dsp2
18. How will you calculate bond order from MO theory?
Bond order is the half of the difference between the number of electrons in bonding molecular orbital
and the number of electrons in antibonding orbital.
19. Which one the following has highest bond order? N2, N2+ or N2-
N2 has the highest bond order of 3. The other two have bond order 2.5.
20. What are the steps followed to representing a Lewis structure of a molecule?
1. Draw the skeletal structure of the molecule
2. Calculate the total number of valence electrons of all the atoms in the molecule
3. Draw a single bond between the atoms in the skeletal structure of the molecule.
4. Distribute the remaining valence electrons as pairs (lone pair), giving octet (only duet for hydrogen) to
the atoms in the molecule
5. Verify weather all the atoms satisfy the octet rule (for hydrogen duet).
21. Write the exceptions to octet rule while writing lewis structure. Give examples.
1. Molecules with electron deficient central atom. Eg. BF3, BCl3, BeCl2
2. Molecules containing odd electrons. Eg. NO, NO2
3. Molecules with expanded valence shells. Eg. PCl5, SF6
22. Write the structure of the following. A) NH3 B) BF3
A) pyramidal B) Trigonal planar
Definition:
1. Define Octet rule.
Th- e atoms transfer or share electrons so that all atoms involved in chemical bonding obtain 8
electrons in their outer shell (valence shell)
1. In CH4, NH3 and H2O, the central atom undergoes sp3 hybridisation – yet their bond angles are
different. why?
This can be explained by VSEPR theory. In CH4 there are four bond pair electrons, no lone pair of
electron. Hence all four bonds are repel symmetrically and attain the structure of regular tetrahedral. Bond
angle 109o28’.
In NH3 there are three bond pair electrons and one lone pair electron. Repulsion of lp – bp is more
than bp – bp. Hence its structure is pyramidal and bond angle is 107o.
In H2O there are two bond pair electron and two lone pair electron. Repulsion of lp – lp > lp – bp > bp
– bp. Hence its structure is Bent (V shaped) and bond angle is 104o.
2. Linear form of carbondioxide molecule has two polar bonds. yet the molecule has zero
dipolemoment. why?
In CO2, the dipole moments of two polar bonds (CO) are equal in magnitude but have opposite
direction. Hence the net dipole moment of the CO2 is zero.
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3. Which bond is stronger σ or π? Why?
σ – bond is stronger. This is because σ – bond is formed by head on overlapping of atomic orbitals
and therefore, the overlapping is large. π – bond is a weak bond π – bond is formed by sideway
overlapping which is small.
4. CO2 and H2O both are triatomic molecule but their dipole moment values are different. Why?
and = 1.85D.
5. HCl is a covalent compound but it ionises in the solution. why?
This is because of the large difference in the electronegativity of H and Cl atoms. Due to which
polarity is generated which is responsible for separation.
6. Both C2H2 and CO2 have the same structure. Explain why?
In both of these compound carbon undergoes sp hybridisation. So C2H2 and CO2 have same shape.
1. Explain resonance with reference to carbonate ion.
It is evident from the experimental results that all carbon – oxygen bonds in carbonate ion are
equivalent. The actual structure of the molecule is said to be the resonance hybrid, and average of these
three resonance forms.
Resonance hybrid structure.

2. Explain ionic character in a covalent bond in respect to electronegativity difference to the bonded
atoms.
If the electronegativity difference (XA – XB) = 1.7, then the bond A – B has 50% ionic character
If the electronegativity difference (XA – XB) > 1.7, then the bond A – B has more than 50% ionic character.
If the electronegativity difference (XA – XB) < 1.7, then the bond A – B has less than 50% ionic character.
3. Explain Fajan’s Rule.
1. The increase in charge on cation or in anion increases the covalent character. eg. Increasing order of
covalent character of NaCl < MgCl2 < AlCl3 as the charge of anion are in the order Na+ < Mg2+ < Al3+.
2. The smaller cation and larger anion show greater covalent character due to the greater extend of
polarisation. eg. LiCl is more covalent than NaCl.
3. Cations having ns2np6nd10 configuration show greater polarising power than the cations with ns2np6
configuration. Hence they show greater colvalent character. eg. CuCl is more covalent than NaCl.
4. Explain VSEPR theory.
1. The shape of the molecule depends on the number of valence shell electron pair around the central
atom.
2. There are two types of electron pairs namely bond pair and lone pairs. The bond pair of electrons are
those shared between two atoms, while the lone pairs are the valence electron pairs that are not involved in
bonding.
3. Each pair of valence electron around the central atom repels each other and hence, they are located as
far away as possible in three dimensional space to minimise the repulsion between them.
4. The repulsive interaction between the different types of electron pair is in the following order
lp – lp > lp -bp >bp – bp
5. Write the salient features of VB theory.
1. When half filled orbitals of two atoms overlap, a covalent bond will be formed between them.
2. The resultant overlapping orbital is occupied by the two electrons with opposite spins.
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3. The strength of a covelent bond depends upon the extent of verlap of atomic orbitals. Greater the
overlap, the larger is the energy released and stronger will be the bond formed.
4. Each atomic orbitals has a specific direction and hence orbital overlap takes place in the direction that
maximises overlap.
6. Explain the bond formation in ethylene and acetylene.
The electronic configuration and hybridisation of central atom in ethylene is
Formation of sigma(σ) and pi(π) bond in ethylene is
CH2 = CH2
The electronic configuration and hybridisation of central atom in acetylene is
Formation of sigma(σ) and pi(π) bond in acetylene is
CHΞCH
7. Write the salient features of Molecular orbital theory.
1. When atoms combines to form molecules, their individual atomic orbitals lose their identity and forms
new orbitals called molecular orbitals.
2. The shapes of molecular orbitals depend upon the shapes of combining atomic orbitals.
3. The number of molecular orbitals formed is the same as the number of combining atomic orbitals.
4. Two atomic orbitals can combine to form two molecular orbitals. Lower energy orbital – bonding
molecular orbital (denoted by σ,π and ),Higher energy orbital–antibonding molecular orbital (denoted by
)
5. The filling of electrons in these orbitals follows Aufbau’s principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle and Hund’s
rule as in the case of filling of electrons in atomic orbitals.
6. Bond order gives the number of covalent bonds between the two combining atoms.
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8. Draw the MO diagram for the formation of following molecules.1. H2, 2. Li2, 3. B2, 4. C2, 5. N2, 6. O2.
1. H2 2. Li2
Electronic configuration of H atom is 1s1 Electronic configuration of Li atom = 1s22s1

