Kingdom Animalia

 
 Gen. Characteristics:
 Unicellular or multi cellular
 Segmented (can be cut to several pieces) or non-segmented (whole like
arm)
 Presence or absence of digestive system
 4 types of symmetry
 Asymmetrical - no definite shape
 Spherical - any plane though central axis will form equal plane
 Radial - cut from top to bottom through central axis form equal
 Biradial - only two plane are possible for two equal planes
 Presence or absence of appendage
 Types of skeleton - endoskeleton(inside) or exoskeleton(outside)
 Reproduction: asexual, sexual, alteration of generation
 Types of body cavity - acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, coelomate
 Presence or absence of notochord(spinal chord): invertebrate and vertebrae

 
 
Preview: Major Phyla of the Animal Kingdom
 Porifera - sponges
 Cnidaria - nettled
 Ctenophora - comb jellies
 Platyhelminthes - flatworm
 Ascheminthes - round worm
 Mollusca - soft-bodied
 Rotifera - wheel-bearing
 Brachiopoda - lamp shell
 Annelida - segmented worm
 Arthropoda - joint legs
 Crustacea - crabs, shrimps
 Echinodermata - spiny-skinned
 Hemichordata - half-string
 Chordata - chord
 
The Animal Kingdom
 Porifera - sponges
General characteristics:
 Mostly marine, all aquatic
 All adult sessile
 Symmetry radial or asymmetrical
 Multicellular - body covered with pores
  No definite tissues or organs
 Reproduction: sexual, asexual, alteration of generation
 Exoskeleton present
Classes:
o Calcarean (calcispongiae) rep. Gratia
 Simple body structure
 Spicule (skeleton) CaCO3
 Canal system - asconoid (simple)
o Hexactinellida (hyolospongiae) rep. Euplectilla
 Body structure is more complex
 Canal system - syconoid (branching)
o Demospongiae - rep. euspongia officianalis
 Body structure most complex
 Canal system - leuconoid (canals and chambers)
o Sclerospongiae (coralline sponges)
 Primitive type
 Massive calcareous skeleton
 Deep water sponges, cryptic habitat

 
 Cnidaria (nettled animal) jellyfish, sea anemone, coral
General Characteristics:
 Entirely aquatic marine/freshwater
 Symmetry - radial/biradial
 Digestive system incomplete (no anus)
  Nematocysts (cnidocil) stinging cell present
 All method of reproduction represented
 Some with sensory organs
 Multicellular
 Basic type of individual - polyp (sessile), medusa (swimming)
Classes:
o Hydrozoa - rep. Portuguese man of war
 Solitary/colonial, marine/freshwater, polyp (asexual); medusa (sexual)
o Scyphozoan - rep. common jellyfish
 Solitary, cupped-shaped medusae, gelatinous body, all marine,
umbrella margin with 8 notches
o Cubozoan - rep. box jellyfish
 Box-liked, umbrella with 4 notches, with tentacles
o Anthozoa - rep. corals
 All polyps, solitary/colonial, marine, mutual relationships with algae
(zooxanthellae)

 
 Ctenophoraa - comb jellies
General Characteristics:
 Mouth and anus present, no stinging cells, adhesive cell (colloblast) present,
rows of comb plate present, luminesence common, never colonial,
menoecious
Classes:
o Nuda - no tentacles
o Tentaculate - with tentacles
  
 Platyhelminthes - flatworms
General Characteristics:
o Symmetry bilateral, dorso-ventrally flat, incomplete digestive system,
simple sense organ present, eye spot in some, simple sense organ present,
eye spot in some; respiratory, skeletal absent, mostly monoecious(gonads:
ovary and testes are in the same animal), free living or parasitic, three germ
layers (exoderm, mesoderm, endoderm), about 10000 living specimens,
reproduction direct/indirect, 1mm to 12 mm long
Classes:
o Turbellaria - rep. planaria
 Usually free-living, flat soft-bodied, mostly hermaphrodites (male and
female reproductive organs are in the same animal), outer skin heavily
ciliated
o Termatoda - rep. blood fluke
 Cylindrical or leaf-liked, body with thick cuticle, all parasitic, sucker
present, mostly monoecious, development direct (primary, then host
final host)
o Cestoda - tapeworms (pork, dog, fish, other)
 All parasitic, usually with intermediate host, thick non-ciliated living
cuticle, hook, sucker present or both, body segmented, tape-like,
usually monoecious
o Monogenea - rep. gyrodactylus
 Large attachment organ (opisthaptop), may bear hook, sucker, clamp
or combination of all, common host fish direct life cycle
 

