St.

Vincent College of Cabuyao

Mamatid, City of Cabuyao, Laguna

MODULE IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

AND PSYCHOLOGY OF CRIMES

By:
Ricardo S. Aquino
Instructor
MODULE 1

Week 1 - 4
Chapter 1 - Concept and Nature of Criminology
Chapter 2 - Schools of Thought in Criminology

Objective/Student learning outcomes

 define and describe the nature of criminology;

 discuss the concept of criminology, its areas of interest, its distinction, and its
relationship with other discipline;
 explain the evolution of the discipline of criminology.
 identify the leading schools of criminological thought
 discuss and interpret R.A. 11131.

Reference:
Criminology and Psychology of Crimes by Armando A. Alviola, PhD Crim.,
Introduction to Criminology with Psychology of Crime, Oscar Gatchalian Soriano.

Chapter 1
CONCEPT AND NATURE OF CRIMINOLOGY

Criminology Defined

Criminology is the scientific study of crime, criminals and criminal behavior.

Criminologists scientifically study the following: the nature and extent of crime; patterns
of criminality; explanations and causes of crime and criminal behavior; and the control
of crime and criminal behavior. (Glick, 1995) The term “criminology” (from the Latin-
crimen, accusation, and Greek-logia, study) was coined in 1885 by Italian law professor
Raffaele Garofalo as criminologia.

Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon.

It includes within its scope the process of making laws, of breaking laws, and of reacting
toward the breaking of laws. The objective of criminology is the development of a body
of general and verified principles and of other types of knowledge regarding the process
of law, crime and treatment or prevention. (Sutherland & Cressey)

In its broadest meaning, criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crimes,

criminals and the effort of society to prevent and repress them. This means that
criminology is an interdisciplinary field of inquiry – that is it draws knowledge from other
disciplines such as biology, psychology, psychiatry, sociology, law, medicine, statistics,
economics, and political science in order to provide an integrated approach in the study
of crimes and criminal behaviors.
 In a narrower sense, criminology is the scientific study of crimes and criminal
behavior. In a key sense, this is the central aspect of the definition of criminology. It
specifies the very essence of this course. This means that criminology is primarily
concerned with knowing and understanding the cause of crime and criminal behavior. It
seeks to comprehend the reasons behind the commission of crime. Furthermore,
criminology is a science in itself. It applies scientific methods of inquiry to the study of
crimes and criminal behavior. Therefore, criminology is not common sense nor
guesswork, but rather, the scientific study of crime. The knowledge obtained through
criminological research is based on empirical evidence.

Other definition of criminology include;

Criminology is the science which studies crime, forms of criminal behavior, the
causes of crime, the definition of criminality, and the social reaction to criminal activity.
Related areas of inquiry may include juvenile delinquency, victimology (the study of
crime victims), theories of prevention, policing and corrections (Sousa, 2008).

Criminology, on the other hand, is closer to psychology than it is to criminal

justice, because it studies the minds and behaviors of criminals as opposed to their
criminal actions.

Difference between Criminology and Criminal Justice

Criminal Justice

Criminal justice is essentially the application of criminology. While criminology is

the study of crime, criminal justice describes the societal response to crime. The criminal
justice system is comprised of multiple components that enforce laws, investigate
crimes, try and punish criminals, and rehabilitate those who are convicted.
As you can imagine, there are many, many different types of jobs available in this
sector, and they overlap with careers in criminology. For example, a forensic
psychologist can be said to work in both criminology and criminal justice because he
studies and observes criminal behavior and is often also instrumental in investigating
crimes, profiling criminals, and offering insight to trial preparation and jury selection. 
Police officers, detectives and investigators are integral components of the
criminal justice system. So are corrections officers, wardens, and probation officers. Jobs
and careers can range from a police dispatcher in a municipality to a position with the
federal government, such as with the FBI. 

PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF CRIMINOLOGY (Tradio, 1999)

The study of criminology has three principal divisions:

1. Criminal Etiology – an attempt at scientific analysis of the causes of crimes

2. Sociology of Law – an attempt at scientific analysis of the conditions under which
penal or
criminal laws develop as a process of formal social control.
3. Penology - concerned with the rehabilitation and treatment of offenders.