Electronic configuration of H2 molecule = σ1s2 Electronic configuration of Li2 molecule = σ1s2σ*1s2σ2s2
Bond order = Nb-Na/2 = 2-0/2 = 1. Bond order = = Nb-Na/2 = 4-2/2 = 1
No unpaired electron hence it is diamagnetic. No unpaired electron hence it is diamagnetic.
3. B2 4. C2
Electronic configuraiton of B atom = 1s22s22p1 Electronic configuration of C atom = 1s22s22p2

Electronic configuraion of B2 molecule Electronic configuration of C2 molecule =
= σ1s2σ*1s2σ2s2σ*2s2π2py1π*2px1 = σ1s2σ*1s2σ2s2σ*2s2π2py2π*2px2
Bond order = (Nb – Na)/2 = (6 – 4)/2 = 1 Bond order = (Nb – Na)/2 = (8 – 4)/2 = 2
two unpaired electrons, so paramagnetic no unpaired electron, diamagnetic
5. N2 6. O2
Electronic configuration of N atom = 1s22s22p3 Electronic configuration of O atom = 1s22s22p4

Electronic configuration of N2 molecule Electronic configuraiton of O2 molecule
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= σ1s2σ*1s2σ2s2σ*2s2π2py2π*2px2σ2pz2 = σ1s2σ*1s2σ2s2σ*2s2π2py2π*2px2σ2pz2π*2px1π*2py1
Bond order = (Nb – Na)/2 = (10 – 4)/2 = 3 Bond order = (Nb – Na)/2 = (10 – 6)/2 = 2
no unpaired electron, diamagnetic two unpaired electron, paramagnetic.
9. Draw the MO diagram for the formation of the following molecule 1. CO and 2. NO
1. CO 2. NO
Electronic configuration of C atom = 1s22s22p2 Electronic configuration of N atom = 1s22s22p3

2 2 4
Electonic configuration of O atom = 1s 2s 2p Electronic configuration of O atom = 1s22s22p4
Electronic configuration of CO molecule Electronic configuration of NO molecule
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= σ1s σ*1s σ2s σ*2s π2py π*2px σ2pz = σ1s2σ*1s2σ2s2σ*2s2π2py2π*2px2σ2pz2π*2px1
Bond order = (Nb – Na)/2 = (10 – 4)/2 = 3 Bond order = (Nb – Na)/2 = (10 – 5)/2 = 2.5
no unpaired electron, diamagnetic one unpaired electron, paramagnetic.
10. Explain the bond formation in BeCl2 and MgCl2.
1. Formation of BeCl2 2. Formation of MgCl2
2+ -
Be → Be + 2e Mg → Mg2+ + 2e-
(1s22s2) (1s2 =[He]) (1s22s22p63s2) (1s22s22p6 = [Ne])
- -
2Cl + 2e → 2Cl 2Cl + 2e- → 2Cl-
(1s22s22p63s23p5) (1s22s22p63s23p6=[Ar]) (1s22s22p63s23p5) (1s22s22p63s23p6=[Ar])
Be2+ + 2Cl- → BeCl2 Mg2+ + 2Cl- → MgCl2
11. What is polar covalent bond? Explain with example.
The covalent bond formed between atoms having different electronegativities, the atom with higher
electronegativity will have greater tendency to attract the shared pair of electrons more towards itself than
the other atom. As result the cloud of shared electron pair gets distorted. The atom which attract the bond
pair of electron leads to partial negative charge on it and another bonded atom leads to partial positive
charge on it. Hence the molecule becomes polar molecule and the bond is polar covalent bond. eg. HF,
H2O.
12. Explain in ionic compounds the covalent character in ionic bond.
1. The positively charged cation attracts the valence electrons of anion while repelling the nucleus.
2. This causes a distortion in the electron cloud of the anion and its electron density drifts towards the
cation, which results in some sharing of the valence electrons between these ions.
3. Thus, a partial covalent character is developed between them. This phenomenon is called polarisation.
e.g. LiCl shows covalent character and is soluble in ehanol.
13. Hydrogen gas is diatomic where as inert gas are monoatomic – explain on the basis of MO
theory.
The bond order of Hydrogen is one and hence molecule formed with single bond. But inert gas have
complete octet and so they have zero valency. i.e. their combaining capacity is zero. Bond order of the inert
36
gases are zero. So they exists as a monoatomic.Because the number of electrons in the bonding molecular
orbitals are equal to the number of electrons in the anti bonding molecular orbitals.
Unit – 11; Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry

1. What are the characteristics of organic compound?
1. Insoluble in water. Soluble in organic solvents like benzene, toluene, ether, etc.
2. They are inflammable. Their melting point and boiling points are low.
3. They are characterised by functional group.
4. They exhibit isomerism.
2. What is Homologous series? Give its salient features.
A series of organic compounds each containing a characteristic functional group and the successive
members differ from each other in molecular formula by a CH2 group is called homologous series.
Salient features: 1. All are having same functional group
2. The successive members differ from each other in molecular formula by CH2 group
3. They can be represented by general molecular formula
4. They can be prepared by general methods
5. They have almost similar chemical properties and show regular gradation if physical properties.
3. What is structural isomerism?
The compounds having same molecular formula but different structural formula and properties is
called isomerism.
4. What is chain (nuclear or skeletal) isomerism? Give example.
The isomers which differ in arrangement of carbon chain is called Chain isomerism.
Eg. and
n-pentane isopentane
5. What is position isomerism? Give example.
The isomers with same molecular formula and carbon skeleton but differ in the position of
substituent or functional group or an unsaturated linkage is known as position isomers.
6. What is functional isomerism?
Different compounds having same molecular formula but different functional groups are called
functional isomerism.eg. (propanal) and (propanone)

7. What is metamerism? Give example.
This isomerism arises due to the unequal distribution of carbon atoms on either side of the
functional group, having same molecular formula. Eg. (methyl propyl ether) and
(diethyl ether)
8. What is tautomerism? Give example.
It is a special type of functional isomerism in which single compound exists in two readily inter
convertible structures that differ markedly in the relative position of atleast one atomic nucleus generally
hydrogen. Eg. 1) Dyad system -
2) Triad system -
9. What is stereo isomerism?
The isomers which have same bond connectivity but different arrangement of group or atoms in
space are known as stereoisomerism.
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10. What is geometrical isomerism? (cis-trans isomerism)
The isomers which have different arrangement of group or atoms around a rigid frame work of
double bonds. This occurs due to restricted rotation of double bonds. Eg. 2-butene.
If the similar groups are in the same side, it is known

as cis isomer. If the similar groups are in the opposite side, it is known as trans-isomer.
11. What is optical isomerism?
Compounds having the same physical and chemical property but differ only in the rotation of plane
of the polarised light are known as optical isomers and the phenomenon is known as optical isomerism.
12. What are the condition for the optical isomerism?
A carbon atom whose tetravalency is satisfied by four different substituents is called asymmetric
carbon or chiral carbon. A molecule possessing chiral carbon atom and non-super impossible to its own
mirror image is said to be chiral molecule or asymmetric and the property is called chirality or dissymmetry.
This chirality is essential condition for optical isomerism.
13. What are functional groups? Indicate the functional groups in the following organic compounds.
1. Acetaldehyde 2. Oxalic acid3. Dimethyl ether 4. Methylamine.
The group of atoms or atom in an organic compound is known as functional group. Most its
chemical reaction occurs at the functional groups. 1. Acetaldehyde = -CHO 2. Oxalic acid=-COOH
3. Dimethyl ether = -O- 4. Methylamine = -NH2
14. Write the molecular formula of the first six members of homologous series of nitro alkanes.
1. Nitromethane = CH3NO2 2) Nitroethane = CH3CH2NO2 3) Nitropropane = CH3CH2CH2NO2
4. Nitrobutane = CH3CH2CH2CH2NO2 5) Nitropentane = CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2NO2
6) Nitrohexane = CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2NO2
15. Write the molecular and possible structural formula of the first four members of homologous
series of carboxylic acids.
Name Molecular formula structural formula
1. Formic acid CH2O2 HCOOH
2. Acetic acid C2H4O2 CH3COOH
3. Propionic acid C3H6O2 CH3CH2COOH
4. Butyric acid C4H8O2 CH3CH2CH2COOH
16. What is catenation?
The tendency of an atom to form a chain of bonds with the atoms of the same element.
17. What are enantiomers?
Isomers which are non-super impossible mirror images of each other are called enantiomers. Eg. d
and l isomers of lactic acid
18. What is asymmetric carbon?
A carbon atom whose tetravalency is satisfied by four different substituents is called asymmetric
carbon or chiral carbon.
19. Write the structural formula for the following compounds. a) m – dinitrobenzene b) p –
dichlorobenzene c) 1,3,5 – trimethylbenzene
a) m – dinitrobenzene b) p – dichlorobenzene c) 1,3,5 - trimethylbenzene

1. How are organic compounds classified based on the structure?
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2. Why propene doesn’t exhibit geometrical isomerism?