 
  
 
 Aschelminthes (nmematoda) "roundworm" - rep. intestinal worm,
hookworm, pinworm
General Characteristics:
 Symmetry bilateral, psuedocoelomate body, unsegmented body, generally
dioecious, microscopic to 5cm long
Classes:
o Phasmidia (rhabditea) - A. lumbricoides
 3 esophagengeal glands, some with phasmid (sensory organs), amphid
present (complex sensory organs)
o Aphasmidia (enoplea) - trichinella spiralis
 Well developed ampid, 5 or more esophageal glands, plasmid absent,
free living or parasitic
  

 
 
 Mollusca - soft bodied rep. shellfish, octopus, cuttlefish, squid
General Characteristic:
 All organ system present and well developed, symmetry bilateral, body
unsegmented, mantle present, shell present, highly developed eyes,
internal/external fertilizations, with radula for scraping food, rarely parasitic
or symbiotic, with free swimming larva called "veliger"
 Classes:
o Monoplacophora - rep. limpet
 Untorted body, bottom dweller, free-living, living species about 5
o Amphineura - chitor
 Generally elongated mollusk, 8 plates (shell), gill for breathing,
marine, generally free-living
o Scaphopoda - tooth shell
 About 200 living species, elongated body, with captacula (tentacles)
for feeding, burrower, at all depth, 2 to 15 cm long
o Gastropoda - snails
 Asymmetrical torte body, mantle sometimes used for breathing, free
living in fresh water, marine, land, 45,000 living species, 1-60 cm
long
o Pelecypoda - (bivalves) rep. oyster, scalop
 Two shell held by ligament, generally free living, gills and respiration,
marine or fresh water, crawling, burrowing, boring, attached, or free-
swimming form
o Cephalopoda - squid, octopus
 Foot modified to tentacles 800 living specimens, eyes well-developed,
shell external, internal or absent, free living in marine environment
 

 
  Annelida - segmented worms
 Segmented, coelomate body, marine, freshwater, terrestrial, generally
free-living, setae present, some are commensal/parasitic worm
Classes:
o Polychaeta - sandworm
 Mostly marine, distinct head, eyes, tentacles, parapodia/setae present,
clitellum present
o Oligochaeta - earthworm
 Segments number variable, with setae, head absent, hermaphroditic,
terrestrial/freshwater
o Hirudinea - leech
 With fixed number of segments, anterior and posterior suckers,
clitellium present, hermaphroditic

 
 Phylum Crustacea - aquatic mandibulate
General Characteristics
 Aquatic, gills are present
 Dorsal carapace present
 With hard chitinous skeleton
 Pair of legs, each pair with different function
 Capturing food
 Swimming
 Respiration
  Reproduction
 Walking
 2 pairs of antenna, monoecious or dioecious
 Representatives: crabs, copepods, fairy shrimps, shrimp
 

 
 Phylum Arthropoda - joint legs
 General Characteristics
 Bilateral symmetry
 Exoskeleton present (chitinous)
 Appendages present
 Body divided into three segments (head, thorax, abdomen) or two segments
(cephalothorax, abdomen)
 Sexes nearly always separated
 Representatives:
 Sea spider
 Spider
 Millipede
 Centipede
 Insect

 Echinodermata - starfish, sea urchin

 Pentaradiate, spine present, water vascular system, attached/errant, free-living,
6000 living species, benthic as adult, generally dioecious few hermaphrodites,
fertilization external
Classes:
o Crinoidea - sea lilies
  Aboral attachment stalk present, mouth and anus on oral surface, 5 branching arm
present, ambulacral grooves for food-getting, spines, madreporites, pedicellariae
absent

 
 
 Chordata
 Bilateral symmetry, vertebrates, endoskeleton present, all body systems present,
paired appendages, land, water, air, with median fin
Classes:
o Agnatha - jawless fish
 Long slender, cylindrical body, mouth ventrally located, 5 to 16 pairs of gill,
arches with persistent notochord, lack true jaws and scale - rep. hagfish