Three Principal Divisions of Criminology (Edwin Sutherland)

1. Sociology of Law
2. Scientific analysis of the causes of crime
3. Crime Control

Three Components of Criminology (Clarence Ray Jeffrey)

1. Detection of the offender

2. Treatment of the Offender
3. Explaining Crime and Criminal Behavior

Purpose of Criminology

The purpose of criminology is to offer well researched and objective answers to

four basic questions:

1. Why do crime rates vary?

2. Why do individuals differ as to criminality?
3. Why is there variation in reactions to crime?
4. What are the possible means of controlling criminality?

Goals of Studying Criminology

The study of criminology seeks to achieve the following goals:

1. To describe criminal behavior

2. To understand criminal behavior
3. To predict criminal behavior
4. To control criminal behavior

Various Studies and Sciences Related to Criminology

Criminology covers the following studies and sciences:

1. Law
2. Sociology
3. Psychology
4. Medicine
5. Chemistry
6. Public Administration
7. Education
8. Theology
9. Economics

Agencies and Sectors Associated to Criminology

Criminology consists of the activities of the following offices and sectors, public and
private:

1. Legislative bodies and law makers

2. Law enforcement agencies
3. Courts and prosecution
4. Correctional institutions
5. Educational institutions/schools
6. Public charitable and social agencies
7. Non-government organizations
8. Family and home
9. The church
10. Private charitable and welfare institutions
11. Civic clubs and organizations
13. Print media, radio and television

Nature of Criminology

Generally, criminology cannot be considered a science because it has not yet

acquiredUniversal validity and acceptance. It is not stable, and it varies from one
time and place to another. However, considering that science is the systematic
and objective study of social phenomenon and other bodies of knowledge,
criminology is a science in itself when under the following nature.

1. It is an applied science.

The findings or knowledge obtained in the study of crimes and criminal

behaviors is used to resolve the crime problem and treatment of criminals. In other
words, criminologists investigate crimes in order to generate practical solutions to the
problem.

Applied science focuses on the practical application of the principles discovered

in basic science. Natural science, on the other hand, is concerned with the physical
nature or environment. In the study of the causes of crimes, natural sciences such as
anthropology, psychology, and sociology may be applied. In like manner, applied
sciences such as chemistry , medicine, physics, mathematics, ballistics, polygraphy, legal
medicine, and questioned document examination may be utilized in crime detection.

2. It is a social science.

In as much as crime is a social creation that exists in a society being a social

phenomenon, its study must be considered a part of social science. This means the
study of criminology includes not only the study of crimes and criminal behavior but also
the reaction of society towards crime and criminal behavior.

Social science refers to the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to

understand the social world objectively. It is the study of the various aspects of human
society.

3. It is dynamic.

Criminology changes as social condition changes. It is related with the

advancement of other related sciences that have been applied to it.

This further means that criminology is relative. The study of crime varies from
place to place, generation to generation, and from culture to culture. Behaviors that
may be regarded as deviant or crime in one culture may be conformist and highly valued
in another. Also, those acts defined as criminal today may no longer be considered as
criminal acts in the coming years.

The study of crime changes when criminal laws, values, beliefs, social structure,
and other social factors change. Remember that crime is a legal term. A behavior can be
labeled as crime only when it is defined by law as such. Thus, the study of crime changes
when its definition changes.

4. It is interdisciplinary.

Many disciplines are involved in the study of crimes and criminal behavior.
Among them are sociology, psychology, psychiatry, economics, political science and so
on.

5. It is nationalistic.

The study of crimes must be in relation with the existing criminal law within the
territory or country. Finally, the question as to whether an act is a crime is dependent
on the criminal law of a state.