In propene no geometrical isomers are possible because one of the double bonded carbon has two
identical H atoms.
Differences / Differentiation / Distinquish:
1. Write the differences between cis and trans isomers.
Sl.No. Cis isomers trans isomers
1 least stable more stable
2 lower density higher density
3 Higher solubility Lower solubility
4 Low melting point High melting point
5 affected by vanderwaals repulsive force & free from vanderwaals repulsive force and
steric hinderence steric hinderence.
1. Descripe optical isomerism with suitable example.
Compounds having same physical and chemical property but differ only in the rotation of plane of the
polarised light are known as optical isomers and the phenomenon is known as optical isomerism. eg. lactic
acid.
1. d – lactic acid
It rotates the plane polarised light in clockwise direction. So it is called dextro rotatory.
2. l – lactic acid
It rotates the plance polarised light in anticlockwise direction. So it is called laevo rotatory.
Both of the above are called enantiomers because they differ only in sign of rotation.
3. Racemic mixture
When equal amount of d and l isomers are mixed. It becomes optically inactive due to external
compensation.
d and l pair of lactic acid.

Unit – 12 ; Basic concepts of organic reaction
1. What is nucleophile?
Nucleophiles are reagents that has high affinity for electropositive centres. Eg. Cl-, OH-
39
2. What is electrophile?
Electrophiles are reagents that are attracted towards negative charge or electron rich centre. Eg.H +,
+
Br
3. What is inductive effect? Give example.
Inductive effect is defined as the change in the polarisation of a covalent bond due to the presence
of adjacent bonds, atoms or groups in the molecule. This is a permanent phenomenon. e.g.
3. Draw the structures of phenol and phenoxide ion stabilised by mesomeric effect?
Phenol phenoxide ion

4. What is hyperconjugation(no bond resonance)? Give example.
The delocalisation of electrons of σ bond is called as hyperconjugation. It results due to the
interaction of electrons of σ bond with the adjacent empty non-bonding p-orbital or an antibonding σ* or π*
orbitals resulting in an extended molecular orbital. It is a permanent effect. E.g. hyperconjugation in
propene
5. What are the conditions for Hyperconjugation?

1. It requires an α-CH group or a lone pair on atom like N, O adjacent to a π bond (sp2 hybrid carbon)
2. It occurs by the overlapping of the σ-bonding orbital or the orbital containing a lone pair with the adjacent
π-orbital of p-orbital.
6. Which step in mechanism measures the rate of reaction?
The slow step is used to measure rate of reaction.
7. What are free radicals and free radical initiators? Give example.
Free radical is an atom or molecule with single electron or unpaired electron. It is neutral and
unstable. It has a tendency to gain an electron to attain stability. Eg. CH3˚
The type of reagents that promote homolytic cleavage in substrate are called as free radical
initiators.e.g benzoyl peroxide.
1. Formic acid is more acidic than acetic acid. why?
Due to +I effect (-CH3) in the acetic acid decreases its acidity. It makes O – H bond more stronger.
2. Give the reason for the acidity of phenol.

The phenoxide ion is more stabilised than phenol by resonance effect (+M effect) and hence the
resonance favours ionisation of phenol to form H+ and shows acidity.
stabilisation of phenoxide ion.
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3. If a – I group attached nearer to a carbonyl carbon, it increases the rate of nucleophilic addition
reaction – justify.
- I group decreases the availablity of electron density on the carbonyl carbon.
Uses / Applications / Importance:
1. Write the importance of inductive effect.
1. The inductive effect does not transfer electrons from one atom to another but the displacement effect is
permanent.
2. It operates through σ – bonds.
3. Observed in saturated compounds.
1. Differntiate Electrophile and Nucleophile.
Sl.No. Electrophile Nucleophile
1 electron deficient species electron rich species having a lone pair of electron.
2 Positively charged ions Negatively charged ions
3 All Lewis acids act as electrophile All Lewis bases act as nucleophile
eg. H+,Cl+,NO2+ NH3, OH-, CN-
2. What are the differences between Inductive effect and Resonance or mesomeric effect?
Sl.No. Inductive effect Resonance effect
1 It involves displacement of only σ - electrons It involves delocation of π or lone pairs of
electrons.
2 It occurs only in saturated compounds It occurs in unsaturated and conjugated
system
3 The electron pair is only slightly displaced towards The electron pair is completely transferred
the more electronegative atom and hence only and hence full positive and negative charge
partial positive and negative charges appear. appear.
1. Draw the shapes of carbocation, carbanion and alkyl free radical and explain their relative
stabilities.
Relative stability of alkyl free radical =
Relative stability of carbo cation =
Relative stability of carbanion =