ECOLOGY - is study of living things in relation to the environment

 
ECOSYSTEM - interaction between the living things and non-living things
 Natural - made by nature ex. Forest, seas, mountains
 Artificial - manmade ex. Town, cities, farms
 
Components of ecosystem
 Biotic - producer, consumers, decomposers
 Abiotic - nonliving components
 climatic (light, humidity, air pressure, wind system), edaphic (soil), topographic
(contour of the land)
 Nutrient cycle - cyclic exchange between living and nonliving things
 Biogeochemical cycle - N2 cycle,
O2 and CO2 cycle, water cycle
  
 
 Food chain and food web - producers (make their own food), consumers (eat producers),
decomposers
o Food chain - one way
o Food web - multi ways
 Food pyramid - number, biomass, energy
 Population - same species living together, interacting, breeding
Characteristics: density (natality, morality, emigration (out), immigration (in)), age
distribution, calamities, population cycle, growth rate
 Community interaction
o Predation, competition, commensalism, parasitism, mutualism, herbivory,
mimicry
o Other - cleaning, beater, pollination, shelter, protection
 
 
 
 

 
The community - different populations living together
 
Kinds of Community
 Major - large self-sufficient community
 Minor - smaller depending on the other community
 
Classification of the Community
 Major structural feature - dominant species
  Physical habitat of community
 Functional attributes - types of community metabolism
 

 
 
Pattern Diversity in Community
 Stratification - vertical layering
 Zonation patterns - horizontal segregation
 Activity pattern - periodicity
 Food web - network organization in food chain
 Reproductive pattern - parent-offspring association, plant cloning
 Social pattern - flocks and herds, pecking order
 Coactive pattern - resulting from competition, antibiotics, mutualism, etc.
 Stochastic patterns - resulting from random forces-natural calamities
 Stochastic Patterns - resulting from random forces-natural calamities
Example of the community stratification
o Forest - canopy, understory trees, shrubs, herbs, forest, floor, soil
o Grassland - herbs, ground, surface, roots
o Aquatic - surface, epilimnion, thermocline, hypolimnion, benthos
 
Changes in Community
 Succession - series of different communities replacing each other
o Pioneer - first organisms that become established in an environment
o Climax - culmination of community succession in a region
o Transition - climax to secondary succession
 
 Community interaction
Interaction Effort on interacting species
Competition (-/-) Interaction can be detrimental to both
species
Predation (+/-) Interaction is beneficial to one species and
detrimental to the other
Herbivory (+/-)  
Parasitism (+/-)  
Diseases (+/-)  
Mutualism Interaction beneficial to both
Commensalism One species benefits and the other species
is not affected
 
 Secondary succession - begins on soil after natural vegetation has been destroyed
Example. Agricultural farm, fire, pollution
 
 
Ecologic Control and Regulation
 Energy - major controlling factor for ecosystem and communities
 Species interaction
o Herbivory, predation, parasitism, cannibalism - have the same general effects, a
positive influence on one population, and a negative one on the other
 Herbivory - the organism will release chemical to kill the other organism
  Commensalism - one organism is benefiting from the other and the other
is not affected
 Parasitism - only one organism is benefiting while the other is harmed
 Mutualism - give and take
o Batesian mimicry - mimicry of a non-palatable one with palatable one
o Amensalism - one-sided competition in one species has a negative effect on the
other, while the other have no effect on the first one
o Competition - affect both species negatively, density dependent
 Interspecific - interaction of individuals of different species
Example. Different caterpillar feeding on the same leaves
 Intraspecific - interaction among individuals of the same species
o Neutralism - co-existence of non-reacting species
o Symbiosis (mutualism, commensalism) - partner intimately associated with one another
o Other form of symbiosis - cleaning, beater, pollination, shelter/protection

 
 
Concepts of Productivity
 Total ass of organic food manufactured in an ecosystem in a given period
 
i. Primary productivity - rate at which radiant energy is stored by photosynthetic and
chemosynthetic activity of producers in form of organic substances which can be used for
food production
 Gross productivity - total rate of photosynthesis including respiration used by
plants
 Net productivity - rate of organic matter which was left after subtracting energy
consumption of plants
 Net community productivity - rate of storage of organic matter not used by
heterotrophs during the period under consideration, usually during growing
season
 ii. Secondary productivity - rates of energy storage at consumers level
iii. Factors affecting productivity - availability of nutrients, limitation of temperature level
(minimum, maximum, optimum), availability of moisture
 