Scope of Criminology

The study of criminology covers the following scope:

1. Study of the origin and development of criminal law or penal law

2. Study of the causes of crimes and development of criminals

3. Study of the different factors that enhance the development of criminal behavior
such as:

a. Criminal Demography – study of the relationship between criminality and

population.

b. Criminal Epidemiology – study of criminality in relation to spatial distribution

in a community

c. Criminal Ecology – Study of the relationship between environment and

criminality

d. Criminal Physical Anthropology – study of criminality in relation to physical

constitution of men

e. Criminal Psychology – Study of human mind and behavior in relation to

criminality

f. Criminal Psychiatry – study of mental and behavioral disorders in relation to

criminality

g. Victimology – study of the role of the victim in crime commission

4. Study of the various measures and methods accepted by society in cases of violation
of criminal law such as:
 a. The detection of crimes

b. The arrest or apprehension of criminals

c. The prosecution of suspected law violators

d. The conviction of criminals in judicial proceedings

e. The imprisonment, correction, and rehabilitation of the criminal convicted of a

crime

f. The enforcement of laws, decrees, rules and regulations

g. The administration of the police and other law enforcement agencies

h. The maintenance of recreational facilities and other auxiliary services to

prevent the development of crimes and criminal behavior.

Major Areas of Study in Criminology

1. Criminal Sociology – includes the fundamentals of criminology; juvenile

delinquency; human behavior and crisis management; ethics and community
relations; and criminal justice system.

2. Criminal Law and Jurisprudence – covers the study of the Revised Penal Code
and its amendments, and other laws that are penal in nature; criminal
procedure; and the law on evidence.

3. Law Enforcement Administration – embraces police organization; operational

planning; patrol; industrial security management; intelligence and secret
service; police records; and personnel management.

4. Crime Detection, Investigation and Prevention – consists of criminal, special

and arson investigation; vice control; traffic management and accident
investigation; and police report writing.

5. Criminalistics – covers the following areas:

a. Dactyloscopy – the science of fingferprinting

b. Police Photography – study of the black and white and colored
photograph (both film-based photography and digital photography)
c. Polygraphy – the science of lie detection examination
d. Ballistics – study of firearms and bullets
e. Questioned Document Examination – study of disputed documents
f. Forensic Medicine – application of medical science to elucidate legal
problems
g. Forensic Chemistry – Application of Chemical principles in the solution
of problems that arise in connection with the administration of justice

6. Corrections – deals with the institution and non-institution correctional

system of approach.
Criminologist Defined

Criminologist is any person who is a graduate of the Degree of Criminology, who

has passed the examination for Criminologists and is registered as such by the Board
(Section 22, R.A. 6506 – An Act Creating the Board of Examiners for Criminologists in
the Philippines and for other purposes and R.A. No. 11131 AN ACT REGULATING THE
PRACTICE OF CRIMINOLOGY PROFESSION IN THE PHILIPPINES, AND
APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR, REPEALING FOR THE PURPOSE REPUBLIC
ACT NO. 6506, OTHERWISE KNOWN AS "AN ACT CREATING THE BOARD OF
EXAMINERS FOR CRIMINOLOGISTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Criminologist is a professional who studies crime, criminals, criminal behavior,

and efforts to control crime. (Reid, 1977)

Criminologist is one who is trained in the field of Criminology. Also he or she is

one who studies crime and criminals , and criminal behavior (Schmallenger, 1996).

Practice of Criminology Defined

A person is deemed to be engaged in the practice of criminology if he holds

himself out to the public in any of the following capacities:

a. As a professor, instructor or teacher in criminology in any university, college or

school duly recognized by the government, and teaches any of the following
subjects:

1. Law Enforcement Administration

2. Criminalistics
3. Correctional Administration
4. Criminal Sociology and other subjects, and
5. other technical and specialized subject in the criminology curriculum provided
by the Department of Education (Commission on Higher Education)

b. As a Law Enforcement Administrator, Executive, Adviser, Consultant or Agent in any

government or private agency.

c. As technician in Dactyloscopy, Ballistics, Questioned Document, Police Photography,

Lie Detection, Forensic Chemistry, and other scientific aspects of crime detection.