Shapes:
shape of CH3+ shape of CH3- shape of

2. Explain electromeric effect with example.
Electromeric effect is a temporary effect which operates in unsaturated compounds
(containing >C=C<, >C=O) in the presence of an attacking reagent.
-E effect:-
1. When the π electron is transferred away fron the attacking reagent.
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2. When a nucleophile approaches the carbonyl compound, the π electrons between C and O is
instantaneously shifted to the more electronegative oxygen.
3. This makes the carbon electron deficient and thus facilitating the formation of a new bond between the
incoming nucleophile and the carbonyl carbon atom.
+E effect:-
1. When the π electron is transferred towards the attacking reagent.
2. On the other hand when an electrophile such as H+ approaches an alkene molecule, the π electrons are
instantaneously shifted to the electrophile and new bond is formed between carbon and hydrogen.
3. This makes the other carbon electron deficient and hence it acquires a positive charge.
3. Explain positive mesomeric effect. Give example.

Positive resonance effect occurs, when the electron move away from substituent attached to the
conjugated system. It occurs, if the electron releasing substituents are attached to the conjugated system.
In such cases, the attached group has a tendency to release electrons through resonance. These electron
releasing groups are usually denoted as +R or +M groups. e.g. – OH, - SH, - OR, -NH2, -O- , etc.,
4. Explain substitution reaction with an example for each of its classification.
1. Nucleophilic substitution reaction e.g.,
2. Electrophilic substitution reaction e.g.,
3. Free radical substitution reaction e.g.,

5. Explain addition reaction with an example for each of its classification.
1. Electrophilic addition reaction. e.g.,
2. Nucleophilic addition reaction. e.g.,
3. Free radical addition reaction. e.g.,

6. Explain elimination reaction with an example.
42
7. Explain oxidation and reduction with an example for each.
Oxidation :
Reduction :
Unit – 13 ; Hydrocarbon
1. Give the classification of Hydrocarbon.
2. What is pyrolysis (craking)?

Pyrolysis is defined as the thermal decomposition of organic compound into smaller fragments in
the absence of air through the application of heat. Pyrolysis of alkane also named as craking.
e.g.
3. What is aromatic compounds?
Aromatic compounds are the compounds which possess the following properties.
1. Easily undergoes substitution reaction 2. They are thermostabilised compounds
3. They do not easily undergoes oxidation and addition reaction.
4. The enthalpy of hydrogenation of aromatic compound is lesser than the enthalpy of hydrogenation of the
cyclic compounds possessing same number of double bonds
4. What is conformation?
The alkanes having two or more carbons, there exists free rotation leaves all the groups or atoms
bonded to each carbon into an infinite number of readily interconvertible three-dimensional arrangements.
Such readily interconvertible three-dimensional arrangement of a molecule is called conformations.
5. What are freons (CFC)? Give method of nomenclature of freons.
The chloro fluoro derivatives of methane and ethane are called freons. They are represented as
Freon-cba. Here c = number of carbon atom b= number of hydrogen atom + 1 and a = total
number of fluorine atoms. E.g. CFCl3 = Freon-11, CF2Cl2 = Freon-12, C2F2Cl4 = Freon-112 and C2F3Cl3 =
Freon-113
6. What is Walden inversion?
In SN2 mechanism the carbon at which substitution occurs has inverted configuration during the
course of reaction. This inversion of configuration is called Walden inversion.
7. What is environmental pollution?
Any undesirable change in our environment that has harmful effects on plants, animal and human
beings is called environmental pollution.
Definition:
43
1. Define Markownikoff’s rule.
When an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with hydrogen halide, the hydrogen adds to the carbon that
has more number of hydrogen, halogen add to the carbon having fewer hydrogen.
2. Define anti Markownikoff’s rule or peroxide effect or Kharasch Addition.
The addition of HBr to an alkene in the presence of organic peroxide, gives the anti Markownikoff’s
product. This effect is called peroxide effect.
3. Define Huckel’s rule of aromaticity.
A compound may be aromatic, if it obeys the following rules. 1) The molecule must be co-planar
2) Complete delocalisation of π electron in the ring.
3) Presence of (4n+2) π electrons in the ring where n is an integer (n=0,1,2,..)
Why / How / Give Reason:
1. Is it possible to prepare methane by Kolbe’s method?
CH4 cannot be prepared by this method. This method is not suitable for alkane having odd number
of carbon atoms, as such case mixture of hydrocarbons is formed which is difficult to separate.
2. Why ethane is produced in chlorination of methane?
During termination of chain reaction there will be excess of methyl free radical ( ) which leads
to the formation of ethane.
3. What happened when isobutalene(2-methylprop-1-ene) is react with acidified potassium