Physical Factors of Importance as Limiting Factors
 Temperature - aquatic organisms generally have a narrower limit of tolerance than
terrestrial organism.
 Light (radiation) - ultimate source of energy, without a light life could be very difficult
 Water - biotic situation is not determine by rainfall alone but by balance between rainfall
and evaporation
 Temperature and moisture acting together - temperature exert more severe limiting
effect on organism when moisture conditions are extreme, too much or too little, when
such condition is moderate.
 Atmospheric - CO2 for plants and O2 for animal is critical
 Biogenic salt -
o Macronutrients - major organic compounds and elements needed in relatively
large amount - N, P, K, Ca, S, Mg
o Micronutrients - elements and compounds needed in extremely minute quantity -
Fe, Mn, Zn, B, Si, Mo, Cl, V, Co
o Currents and high pressure - strong current and stagnant water will have different
organisms, likewise high pressure and low pressure.
 Fire - when properly used can be of great values as ecological tools
 Soil - chernozem, desert, mountain, latosol (conifers), podzol (rain forest)
 
Ranking Productivity
 Very productive - exceed 3000 g/m2/yr. dry weight flood plain, marches, swamps,
estuaries, coral reefs
 Less productivity - 1000-3000 g/m2/yr. dry weight most temperate forest, lakes, streams,
agricultural crops
 Least productive - 50-200 g/m2/yr. dry weight tundra =, semi-desert, alpine region, open
ocean
 Zero productivity - rocks, extreme deserts, ice regions
 
EARTH'S HYDROSPHERE (see earth science - hydrosphere)
 Marine ecosystem - seas and oceans
o Sea - water surrounding the continents, shallow
o Ocean - open water, separates the continents from one another , deep
Features:
i. It is continuous circulation
ii. Salinity is due to different solids and gasses
6.5% - pure water 3.5% dissolved compounds
iii. Tidal changes -
o neap tide - ordinary tide, not too deep or shallow
o spring tide - too deep or too shallow
iv. It is deep, there are about 2000,000 species of plants and animals (3.75 km ave. deep,
11.5 km greatest depth)
v. Constituents of sea water - major (Cl, Na, SO4, Mg, Ca, K) minor (bicarbonate,
bromide, boric acid, Strontium)
vi. Features of marine environment :
 Intertidal zone - subject to daily tidal change
 Variation in temperature, salinity, wave action
 Chemical environment - generally high O2 content
 Geological feature - rocky, sandy, muddy
 Photosynthetic organisms - high diversity of attached algae
 Animals - structural adaptation, burying in sands
  
 
Main Division
 Pelagic - water
 Benthic - floor
 
Layer based on the Temperature and depth:
 Epipelagic - surface of the sea
 Mesopelagic
 Bathyal pelagic
 Abyssal pelagic - ocean floor
 Hadal pelagic (trench) - deepest part
 
 
Communities of Marine Ecosystem
 Producers - phytoplankton, diatom, dinoflagellates, micro flagellates are the dominant
organisms
o Algae - large multicellular attached "seaweeds" are locally important, mostly on
rocky//hard bottoms in the shallow water ex. Sargassum, fucus (red, green,
brown)
o Planktons - passively floating plant and animals of a body of water (zooplankton -
animal, phytoplankton - plant)
 Consumer of zooplankton
o Holoplankton - permanent planktons (copepods)
o Meroplankton - temporary planktons (larval stages of fish)
o Benthos consumers - bottom dwelling organisms
 Epifaunal - organisms living on the surface, either attached/moving freely
on the surface
 Infauna - organisms that dig into the substrate or construct tubes/burrows
o Nekton and neuston consumer
 Nekton - actively swimming organisms, essentially independent of waves
and current action
 Neuston - organisms resting/swimming on the surface
 Bacteria - major decomposers as they do in soils
  
 
INLAND WATER
Types:
 Lentic - standing water ex. Lakes
 Lotic - running water ex. River
 
Classifications
 Littoral - lighted zone
 Limnetic - open water
 Profundal - bottom
 
