Unit 1

Revision Booklet

Year 12 Chemistry

November 2014– Mr Powell-Young

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Atomic Structure:

The atom is composed of the following sub-

atomic particles. Complete the table with their
following properties.

Name Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton

-1

Neutron

In an electric field both protons and ________

would be deflected but _________ would not be.

The Atomic Mass is defined as the number of

_______ in the nucleus. In an atom this is also the
number of ________.

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Atomic Mass: Complete the following
definitions.

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): the _______

mass of 1 ______ of atoms relative to 1/12
the mass of 1 mole of ___________.

Relative Isotopic Mass: the mass of 1

_____ of an _______ relative to 1/12 the
mass of the mass of 1 mole of ___________.

Relative Molecular Mass (RMM): the

_______ mass of 1 mole of compound relative
to 1/12 the mass the mass of 1 mole of
___________. It is the sum of all the
Relative ______ masses of its constituent
______.

Molar Mass: is the ______ of one mole of

the substance (gmol-1)

The number of neutrons in an atom is:

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No. of Neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic
Number

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Complete the following table:

Protons Neutrons Electrons Atomic Atomic Symbol

Number Mass

A 7 14

B 16 15

C 10 8 16

D 35 36 79

E 30

F Al3+
27

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 Isotopes are atoms of the same ______
which have the same number of ______ but
different number of ______. The Relative
______ Mass must be calculated from the
_________ and Relative Isotopic Mass of
every isotope.

RAM = Sum of (Isotopic Mass x % Abundance)

100

Qu 1) For Boron there are two isotopes with

their abundances in the brackets. Calculate
the Relative Atomic Mass.

10.0 (18.7%) 11.0

(81.3%)

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 10.8

Mass Spectrometer:

The mass spectrometer measures the

relative abundance and relative mass of a
sample.
1)A ________ sample is first bombarded
with _______, from a heated _______, to
form positive ions. The very fast ________
strike the sample removing an electron.
X(g) X+(g) + e-

Na(g) Na+(g) + e-

Br2(g) Br2+(g) + e-

2)These _______ ions are accelerated by a

________ plate and form a beam.
3)The beam is then deflected by a ________
field and recorded.
4)The magnetic field strength is _______ to
record all possible masses and their relative
abundances.

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 The spectra can be used to calculate both
the Relative Atomic Mass and the Relative
Molecular Mass.

Qu 2) Calculate the Relative Atomic Mass of

Neon from the following spectra.

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Electron Configuration:

Successive ___________ Energies

provide evidence for the existence of
quantum shells. i.e. that ________ exist in
energy levels with distinct energy.
The variation in 1st Ionisation Energies
provide evidence for the existence of
characteristic energy levels consisting of s, p
and d orbitals.
An orbital is an area in which there is a
high probability of locating an electron. Each
orbital can hold a maximum of _____
electrons.

Below draw diagrams to represent the

shapes of:

a) an s orbital

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b) a p orbital

Energy Level s p d Total electrons

1 1 2
2 1 3 8
3 1 3 5 18
4 1 3 8

The order of filling orbitals is in order of

energy.

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
4p

e.g. Calcium (20 electrons)

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

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 Complete the following:
1) Potassium

2) Carbon

3) Iron (NB 3d is written before 4s)

The electronic configurations of

Chromium and Copper are unique because the
3d and 4s orbitals are so close in ______ it is
possible to promote an electron to achieve a
more ______ configuration. A half-full or full
d orbital is much more stable.

Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1

Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

The electronic configurations can also be

expressed using the electrons-in-boxes
notation. Complete the following table to show

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the electronic configuration of Nitrogen (NB
electrons are unpaired where possible).

Orbital 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz

N

The Periodic Table has three main areas

depending upon the energy sub-level in which
the outer electron is situated.
The chemical properties of an element are
governed by the ________ configuration and
in particular the number of outer electrons.
Those elements with similar __________ (i.e.
in the same group of the Periodic Table) will
form compounds with similar _______.
Transition metals first lose the ___
electrons before the ___ electrons. Because
of the close proximity in energy of the energy
levels it is possible for the transition metals
to form a number of different ions (i.e. they
can have ions with more than one valency).

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Atomic Mass: Complete the following
definitions.

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): the _______

mass of 1 ______ of atoms relative to 1/12
the mass of 1 mole carbon-12 _____.

Relative Isotopic Mass: the mass of 1

_____ of an _______ relative to 1/12 the
mass of 1 mole carbon-12 atom.

Relative Molecular Mass (Mr): the _______

mass of 1 mole of compound relative to 1/12
the mass of 1 mole of _______-12 atoms. It

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is the sum of all the Relative ______ Masses
of its constituent ______.