d. As Correctional Administrator, Executive Supervisor, Worker or Officer in any

correctional and penal institution.

e. As Counselor, Expert, Adviser, Researcher in any government or private agency, on

any aspects of criminal research or project involving the process of crime, juvenile
delinquency, treatment of offenders, police operations, law enforcement
administration, scientific criminal investigation or public welfare administration.
Privileges Given to Certified Criminologists

Pursuant to section 34 of R.A. 11131, all certified criminologist shall be exempt

from taking any other entrance or qualifying government or civil service examinations
and shall be considered civil service eligible to the following gove3rnment positions:

a. Dactylographer
b. Ballistician
c. Questioned Document Examiner
d. Correctional Officer
e. Law Enforcement Photographer
f. Lie Detection Examiner
g. Probation Officer
h. Agents in any law enforcement agency
i. Security Officer
j. Criminal Investigator
k. Police Laboratory Technician

Career Opportunities for Criminology Graduates

A myriad of job opportunities await criminology graduates. Most of these

careers would be found in government agencies as follows:

1. Law Enforcement Officers/ Intelligence Officers/Investigators

a. Philippine National Police (Maritime, Highway Patrol, Aviation, or Airport), as

personnel and police officers

b. Philippine Ports Authority (PPA, Port Police)

c. Bureau of Customs (custom intelligence and investigation service)

d. National Bureau of Investigation (NBI, as a special investigators)

e. Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA, as agents)

f. Department of Finance (Anti Money Laundering and Lifestyle Check)

g. National Police Commission (Napolcom, as investigators)

h. Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP, as Fire Officer and Investigators)

i. Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC, as Coastguards)

j. Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG)

k. Other Government Branches with Intelligence and investigative units

2. Members and Officers of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP)

a. Philippine Army
b. Philippine Navy
c. Philippine Marines
d. Philippine Air Force

3. Forensic Specialists or Experts

a. National Bureau of Investigation (NBI)

b. Philippine National Police Crime Laboratory
c. Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)-State Colleges and Universities (SUCs)
and private Universities and Colleges (PUCs)

4. Personnel and Officers of Correctional Institutions

a. Bureau of Corrections (Department of Justice/DOJ), as Prison Officers or

Guards
b. Bureau of Jail Management and Penology (BJMP), as jail officers or guards
c. Parole And Probation Administration, as probation officers and as parole
officers (DOJ)
d. Provincial jail under the office of the Governor in any Province, as Provincial
Jail Officers or Guard

5. Judiciary

a. Supreme Court, as Sheriffs

6. State Colleges and Universities (SUCs), Private Universities and Colleges (PUCs) and
Specialized Training Institution (STIs) such as the Philippine Military Academy (PMA),
Philippine National Police Academy (PNPA), Philippine Public Safety College (PPSC) as:

a. Administrators
b. Instructors
c. Training Officers
d. Laboratory Technician

7. Maritime Industry

a. Sea Marshall Officer in private vessels, both national and international

Activity no. 1

Instruction: Make a comprehensive research on the historical development of

criminology. You’re research must reflect the five (5) phases of the evolution of
criminology, it must be handwritten and to be submitted on Aug. ___ 2020.
 Chapter 2
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN CRIMINOLOGY

Criminology as a discipline is recent, but its foundations date back to centuries

ago built by people who may be called early criminologists. To better understand
current criminological theories, it is essential to be familiar with this people’s
contributions and earlier approaches.

CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY

By the middle of the 18 th century, social philosophers studied, argued and began
to look for a more rational approach in imposing punishment. Social reformers sought to
eliminate the barbaric system of law, punishment and justice. They stressed that the
relationship between crime and punishment should be balanced and fair.