Lakes - glacial, volcanic, tectonic (origin)
Types:
 Oligotrophic - often deep nutrient poor, lower primary productivity
 Eutrophic - often shallow, nutrient-rich with high productive rate
Importance:
 Storage of extra water when it rains
 In low rainfall, water stored keep up the level of water
 Large lakes effect climate condition around the area
 
Rivers -
Kinds:
  Young river - usually found in the top of mountain and has narrow opening and current is
rapid
 Mature river - found in lowlands and more wider than young river
 Old river - found near the sea and wide
 
Factors affecting flow, volume, and temperature -
 Rainfall, snowmelt, geography, altitude, shade cast by plants
 
Importance
 Provide water for the irrigation/growing crops
 Avenues of commerce/transportation
 Provide hydro-electric power plant
 Serve as boundaries
 
 
Ground Water - reservoir beneath the ground, 4,120,000 km3 - estimated stored water
Determiner
 Rate of rainfall
 Permeability of the soil
 Temperature and humidity
 Nature of surface cover
 Porosity
Zonation
 Aeration - slightly moist soil
 Saturation - water is present
 Water table (temporary or permanent)
 
Feature of Groundwater
 Hot spring - heated water due to old magma chamber
 Geyser - steaming in/out from time to time by violent boiling
 Karst topography - developed by erosional action of ground water, usually underlain by
limestone
 Caves - stalactites (ceiling) and stalagmites (ground)
 
Making water suitable for drinking
Impurities present in untreated water include:
 Minerals - K, Mg, Ca, Fe, etc.
 Organic matters - microscopic organisms
 Dissolved gasses - O2, H2, N2, ammonia
 Suspended materials - particles of clay, sands, soils
Water treatments:
 Small-scale - boiling distillation, filtration, chlorination
 Large-scale - sedimentation, filtration, coagulation (pH adjustment), chlorination,
aeration

 
 
ZEOGEOGRAPHY - animal distribution (dispersal)
i. Why animals are found where they are?
a. There maybe barriers that prevent it from getting there
b. Having gotten there, it may unable to adapt to the new habitat or complete
successfully with resident species
 c. Having once arrived and adopted, it has been subsequently evolved into a distinct
species
ii. Dispersal - spreading animals from their place of origin into new localities due to
population pressure
 
 
 
Pathway of Dispersal
 Continental drift theory - concepts that the earth's surface is composed of an
interlocking mosaic of shifting rocks or plates

 Land bridges - temporary land bridges that no longer exist

o Corridor - land bridge that allows free movement of animal in both directions
o Filter route - one that allows only specially adapted animals to pass; it may be a
land bridge that has an unfavorable climate or is narrow or has many competitor
o Sweepstakes route - one that only very few species may pass, these usually by
chance
 Forms of Migration
o Emigration - one way outward movement
o Immigration - one way inward movement
o Migration - periodic departure and return
 
 
 
BIOSPHERE - any place on earth where living things are found
Major Biomes: Plants and Animal Communities
Biomes - major community characterized by a particular vegetation type and occupying large
geographical area
 Polar - perpetual cold of regions limits vegetation and land animals, yet the ocean teems
with life, longest days and nights, lowest temperature, very strong winds dominate life in
the frozen deserts of the polar regions,
 Coniferous forest - many animals, sleep through the long winter, those that remain active
on stored seeds or roots, needle-leaves conifers blanket between the tundra and the more
temperate areas of northern hemisphere, ever green forest has been relatively
undistributed wildlife.
 Temperate forest - leaf litter in the northern deciduous (shedding leaves) forest shelter
numerous animas, southern temperate forest are mostly evergreen, conifers predominate
in the coolest latitudes, deciduous in warmer region, broad leaved evergreen are near the
topics
 Grassland - vast grassland exist in both hemispheres, in African savannah, great herds if
herbivores are preyed on by carnivores
 Dessert - the scorching heat and low rainfall animal survive by conserving water and by
sheltering during peak sun hour
 Tropical - high, constant humidity, temperature and abundant well-distributed rainfall are
the raw materials which variety of plants and animals
 Mountains - 5% if the earth's surface are mountains, animals are adapted to harsh, thin
air, low humidity, and cold conditions, constant erosion by the wind and rains, over times
resulted to slumping, buckling, or arching as the plates collides with one another -
mountains are not solid and eternal as they seem
 Oceanic - to cross oceans and colonize them, most isolated habitat on earth, organism,
organism may developed unknown species anywhere else on earth
 Inland water - range from the Caspian sea, supporting many life forms, rain pools
containing small animals with brief lives, life forms supported by standing waters often
determines less by climate rather by such factors as the age and depth of lakes, pond,
swamps
 Oceans - largest biome, containing the greatest number and variety of animals, all
ultimately dependent on phytoplankton, this storehouse support greater variety of life
than in any of the habitats on land
 