The term Relative Formula Mass (Mr) is used

for Ionic Compounds.

Molar Mass: is the ______ of one mole of

the substance (gmol-1)

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The Mole:

This is the number of particles in 12g of

Carbon-12. (Avogadro’s number)

The number of particles is _________ and is

called _________ Number.

The number of particles in any given

substance can be calculated by:

No of Particles = No. of Moles x _________

Number

Calculate the number of particles in the

following:

1) 0.5 moles of magnesium

2) 0.1 moles of sulphur

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 3) 0.125 moles of oxygen

Ideal Gas Equation:

An ideal gas is one in which the particles are

considered to be perfect ________.

pV = nRT

p = Pressure (Pa)
V = Volume ( m3)
n = number of moles
R = Gas Constant (given in the question)
T = Temperature (K)

First you must convert your units if required.

p: Often given in kPa therefore multiply by

1000
V: if given in cm3 then divide by 1000000
V: if given in dm3 then divide by 1000
T: if given in oC then add 273

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Calculate the following:

1) Calculate the volume of 1 mole of an

ideal gas at 0 oC and 101325 Pa?

2) Calculate the number of moles in 20 cm 3

of O2 at a pressure of 101 kPa and
25oC?

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Empirical and Molecular Formulae:

The Empirical Formula is the ________ ratio

of elements in a compound:

The Molecular Formula is the ________ ratio

of elements in a compound:

e.g. Benzene:
Molecular Formulae: C6H6
Empirical Formulae: CH

To calculate the Empirical Formula you either

need the ________ reacted or the
___________ masses.

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Follow the same steps every time to calculate
the empirical formula.
1 Write down the mass of each element.

2 Divide the mass by the relative atomic mass

of the element.
3 Divide numbers by the smallest number to

get the ratio of elements.

4 These numbers give the empirical formula.

A compound has 24 g of carbon and 64 g of

oxygen. What is its empirical formula?

Element Symbol C O
Mass of element 24 64
Mass ÷ Relative ÷ 12 ÷ 16
Atomic Mass
2 4
Divide by the

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smaller number ÷2 ÷2
Ratio 1 2

The empirical formula of this compound is CO2.

1. A compound is made from 72 g of

carbon and 12 g of hydrogen. Work
out its empirical formula.

2. A common salt is analysed and is found

to have 52.9 g of sodium and 81.7 g of
chlorine. What is its empirical
formula?

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3. Aluminium ore may consist of 156 g of
aluminium and 278 g of oxygen. Is its
empirical formula AlO2 or AlO3?

4. A commercial paint thinner has the

following composition: carbon 25.2 g;
hydrogen 8.5 g; oxygen 33.7 g. What
is its empirical formula?

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- 22 -
Molecular Formulae:

Once you have found the Empirical Forumla e.g CH 2

then you can find the Molecular Formula using the
Mr of the compound.

Er is like Mr but for the Empirical Formula

Mr / Er – this should be a whole number

Molecular Formula = Mr / Er x Empirical Formula

e.g. 42/14 x CH2 = C3H6

1.a) Calculate the empirical formula of the

compound found to contain 40.0% carbon, 6.7%
hydrogen and 53.3% oxygen.

b) Find its molecular formula given that its M r

is 180.

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2. a) Work out the molecular formula of the
following compounds given the information
below?
i) empirical formula = P2O5 Mr = 284

ii) empirical formula = CH2 Mr = 56

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Writing equations:
It is important when writing equations to do it
methodically:

1. Write a word equation

2. Write the formulas for each of the species.
3. Balance the equation.

A full equation shows the full formulae of the

species involved.

An ionic equation shows only those ions/molecules

that change in the reaction.

Write full equations for the following reactions:

a) sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide

b) aluminium + chlorine → aluminium chloride

Write an ionic equation for the following reaction

c) calcium + hydrochloric acid → calcium

chloride + hydrogen

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Concentration, Volume and Moles:

In solutions the number of moles is often quoted as

the concentration either in mol/dm3 or M.

Number of moles = Concentration x Volume

n = c x v

NB Volume is often quoted in cm3 and must first be

changed into dm3 by dividing by 1000.

Calculate the following:

a) Number of moles in 2 dm3 of 0.05 mol dm-3

HCl

b) Concentration in 0.400 moles of HCl in

2.00 litres of solution

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 c) Volume of 0.00500 moles of NaOH from
0.100 mol dm-3 solution.
Reacting Masses Calculations:

In order to calculate the mass of a reactant

needed or product formed, volumes of products or
perhaps a titration calculation you might need more
than one step.