Cesare Becarria (1738-1794)

One of the social reformers who worked on the implementation of said reform
was Cesar Beccaria. He pioneered the development of a systematic understanding of
why people committed crime. According to him, the crime could be traced not to bad
people but to bad laws, that a modern criminal justice system should guarantee all
people equal treatment before the law. Beccaria believed that that the behavior of
people with regard to their choice of action is based on hedonism, the pleasure-pain
principle: Human beings choose those actions that give pleasure and avoid those that
bring pain. Moreover, punishment should be assigned to each crime in a degree that
results in more pain than pleasure for those who commit the forbidden acts. Therefore,
“the punishment should fit the crime.” The writings of Beccaria and his followers form
the core of what today is referred to as Classical Criminology, with the following basic
elements:

• In every society, people have free will to choose criminal or law solutions to
meet their needs or settle their problems.
• Criminal solutions may be more attractive than lawful ones because they
usually require less work for a greater payoff; if left unsanctioned, crime has
greater utility than conformity.
• A person’s choice of criminal solutions may be controlled by his fear of
punishment.
• The more severe, certain, and swift the punishment, the better able it is to
control criminal behavior (Siegel 2004)

Beccaria’s book On Crimes and Punishment supplied the blue print, which was
based on the assumption that people freely choose what they do and are responsible
for the consequences of their behavior.
 Jeremy Bentham (1748-18321)

Another classicist was Jeremy Bentham, a contemporary of Beccaria. He devoted

his life to developing scientific approach to the making and breaking of laws. Like
Beccaria, he was concerned with achieving “the greatest happiness of the greatest
number.” Bentham referred to his philosophy of his social control as utilitarianism.
Utilitarianism assumes that all human actions are calculated in accordance with their
likelihood of bringing happiness (pleasure) or unhappiness (pain). People weigh the
probabilities of present and future pleasure against those of present and future pain.

The Classical School of Criminology’s concept of human nature as governed by

the doctrine of “free will” and rational behavior, upholds the following principle:

1. All human beings, including criminals, will freely choose either criminal ways or non
criminal ways, depending on which way they believe will benefit them.

2. Criminals will avoid behaviors that will bring pain and will engage in behaviors that
will bring pleasure.

3. Before deciding which course of action to take, criminals will weigh the expected
pains.

4. Criminals are responsible for their behaviors. They are seen as human beings who are
able to interpret, analyze, and understand the situation in which they find themselves.

5. Criminals act over and against their environments. They are not victims of their
environments.

6. Criminal go through a thinking process whereby they take a variety of factors in to

account before they make a final decision on whether or not to commit a criminal act.

7. Criminals are totally responsible for their behaviors.

8. Environmental forces do not push, pull, or propel individuals to act. An individual acts
willfully and freely.

9. Offenders are not helpless, passive, or propelled by forces beyond their control.

10. Each criminal act is a deliberate one, committed by a rational, choosing person who
is motivated primarily by the pleasure-pain principle.
NEO CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY

The Neo Classical School, which flourished in the 19 th century, had the same
basis as the classical school (a belief in free will) but the neo classical criminologist’s,
most of whom were British, saw the need for individualized reaction to offenders. They
believed the classical approach was to harsh and unjust. This school of criminology is a
modification of classical theory; it believed that certain factors such as insanity will
inhibit the exercise of free will.

Perhaps the most shocking aspect of harsh penal codes in early times was the
they did not provide for the separate treatment of children. One of the changes of the
neo classical period was that children under 7 years of age were exempt from the law
because they were presumed to be unable to understand what is right or wrong. The
exemption would cover juveniles. Mental disease became a reason to exempt a suspect
from conviction too. It was seen as a sufficient cause of impaired responsibility, and thus
defense by reason of insanity crept onto the law. Any situation or circumstance that
made it impossible to exercise free will was seen as a reason to exempt a person from
legal responsibility from what other-wise might be a criminal act.

Although the neo classical school, unlike the classical, was not a scientific school
of criminology, it began to explore the causation issue. Its proponents made exceptions
to the law and implied multiple causation. Even today much modern law is based on the
neo classical philosophy of free will tempered by exceptions (Reid, 1997).