 
Realms - Biogeographical Regions of Flora and Fauna
 Nearctic - include N. America, as far south as southern Mexico - animals: wolf, bear, elk,
mountain goat, beaver, bison, lynx, bald eagle, red-tailed hawk
 Palearctic - consist of Europe, N. Africa, Asia north of Himalaya mountains,
Afghanistan, Iran, N. Africa, animals include tiger, wild boar, came;, hedgehog
 Australia - Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and certain island , some of the most
primitive are found - duckbill, kangaroo, Tasmanian wolf, few placental mammals, most
birds are different from those other realms - cassowary, emu, brush turkey, sphenodon,
the most primitive lizards found in New Zealand
  Neotropical - includes south and central America, part of Mexico and west Indies,
animals includes llama, sloth, new world monkey, armadillo, anteater, rhea, vampire bat,
anaconda, toucan
 Ethiopian - Africa, south of the Sahara desert, Arabia, Madagascar animals: higher apes,
elephant, rhinoceros, lion, zebra, antelope, ostrich, lungfish
 Oriental - south of Himalaya, India, Sri Lanka, Malay Peninsula, southern China, Borneo,
Singapore, Thailand and the Philippines, animals: tiger, Indian elephant, certain apes,
pheasants, jungle fowls, king cobra
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
o Chondrichthyes - (cartilage fish) Shark, sting ray
 Fusiform body, ventral mouth with jaw, placoid skin, fin present, respiration by 5-
7 pairs of gills, two-chambered heart, dioecious

o Osteichtyes - (body fish)

  Skeleton more or less bony, skin with mucous gland, two-chambered heart,
respiration by gills, mouth terminal, jaw present, paired fins, dioecious
o Amphibia - (double life) rep. lizard, frog
 Endoskeleton bony, distinct head, three-chambered heart, respiration by lungs,
dioecious
o Reptalia - (creeper) rep. reptiles, turtles
 Horny exoskeleton, paired limbs, respiration lungs or gills, generally three-
chambered heart, dioecious
o Aves - (birds) rep. birds, fowls
 Body spindle-shaped, distinct head, neck, body, tail, forelimb for flying, feather
exoskeleton, leg scaled, four-chambered heart, teeth absent, ossified skeleton with
air cavity
o Mammalia - (breast) all mammals
 Hair covered body, milk producing mammary gland, movable eyelids, warm-
bloodied, four-chambered heart, rbc w/o nucleus, egg develop in uterus with
placental attachment.
 
 
 Note: all animals in the are invertebrates except for the chordata
 
Historical Background
 Aristotle - method use is more on convenience rather than specific
 He only observe the physical appearance of the species
 Linnaeus (1707-1778) - "father of taxonomy", developed the binomial method of naming
organisms, he first used scientific method
 De Jusseu (1707-1836) - major subdivision of the plant kingdom
 Cuvier (1769-1832) - major phyla of the animal kingdom
 Haeckel (1838-1919) - kingdom monera
 Copeland (1902-1968) - kingdom protoctista (protista)
 Whitaker (1924-1980) - kingdom fungi
 
Theory and Practice of Classifying Organism
i. Identification - keying out an unknown
ii. Nomenclature - correct naming of organism
iii. Classifying - categorizing organisms according to particular system
iv. Systematics - science of organism diversity
 
General Rules in Nomenclature
i. Scientific name are Latin, Greek, or other dead language
ii. Scientific names are binomial - genus and species or trinomial
iii. Different taxa are given names according to rules
iv. Generic name is usually noun and the specific name may possessive noun
v. Scientific name is followed by the name of the author who proposed the species name
Ex. Tiger cowry - cypraea tigris. Linne
vi. Initial letter of the genus is capitalized, species in small leter
vii. When written longhand, scienticif name is underlined
viii. No two species have the same scientific name although they may share a common name
 Ex. House cat - felis domestica
Lion - felis leo
 