The MRA approach:

1. Moles:
Calculate the initial number of moles of
one of the species using either:

n=m/Mr (solids)
n=c x v (solutions)
Pv = nRT (gases)

2. Ratio:
Calculate the number of moles of the
other species using the ratio from the
equation:

3. Answer:

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 Calculate your answer now that you have
the number of moles of the species
required.

The reaction below is known as the Thermitt reaction,

which is used to form molten iron to mould train tracks
together. What mass of aluminium powder is needed to
react with 8.00 g of iron (III) oxide?

2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + 2Fe

25.0 cm3 of 0.0400 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution

reacted with 20.75 cm3 of sulphuric acid in a titration.
Find the concentration of the sulphuric acid.

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Percentage Yield:

% yield = mass of product obtained x

100
______________________________________________________________

maximum theoretical mass of product

The theoretical maximum mass of product must

first be calculated using the reacting masses
method:

Titanium can be extracted from titanium chloride by the

following reaction. TiCl4 + 2 Mg → Ti + 2 MgCl2

a) Calculate the maximum theoretical mass of titanium

that can be extracted from 100 g of titanium
chloride .

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 b) In the reaction, only 20 g of titanium was made.
Calculate the percentage yield.

Pecrentage Atom Economy:

% atom economy = mass of desired product

x100
_____________________________________________

total mass of reactants

1) Calculate the atom economy to make sodium from

sodium
chloride. 2NaCl → 2 Na + Cl2

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2) Calculate the atom economy to make hydrogen from
the reaction of zinc with hydrochloric acid. Zn + 2 HCl →
ZnCl2 + H2

3) Calculate the atom economy to make iron from iron

oxide in the
Blast Furnace. Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2

Types of Bond:

1) Ionic
This is the _________
attraction between oppositely
charged ions.
Cation:- ________ ion due to
the loss of electrons
Anion:- _______ ion due to
the gain of electrons
2) Covalent

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 This is the _______ of a pair
of electrons in which both
species donate ____ electron.

3) Dative Covalent
This is the ______ of a pair
of electrons in which _____
electrons come from the same
species

4) Metallic Bond
The attraction between
_______ ions and the sea of
_________ electrons.
Ions:

i) Cations have a radius ______ than

their atomic radius. The greater the
number of electrons _____ the
smaller the radius.
ii) Anions have a radius ______ than
their atomic radius. The ionic radius
increases down the group.

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 iii) Cations with a _____ radius and/or
_____ charge have a ______
charge density, and so are very
________. Anions with a ________
radius are very polarisable. If
either the cation is very polarising
or the anion is very polarisable, the
outer ________ in the anion will be
pulled towards the ______ and the
bond will have some ______
character.

Electronegativity:
i) The electronegativity of an
element is a measure of the attraction its
atoms has for a pair of ________ in a
covalent bond.

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 Metals usually have _____
electronegativities. Non-metals have _____
electronegativities.
If there is a very ______ difference in
electronegativity then the bond will be more
_____ than covalent but all ionic bonds show
some _______ character.
If a covalent bond is formed between two
different elements then there will be an
_______ sharing of the electrons. Therefore
a _____ bond is formed.

However due to the _______ of some

molecules they do not have a ________
dipole because the polar
bonds cancel.
e.g.

No overall dipole.

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There are various types of intermolecular
bond that occur because of the attraction
between dipoles.

i) Van der Waals: This _____ attraction

occurs between an ________ dipole in
one molecule and an ______ dipole in
an adjacent molecule.

ii) Permanent Dipole: This attraction

occurs between two molecules that
have a permanent dipole. Are
_______ than Van der Waals for
molecules with similar mass.

iii) Hydrogen Bond: This is a fairly ______

interaction that occurs between two
molecules that have a permanent
______ involving

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 ________ (non-metal with the lowest
electronegativity)

Properties:
The properties of a substance depend
upon the structure and bonding of a
substance.

a) Ionic:
1. Have a very regular three-
dimensional arrangement of
ions (ionic _______). The
crystals are very _______.
2. Have very high _______
points due to the strong
attraction.
3. Conduct electricity when
______ or in aqueous solution
because they have free moving
_____.