POSITIVIST CRIMINOLOGY

The positivist school originated in the 19th century in the context of the “scientific
revolution”. The positivist rejected the harsh legalism of the classical school and
substituted the concept of “free will” with the doctrine of determinism. They focused on
the constitutional approach to crime. Advocating structure or physical characteristics of
an individual determine that person’s behavior. Since this characteristics are not
uniform, the positivists emphasized a philosophy of individualized, scientific treatment
of criminals, based on the findings of the physical and social sciences.

Auguste Conte (1798-1857)

Auguste Conte (1796-1857) is considered the founder of positivist school and

sociology. He applied scientific methods in the study of society, from where he adopted
the word sociology. He wanted a society in which all social problems will be solved by
scientific methods and research. He believed that large groups of people such as society,
being a subject of scientific study, can lead to the discovery of specific laws that would
greatly help them.

The positivist school was composed of several Italians. Generally, it is associated

with Cesare Lombroso (who founded the Italian school of thought), Enrico Ferri, and
Raphaelle Garofalo. They were called the “unholy three” by the religious leaders during
the time of positivism because of their belief in evolution as contrasted to biblical
interpretation of the origin of man and woman. Eventually, they have been called the
“holy three of criminology” because their emergence symbolized clearly that the era of
faith was over and the scientific age had begun.

The positivist school presumes that the criminal behavior is caused by internal
and external factors outside of the individual’s control. The scientific method was
introduced and applied to the study of human behavior. Positivism can be broken up
into three segments which include biological, psychological and social positivism.

The following are key assumptions of the positivist school of thought;

1. Human behavior is determined and not a matter of free will.

2. Criminals are fundamentally different from non criminals.
3. Positivists search for such differences by scientific methods.
4. Social scientists (including criminologists) can be objective, or values – neutral, in their
work.
5. Crime is frequently caused by multiple factors.
6. Society is based on consensus, and not on social contracts.

BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM

Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909)

Cesare Lombroso was an Italian Criminologist, scientist, university professor, prison

doctor, and founder of criminal anthropology. He was one of the largest contributors to
biological positivism and founder of the Italian school of criminology. Lombroso is widely
known as the father of modern criminology, although most of his ideas have been
discredited today.

It is interesting to examine the sequence of events that made Lombroso, not

Beccaria or Bentham, deserve this title.

Lombroso’s worked closely followed Charles Darwin’s theory of ma’s evolution.

Lombroso contended that just as human beings developed from the non-human animal
forms, the criminal was a throwback or mutant to a primitive stage of human evolution.
The criminal was a product of biology, and not much could be done for this “born
criminal”. Lombroso’s positivist approach was scientific, anthropological and biological.
With his research, the “legalistic concern for crime” advanced to a “scientific study of
the criminal,” which in turn became the field of criminology. This accounted for his title
of being the father of criminology.

After completing his medical studies, Lombroso served as an army physician,

became a professor of psychiatry at the University of Turin, and later in his life accepted
an appointment as professor of criminal anthropology. His theory of the “born criminal”
states that criminals are a lower form of life, nearer to their ape like ancestors than non
criminals in traits and dispositions. They can be distinguished from non criminals by
various atavistic stigmata, which refers to the physical features of creatures at an earlier
stage of development, before they became fully human beings.

The criminal’s distinct physical and mental stigmata include deviation in head
size and shape from the type common to the race and region from which the criminal
came; asymmetry of the face; excessive dimensions of the jaw and cheek bones; eye
defects and peculiarities; years of unusual size, or occasionally very small, or standing
out from the head as those of chimpansy; nose twisted, upturned or flattened in
thieves, or aquiline or beak-like in murderers, or with a tip rising like a peak from
swollen nostrils; fleshy lips, swollen and protruding; pouches in the cheeks like those of
animal’s toes; and imbalance of the hemispheres of the brain. Lombroso’s work
supported the idea that the criminal was a biologically and physically inferior.

Among Lombroso’s major contributions to positivist criminology are the

following:

1. The theory of atavism – Lombroso had the opinion that criminals were
developed from primitive or sub human individuals characterized by some
inferior mental and physical characteristics such as receding hairline, fore head
wrinkles, bumpy face, broad noses, fleshy lips, sloping shoulders, long arms and
pointy fingers. He called this condition atavism.