permanganate?
(acetone)
4. Water destroys Grignard reagents. Why?
Water protonates the Grignard reagents because Grignard carbon is highly nucleophilic.
5. Toluene undergoes nitration easily than benzene. Why?
The methyl (- CH3) group in toluene is an electron donating group and hence activate the benzene
ring. Hence toluene undergoes nitration easily than benzene.
6. Why benzene undergoes electrophilic substitution reaction where as alkene undergoes addition
reaction?
Alkene are rich source of loosely held π-electrons due to which they show electrophilic addition
reaction.
In benzene during electrophilic addition aromatic character of benzene ring is destroyed while
during electrophilic substitution reactions if remains intact.
7. How will you distinquish 1-butyne and 2-butyne?
Upon treatment with ammoniacal solution of AgNO3, 1-butyne would give white precipitate where as
2-butyne does not react.
1. What are the uses of alkanes?
1. It is used as fuel.
2. Methane in home heating.
3. Mixture of propane and butane – LPG gas – cooking purpose. Gasoline – internal combustion engines.
4. Carbon black ink, printer ink, black pigments and fillers.
2. What are the uses of alkenes?
1. They are used in the synthesis of alcohols.
44
2. It is used in the polimer industry.e.g. PVC, EPR, Sarans and polyethylene.
3. These polymer are used in the manufacture of floor tiles, shoe soles, synthetic fibres, raincoats, pipes.
3. What are the uses of alkynes?
1. Acetylene is used in oxy acetylene torch used for welding and cutting metals.
2. It is used for manufacture of PVC, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl ether, orlon and neoprene rubbers.
Explain / Explanation / Proof:
1. Explain acidic nature of alkyne with a suitable example.
2. Explain the directive influence of a functional group in monosubstituted benzene as ortho and
para directing groups and meta directing groups in aromatice electrophilic substitution reaction.
Ortho and para directing groups (activating groups):
The activating groups in benzene which direct incoming group to the ortho and para position is
called ortho and para directing groups. eg. -OH, -NH2, -NHR, -NHCOCH3, -OCH3, -CH3, -C2H5 etc.,
Meta directing groups (deactivating group):
The deactivating groups in benzene which direct incoming group to the meta position is called meta
directing groups. eg. -NO2, -CN, -CHO, -COR, -COOH, -COOR, -SO3H etc.,
Ortho and para directing meta directing.

Tests:
1. Write the tests for alkene? (How will you test whether the compound is alkane or alkene?)
When small amount of bromine water is added to an alkene, reddish brown colour of bromine is
decolourised as it forms dibromo compound.
When small amount of dilute KMnO4 is added to an alkene, pink colour of KMnO4 is decolourised,
while alkane do not decolourise the solution.
Naming reaction:
1. Sabatier Sendersens reaction:
2. Kolbe’s Electrolytic method
45
Electrolysis
3. Decarboxylation reaction.
4. Wurtz reaction
5. Corey – House Mechanism
ethyl bromide propane

6. Ozonolysis in alkene
7. Polymerisation in alkene
8. Wurtz – Fittig reaction.
9. Friedel Craft’s reaction.

Alkylation
Acetylation
10. Nitration of benzene

46
11. Halogenation of benzene
12. Sulphonation of benzene
13. Birch reduction
Organic reactions:
1. Give the combustion reaction of alkane. (Give combustion reaction of propane)
CH3CH2CH3 + 5O2 3CO2 + 2H2O ΔHo = -2220KJ
2. Write halogenation (chlorination) of methane.
3. Write the aromatisation reaction.
4. Write the isomerisation reaction.
5. Write dehydration reaction.
47
6. Write the dehalogenation of vicinal dihalide.
7. Write the dehydrohalogenation reaction.
8. Write the preparation of ehenoe Kolbe’s reaction.
At the anode:
9. Reaction of alkene with Baeyer’s reagent.
Baeyer’s reagent = dil. alkaline KMnO4
10. Conversion of phenol to benzene.
11. Benzene → BHC ( Benzene Hexa Chloride)
48
12. Benzene → maleic anhydride
1. Simple aromatic organic compound (A) react with bromine to give(B). (A) reacts with raney Ni to
give (C). Identify A, B and C.
A = Benzene C6H6 B = Bromobenzene C6H5Br C = Cyclobenzene C6H12.
Unit – 14, Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

1. What are freons (CFC)? Give method of nomenclature of freons.
The chloro fluoro derivatives of methane and ethane are called freons. They are represented as
Freon-cba. Here c = number of carbon atom b= number of hydrogen atom + 1 and a = total
number of fluorine atoms. E.g. CFCl3 = Freon-11, CF2Cl2 = Freon-12, C2F2Cl4 = Freon-112 and C2F3Cl3 =
Freon-113
2. What is Walden inversion?
In SN2 mechanism the carbon at which substitution occurs has inverted configuration during the
course of reaction. This inversion of configuration is called Walden inversion.
Definition:
1. Define Saytzeff’s rule. Give example.
In a dehydrohalogenation reaction, the preferred product is that alkene which has more number of
alkyl groups attached to the double bonded carbon. E.g.