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 4. Most ionic solids are water-
soluble because the ______
required to separate the
______ is compensated for by
the exothermic nature of
hydration. The strong ionic
bonds are replaced by

_________ to the polar water

molecules.
b) Covalent:

Covalent compounds vary and can be

separated into four distinct groups:
i) giant atomic e.g. diamond, graphite,
quartz (SiO2)
a. Have very high
_______ points because
they have a ______
number of covalent
bonds and this requires a

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 lot of ______ to break
them.
b. Diamond and quartz are
______ structures due
to the ________ of the
covalent bond.
c. Graphite can _____
electricity due to the
presence of delocalised
_______.
d.Graphite is a good
_______ because the
layers can easily slide
over each other.

ii) simple molecular e.g. I2 and many

other organic substance.
a. Usually have ___ boiling
points due to the
______ of the Van der
Waals forces.

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 b. As the molecule
increases in ____ the
Van der Waals forces
become ______.

c. Iodine is a solid at room

temperature but
______ when heated as
little energy is needed
to overcome the forces.
d. Do not conduct
_______ because the
________ are tightly
held in the covalent
bond.
e. Do not _______ in
polar substances
because their molecules
are not attracted to the
polar molecules.
iii) hydrogen-bonded molecular e.g. Ice
and ethanol

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a. Have unusually high
________ points
because of the fairly
strong _________ Bond
between molecules.
b. Can _______ in polar
solvents because of the
attraction between
molecules.
c. Ice has a ______
density than water
because the ________
bonds in solid ice, which
hold the molecules
together, are in
_______ positions and
lead to an open
structure. In water the
hydrogen bonds are
constantly being ______
and made.

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iv) non-crystalline e.g. polymers like
polyethene.
a. Are generally -
________ with high
melting points because
of the strong Van der
Waals forces between
the molecules.
b. Some polymers form
cross-links between the
strands and therefore
cannot be _________.

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- 42 -
Melting Point:

 When a solid is heated from room

temperature until ______.

 The particles (ions, molecules or atoms)

_______ more.

 As the temperature rises the vibrations

________ until they become so great
that the _______ between the particles
are overcome, and the regular
arrangement in the lattice breaks up.

 The substance is then a ______.

 The ________ the forces between the

particles the ________ the amount of
energy required and therefore the
_______ the melting point.

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Boiling Point Trends:

i) Noble Gases:

The boiling point ________ down the group.

As the number of electrons ________ the
Van der Waals forces increase in _______
therefore more energy is required.

ii) Group 5,6and 7 Hydrides:

The first member of the series has a higher

than usual _______ point due to the presence
of _________ bonding. After the drop to
the second member there is a steady
_______ as the number of _______
increases and so therefore does the _______
of the Van der Waals force.

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- 45 -
Molecular Shapes:

These are explained by the Valence Shell

Electron Pair Repulsion Theory:

i) The _______ pairs arrange

themselves as far apart from
each other as possible in order
to _______ the repulsion.
ii) The repulsion between ____
pairs is greater than that
between a lone pair and a _____
pair, which is greater than that
between two _____ pairs.

lp-lp > lp-bp > bp-bp

iii) The number of  bond pairs of

electrons and lone pairs in the
molecule should be counted.
iv) Any  bond pairs should be
ignored when working out the

- 46 -
 shape of a molecule.
The structures are based upon the following.

2 Bond pairs

Linear
Bond Angle
180

3 bond pairs

Triangular
Planar
Bond Angle
120

4 Bond Pairs
Tetrahedral
Bond Angle
109.5

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5 Bond Pairs
Trigonal
Bipyramidal
Bond Angle
90 and 120

6 Bond Pairs
Octahedral
Bond Angle
90

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 However the shape will differ if any of
the pairs are lone pairs because of the
greater repulsion.

e.g. Ammonia
(Bond Angle 107)

Pyramidal

Water
(Bond Angle 104.5)

Non-linear

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You should be able to draw shapes of the
following:

i) HCl (Linear)

ii) CO2 (Linear)

iii) SO2 (Trigonal Planar)

- 50 -
iv) SO32- (pyramidal)

v) CO32- (trigonal planar)

vi) NO3- (trigonal planar)

vii) NH4+ (tetrahedral)

- 51 -
Metallic Bonding:
The metallic bond is the _________
between the regularly arranged positive
_______ and the sea of _________
electrons.

Metals are very good __________ of

electricity because of the mobility of their
delocalised ________.

Metals have _____ melting points and boiling

points due to the _____ attraction. The

- 52 -
greater the ______ on the cation the
______ the metallic bond and therefore the
_______ the melting point.

Periodicity:

Elements are classified as s, p or d depending upon

their position in the Periodic table.

Atomic Radius:

Across the Period from Na – Ar the atomic radius

________. This is because as the _________
charge increases the electrons are all in the same
________ level. Therefore the electrons have the
same _____________ and so the attraction to
the outer electrons is stronger. This means the
radius of the atom will be _____________.