2. The application of the experimental or scientific method to the study of the

criminal – Lombroso spent endless hours measuring criminally insane person’s
and epileptics skulls.

3. The development of a criminal typology- although Lombroso’s system of

classification considered crude and not adopted today, he still attempted to
categorized criminals. They are as follows:

a. born criminals – These refer to individuals who are born with genetic
predilection toward criminality.

b. epileptic criminals – these are criminals who commit crime because

they are affected by epilepsy.

c. insane criminals – These are those who commit crimes due to

abnormalities or psychological disorders. These criminals are not criminal
from birth; they become a criminal as a result of some changes in their
brains which interfere with their ability to distinguish between right and
wrong.
 d. occasional criminals - These are criminals who commit crime due to
insignificant reasons that push them to do at a given occasion.

Lombroso also identified the various types of occasional criminals as:

a. Pseudo criminals - These individuals are not real criminals. They have
neither any in-born tendency towards crime nor are they under the
influence of any bad crime – inducing habit. They do something criminal
on account of acute pressure of circumstances that live them with no
choice.an example would be persons who kill in self-defense.

b. Criminaloids – the term “criminaloids” (sometimes called criminoloid)

means “like a criminal” or “having resemblance with a criminal”. From
this it can be said that criminaloids are not born criminals but non
criminals who have adopted criminal activity due to pressure of
circumstances and less physical stamina or self control. The nature of
their crimes is not very brave.

c. Habitual criminals - They have no organic criminal tendency, but in the

course in their lives they have developed some foul habits that force
them into criminality. Some attributive factors are poor parenting and
education, or contact with other criminals.

d. Passionate criminals – These are individuals who are easily influenced

by great emotions like fit of anger.

4. The belief in the indeterminate sentence - Penalties should be indeterminate so that

those other “born” criminals who are incorrigible could be worked with and
rehabilitated.

5. The application of statistical techniques to criminology - Although crude and with

the use of questionable controlled groups, statistical techniques were used by Lombroso
to make criminological predictions.

Enrico Ferri (1856-1929)

Enrico Ferri – A student of Lombroso, Enrico Ferri is the best known of Lombroso’s
associates. But, although he agreed to Lombroso on the biological bases of criminal
behavior, his interest in socialism led him to recognize the importance of social,
economic and political factors in the study of criminal behavior. His greates contribution
was his attack on the classical doctrine of free will, which argued that criminals should
be held morally responsible for their crimes because they must have made a rational
decision to commit those acts. On the contrary, Ferri believed that criminals could not
be held morally responsible because they did not choose to commit crimes but rather
were driven to commit them by conditions in their lives. He, however, stressed that
society needed protection against criminal acts and that it was the purpose of the
criminal law and penal policy to provide that protection.

Ferri claimed that strict obedience to preventive measures based on scientific

methods would eventually reduced crimes and allow people to live together in society
with less dependence on the penal system.

Raffaele Garofalo (1851-1934)

Raffaele Garofalo - Just like Lombroso and Ferri, Raffaele Garofalo rejected the doctrine
of free will and supported the position that the only way to understand crime was to
study it by scientific methods. Influenced by Lombroso’s theory of atavistic stigmata,
which he found to have many short comings, he traced the roots of criminal behavior,
not to physical features, but to their psychological equivalents, which he called “moral
anomalies”. According to this theory, natural crimes are found in all human societies,
regardless of the views of the law makers, and no society can disregard that.