1. Nowadays Chloroform does not used for anaesthesia. why?
Since chloroform react with air and light to form poisonous phosgene, chloroform does not uses as
anaethesia nowadays.
2. Why chlorination of methane is not possible in dark?
It is a free radical substitution reaction. Before Cl2 reacts with methane, the Cl – Cl single bond
must break to form free radicals and this can only be done in the presence of UV light. So, the chlorination
of methane is not possible in dark.
3. Give the reason for polarity of C – X bond in haloalkane.
C – X bond is polar in nature because halogens are more electro negative than carbon.
4. Even small amount of water also should avoid during the preparation of Grignard reagent. why?
Grignard reagent is highly reactive. It combines with water, decomposed to give alkane. Hence
Grignard shoul be prepared in a dry condition.
5. t – butyl chloride reacts with aqueous KOH by SN1 mechanism while n – butyl chloride reacts with
SN2 mechanism. Why?
t – butyl chloride when treated with aqueous KOH, it forms t – carbocation which is more stable
intermediate. This intermediate is further attacked by OH- ion. As t-butyl carbocation is highly stable. So it is
follows SN1 mechanism.
49
In case of n – butyl chloride primary carbocation is formed which is least stable. Here steric
hindrance is vey less, so it follows SN2 mechanism.
6. p – dichloro benzene has higher melting point than those of o and m – dichlorobenzene. why?
The higher melting point of p – isomer is due to its symmetry which leads to more close packing of
the molecule in the crystal lattice and consequently strong intermolecular attractive force which requires
more energy for melting. Melting point order is p – dichlorobenzene > o – dichlorobenzene > m –
dichlorobenzene.
7. Why tertiary alcohols are more reactive?
Tertiary alcohols produce stable tertiary carbocation. It is more stable than primary or secondary due
to having more electron releasing alkyl groups. So, the methyl group tend to break off more easily, hence
more reactive.
8. Alkyl chlorides on treatment with aqueous KOH gives alcohols but the addition of alcoholic KOH
gives alkene rather than alcohols as major product. why?
When alkyl halide is treated with a nucleophile, there is a competition between substitution and
elimination reaction. In the presence of high polarity solvent like water, substitution reaction is favoured and
would result in alocohols, whereas in the presence of low polarity solvent like alcohol, elimination reaction
is favoured and would result in an alkene.
Uses / Appilication / Importance:
1. Mention the uses of halo alkanes.
1. Chloroform is used as a solvent in pharmaceutical industry and for producing pesticides and drugs as an
anaesthetic. As a preservatives for anatomical specimens.
2. Iodoform used as an antiseptic for dressing wounds.
3. Carbon tetrachloride is used as dry cleaning agent, solvent for oils, fats and waxes.
2. Write the uses of chlorobenzene.
1. In the manufacture of pesticides like DDT.
2. High boiling solvent in organic synthesis.
3. Fibre – swelling agent in the textile processing.
1. Ethyl bromide how differently react with alcoholic KCN and alcoholic AgCN?
and
2. What are the different reaction given by NaNO2 or KNO2 and AgNO2?
and
3. Compare SN1 and SN2 reaction mechanism.
Sl.No. SN1 SN2
1 One step process Two step process
2 Second order reaction First order reaction
3 Bimolecular reaction Unimolecular reaction
4 Inversion of configuration at the asymmetric Optically inactive racemic mixture is formed
centre
5 There is no formation of carbocation ions. Formation of carbocation ion is occurred.
1. Explain SN1 mechanism.
SN stand for nucleophilic substitution reaction and 1 stands for unimolecular reaction. Rate of the
reaction depends upon alkyl halide only not on nucleophile. Hence rate of reaction = k[alkyl halide]. It
occurs in two steps. First step is slow and is rate determining step. Produced t – butyl cation is more stable.
In second step possibility of attacking nucleophile on both side of t – butyl cation to form recemic mixture.
50
eg. reaction between tertiary butyl bromide with aqueous KOH.
Step 1:
Step 2:
2. Explain SN2 mechanism.