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Melting Point:

As we go across the period the melting point

initially ________. This is because the metal ions
have greater __________ and therefore the
attraction to the sea of delocalised electrons is
__________.

In group 4 Silicon is _______________ and

therefore has a very high melting point.

In groups 5,6, and 7 the elements are

___________ with small ______________ (P 4, S8
and Cl2). They have _____
intermolecular forces and therefore _____
melting points.

Argon is a ___________ element and therefore

has very weak ______________ forces between
its atoms.

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Ionisation Energies:

First Ionisation Energy: The _______

change when 1 m____ of electrons is removed
from 1 m_____ of atoms in the
________state.

X(g) → X+(g) + e-
Second Ionisation Energy: The _______
change when 1 m____ of electrons is removed
from 1 m_____ of singly charged
p________ ions in the ________state.

X+(g) → X2+(g) + e-

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Qu 3) Write an equation to show the
following:

a) 1st I.E. of Mg

b) 2nd I.E. of Mg

Trends:

1) Across a Period the Ionisation Energy

________ as the nuclear charge ________.
The electrons are in the same energy _____
and therefore the _________ to the outer
electron is _______ and more energy is
required to remove it.

2) Down a group the Ionisation Energy

_______ as the outer electron is _______
from the nucleus. Although there is a greater
nuclear ______ the inner electron shells
_______ the valency electron and therefore

- 56 -
the attraction is _______ and less _______
is required to remove it.

3) Successive Ionisation Energies are

always greater than the previous as there are
fewer ________ and therefore greater
________. A very large jump in the value
indicates the electron is being removed from
an ______ shell.

Exceptions to the general rule are:

Al < Mg This is because the electron is

removed from a _______ energy sub-level.
The full s-orbital _______ the outer electron
and therefore the _________ is weaker.

N<O This is because the ________

between the paired electrons in a p-orbital
makes it _______ to remove one of them.

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Introduction to Organic Chemistry:

Empirical Formula: the s_________ ratio of

elements in a molecule.

e.g C2H4 → CH2

Molecular Formula: the a_______ number of

atoms of each element in a
molecule.

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Structural Formula: This shows the unique
arrangement of atoms in a
molecule without showing all
the bonds.

e.g CH3CH2CH3

Displayed Formula: This shows every atom and

every bond in the molecule.

e.g.

Homologous Series: A family or organic

compounds, with the same
f________ group, but
different c_______ chain
length.

Functional Group: A r________ group within a

molecule.

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Structural Isomerism: Molecules that have the
same m_______ formula
but different s_______
formula. The can be
positional isomers,
functional group isomers
or chain isomers.

a) Draw the structural formula of pentane.

b) Draw the displayed formula of

methylpropane.

c) To which homologous series does Butene

belong?

d) Give an example of two positional isomers of

chloropropane.

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 e) Give two examples of functional group
isomers of C5H10

f) Give two chain isomers of C4H10

Naming compounds:

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The main part of the name is defined by the
number of carbon atoms in the longest possible
chain

Generally functional groups are given suffixes (-

ane, -ene, -ol) except the haloalkanes which are
given prefixes (chloro, bromo, iodo).

Branches are also given prefixes e.g. methyl, ethyl.

Name the following molecules:

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Alkanes:

Alkanes are s____________ hydrocarbons

Petroleum is a m_________ consisting mainly of

alkane hydrocarbons

Different components (fractions) of this

m__________ can be drawn off at different

levels in a f____________

column because of the t_____________ gradient

C____________ involves the breaking of C–C

bonds in alkanes

T_________ c_________ takes place at high

p________ and high t___________ and produces

a high percentage of a_________

C__________ cracking takes place at a slight

p________,

high t___________ and in the presence of a

z________ catalyst and is used mainly to produce

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motor fuels and a___________ hydrocarbons

a) What are the economic reasons for cracking?

Alkanes are used as f______s. Their combustion

can be c___________ or i_________.

b) What are the products when hydrocarbons

are burned in excess oxygen?

c) What are the procuts when a hydrocarbon is

burned in a limited supply of oxygen?

d) What other polluntant can be produced by the

internal combustion engine?

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e) What polluntant is caued by the main impurity
in fossil fuels?
Pollutants caused by the internal combustion engine

can be removed using c___________

c____________.

S__________ d________ can be removed from

flue gases by reacting it with C________

o_________.

f) Write a word equation for this reaction?

The combustion of fossil fuels (including alkanes)

results in the release of c________ d________

into the atmosphere

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C_______ d________, m________ and water

vapour are

referred to as g_________ gases and that these

gases may contribute to global _________.

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