According to Garofalo, natural crimes are those that offend the basic normal
sentiment of probity, which mean respect for the property of others, and piety or
avoidance of causing infliction of sufferings to others. An individual who has an organic
deficiency in these moral sentiments has no moral force against committing such crimes.
Influenced by the theory of Darwin, Garofalo suggested that the death penalty could rid
the society of its maladapted members, just as the natural selection process eliminated
maladapted organisms. And for those who committed less serious offenses, who are
capable of adopting themselves to society in some measure, he preferred:
transportation to remote islands, lost of privileges, institutionalization in farm colonies,
or perhaps simple reparation. Clearly. Garofalo was more concerned and interested in
protecting society than individual rights of offenders. Garofalo classified criminals as:

1. Murderers – Those who are satisfied with vengeance or revenge.

2. Violent criminals - Those who commit very serious crimes.

3. Thieves - Those who commit crimes against property.

4. Lascivious criminals - Those who commit crimes against chastity.

SOCIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM
 During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, soime scholars began to
search for social determinants of criminal behavior. Among them were the Belgian
mathematician Adolphe Quetelet and the French lawyer Andre Michel Guerry. They
started what was called Cartographic School of Criminology in which they worked
independently on the relation of crime statistics to such factors as poverty, age, sex,
race, climate, and other demographic factors. Both scholars concluded that society, not
the decisions of individual offender, was responsible for criminal behavior.

Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874)

Another scholar who worked on relationship of crime and social factors was Gabriel
Tarde. He made the opinion that society played an important role in creating the
criminal. However, individual choice and chance were also important to him. Tarde’s
major contribution in the study of the cause of crime was his concept of the criminal as
a professional type. He believed that most criminals went through a process of training
before finally becoming criminal. Moreover, it was an accident of birth or chance that
put them in an atmosphere of crime.

Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904)

Of all the nineteenth century writers on the relationship between crime and social
factors, non has more powerfully influenced contemporary criminology than Emile
Durkheim. According to Durkheim, crime is an inevitable aspect of society. It could
disappear only if all members of society had the same values, and such standardization
is neither possible nor desirable. He called this concept anomie (Greek, Anomos,
without norms), a breakdown of social order as a result of a loss of standards and
values. In a society plagued by anomie, disintegration and chaos replace social cohesion.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

LACASSAGNE SCHOOL
 Lombroso’s Italian school was rivaled, in France, by Alexandre Lacassagne and
his school of thought, based in lyon and influential from 1885-1914. The lacassagne
school rejected Lombroso’s theory of “criminal type” and of “born criminals” and
stressed the importance of social factors. However, contrary to criminological
tendencies influenced by Durkheim’s social determinism, it did not reject biological
factors. Indeed, Lacassagne created an original synthesis of both tendencies, influenced
by positivism, phrenology and hygienism, which alleged a direct influence of the social
environment on the brain. Furthermore, Lacassagne criticized the lack of efficiency of
prison, insisted on social responsibilities toward crime and on political voluntarism as a
solution to crime, and thus advocated harsh penalties for those criminals thought to be
unredeemable (“recidivist”) , for example by supporting the 1895 law on penal colonies
or opposing the abolition of the death penalty in 1906.

Alexandre Lacassagne

HANS EYSENCK (1977), A British Psychologist, claimed that psychological factors such as
extraversion and neuroticism made a person more likely to commit criminal acts. He
also included a psychotism dimention that includes traits similar to the psychopathic
profile, developed by Hervey Cleckley, and later Robert Hare. Eysenck also based his
model on early parental socialization of the child. His approach bridges the gap between
biological explanations and environmental or social learning based approaches.

CHICAGO SCHOOL – the Chicago school arose in the early 20 th century, thru the work of
Robert Park, Earnest Burgess, and other urban sociologist at the university of Chicago. In
the 1920’s, Park and Burgess identified 5 concentric zones that often exist as cities grow,
including the “zone in transition” which was identified as most volatile and subject to
disorder. In the 1940’s, Henry McKay and Clifford Shaw focused on juvenile delinquents,
finding that they were concentrated in the zone of transition.

Chicago school sociologists adopted the social ecology approach to studying

cities, and postulated that urban neighborhoods with high level of poverty often
experienced breakdown in the social structure and institutions such as family and
schools. This results in social disorganization, which reduces the ability of these
institutions to control behavior and creates an environment ripe for deviant behavior.

Other researchers suggested an added social-psychological link. For one, Edwin

Sutherland suggested that people learn criminal behavior from older, more experienced
criminals that they may associate with.