SN stand for nucleophilic substitution reaction and 2 stands for unimolecular reaction. Rate of the
reaction depends upon both on alkyl halide and nucleophile. Hence rate of reaction = k[alkylhalide]
[nucleophile]. It occurs in one step. The reaction involves the formation of transition state in which both the
reactant molecules are partially bonded to each other. The attack of nucleophile occurs from the backside
and hence product is with inverted configuration. eg. reaction between (-)-2-bromo octane with aqueous
KOH and product is (+)-2-Octanol.
mechanism:
3. Explain E1 mechanism.
E stands for Elimination reaction and 1 stands for unimolecular reaction. Rate of the reaction
depends upon alkyl halide only not on nucleophile. Hence rate of reaction = k[alkyl halide]. It occurs in two
steps. First step is slow and is rate determining step. In second step elimination of a proton from the β –
carbon to produce an alkene.eg. reaction of t – butyl chloride with alcoholic KOH.
Step 1:
Step 2:
4. Explain E2 mechanism.
51
E stands for elimination reaction and 2 stands for bimolecular reaction. Rate of the reaction depends
upon both on alkyl halide and nucleophile. Hence rate of reaction = k[alkylhalide][nucleophile]. It occurs in
one step process in which the abstraction of the proton from the β – carbon atom and expulsion of halide
from the α – carbon occur simaltaneously. eg. the reaction of 1 – chloro propane with alcoholic KOH.
Mechanism.
Naming reaction:
1. Darzen’s halogenation.
2. Finkelstein reaction.
3. Swarts reaction.
4. Hunsdiccker reaction.
5. Williamson ether synthesis.
6. Grignard reaction.
7. Sandmeyer reaction
52
benzene diazonium chloride chlorobenzene
8. Gattermann reaction.
benzene diazonium chloride chlorobenzene

9. Raschig process
10. Dow’s process
11. Fittig reaction
12. Carbylamine reaction
13. Balz – schiemann reaction.
Organic reaction:
1. Ethyl bromide → Ethyl Lithium
2. Ethyl bromide → Tetra ethyl lead (TEL)
3. Write any three methods to prepare alkyl halide from alcohol
i)
ii)
53
iii)
4. How will you prepare DDT ( p,p’ – dichloro diphenyl trichloro ethane)
4. How will you prepare the following from Grignard reagent.

i) Primary alcohol
ii) Secondary alcohol
iii) Tertiary alcohol
iv) Aldehyde
v) Ketone
vi) Carboxylic acid
vii) Ester
54
viii) Higher ether
ix) Alkyl cyanide
x) alkane
55

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G.ANBUSELVAM, PG ASST. IN CHEMISTRY, GHSS, POTHUMBU, MADURAI – 18.

2. Define Molecular mass.

2. Calculate the oxidation number of oxygen in H2O2.

Empirical formula is CH2O

Unit – 2 : Quantum mechanical model of atom

energy of orbit is given by distance of electron from nucleus is given by

Magnetic quantum number (ml):

Unit – 3; Periodic Classifications of Elements.

12. Why the elements in a group shows similar property?

Explanation / Explain / Prove:

where Zeff (effective nuclear charge)= Z(atomic number) – S(screening constant)

On solving equation (1) and (4) the values of

3. What are the properties of hydrogen similar to that of alkali metals?

2. Explain the removal of temporary hardness of water.

3. Explain the method to remove permanent hardness of water.

2. How is tritium prepared?

Unit – 5: Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals.

Explain / Explanation / Prove:

Chloro bridged dimer in vapour phase

Linear monomer at high temperatures of the order of 1200 K

Unit – 6: Gaseous State

Why / How / Give reason:

Th = temperature of hot reservoir & Tc = temperature of cold reservoir.

entropies of reactants at standard condition.

ΔH1 – enthalpy change for the sublimation M(s) to M(g)

ΔH1 – enthalpy change for the sublimation of sodium

4. List the characteristics of Gibbs free energy?

qp = heat absorbed at constant pressure and is considered as heat content.

Unit – 8; Physical and Chemical Equilibrium

Kp = Kc(RT)Δng when Δng =0; Kp = Kc(RT)0, Kp = Kc. Eg.

4NO + 6H2O 4NH3 + 7O2

heterogeneous equilibrium. Eg.

In the above equilibrium, forward reaction proceeds when the pressure

The equilibrium constant for the above reaction can be written as

e.g. 1. If we increase the pressure, the volume decreases. The

For this reaction,

We know , For this reaction Hence

for this reaction Hence

We know that PV = nRT or Here n is the total number of moles at equilibrium

Mass by volume percentage(%w/v) =

Parts per million(ppm) =

with water. and HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-

2 Applicable to non-volatile solid solute in a Applicable to solution containing gaseous

. Accordfng to Le-Chatelier principle, the increase in pressure will

, Where XA is the mole fraction of solvent.

where XB is the mole fraction of solute.

The weight and Molar mass of solvent are wA and MA.

For dilute solution

where m is the molality of solute.ΔTb is the elevation of boiling point.

If the solution is prepared by dissolving wB g of solute in wA g of solvent. Then the

where MB is the molar mass of solute.

Here m is the molality of solute and Kf is the molal freezing point

If the solution is prepared by dissolving wB g of solute in wA g of solvent. Then the

where MB is the molar mass of solute.

and The molar mass of solute

or If the solution is prepared by dissolving wB g of solute in wA g of non-

Where MB is the molar mass of the solute.

H2O = HNO3 = SO = NH3 =

CH4 = N2O5 = NO3- =

6. What is covalent bond? Give example.

14. What is σ and π bond?

Resonance hybrid structure.

Formation of sigma(σ) and pi(π) bond in ethylene is