All synapomorphies appear on the cladogram only once, unless the character state was derived
separately by evolution parallelism.
Example:

 
  Population - extent of environmental damage depends on numerous factors - such as:
size, growth rate, and geographical distribution
 Per capita consumption - the rapid increase in resources consumption strain the earth's
available land and water resources
 Politics and public policy - laws can affect how much habitat is destroyed, what to do and
what not to do
 Economics - it often fails to account for external cost: pollution habitat destruction, and
other environmental impacts that are not entered into the cost of producing goods
 Psychology, culture, religion - rather than thinking about the future, we tend to be
concerned with things that will make us comfortable at present time
 The attitude that we are superior and separated from other contribute to the
destruction to the destruction of life and the environment
 Technology - we think that as an instrument or tool to make better use of the world's
resources in meeting our needs at the expense of nature
 Biology - numerous biological features also plays a role in wildlife extinction: numbers
of offspring, and the sensitivity to the environmental pollutants are a few
 
 
Diversity and Endemism of terrestrial Vertebrates Fauna, Selected Invertebrate Groups and
Vascular Plants
 
  Total species Endemic %ranking World
species Ranking
Non-Fish Invertebrates        
Land mammals 180 111 62 5th
Birds 556 183 33 5th
Reptiles 252 159 63 8th
Amphibians 85? 66? 78?  
Invertebrates        
Butterflies (all species) 892 352 39 2nd
Swallow tail 49 21 43 2nd
Tiger beetles 94 74 79 5th
Vascular Plants 8,000-12,000 3,800-6,000 50? One of the
top10
megadiverse
country

 
 
 
 
Humans and the Environment
"Our current environmental crisis is due to Man's
i. Misuse of power, to one side use of his capacity to control the forces of nature, and
ii. Lack of understanding of himself, and lack of wisdom in using his power"
 
I. Our faults:
a. Our power has exceed our wisdom
b. Our power to destroy the environment has surpassed our power to correct the
damage, to conserve, and to create
c. Our effort to prevent have lagged behind our effort to cure
d. Our cure have been too little and too late, more perfect knowledge to deflect us
from acting now, with what knowledge we have
II. What should be done?
a. Learn to restore balance
a. Between our power and our wisdom in using the power,
b. Between our power to create and our power to destroy, to disrupt,
c. Between our effort to prevent injury and our effort to heal the damage
environment
d. Between our efforts to understand environmental problems, and our
actions to prevent and correct these problems.
Nature's sustainable system
a. Recycling - the global system is consummate recycler
b. Renewable resources - resources that renew themselves through natural - resources that
renew themselves through natural biological or physical and chemical processes
c. Conservative - in nature, organisms use only what they need, no more no less
d. Population control - predators trim the prey population, diseases eliminate the weak and
the aged
How population, resources, and pollution interact
a. In part, it determines the resources demand, how resources are acquired, and how much is
used
b. Growth rate affects resources allocation and use
c. Rapid growth may result in less concern for the consequences of resources allocation
2. Effects of population on pollution
a. May result from using resources as depository for human and industrial waste
b. May result to environmental degradation
c. Amount of resources and manner in which these resources area acquired and
used, determine the amount of pollution
3. Effects of resources on pollution
a. Positive effects
 Discovery use new resources can increase the population size, growth rate,
and distribution as well as social, economic, technological development
b. Negative effects
 Depletion of resources can limit population growth, size and distribution
as well as social, economic, and technological development
 Misuse of resources can theoretically reduce population size or eliminate
population
4. Effect of resources on pollution
a. The more resources are allocated and used, the more pollution, although methods
of use and allocation greatly affect pollution
b. Resources depletion can reduce pollution
5. Effect of pollution on populations
a. Can limit population size, growth rate and distribution as well as social, economic
and technological development
b. Can increase mortality and morbidity, thus having social and economic impact
c. Can change attitudes, which sere to change laws and the way resources are
allocated and used
6. Effects of pollution on resources
a. Pollution of one medium can contribute to the destruction of another
 b. New laws designed to reduce pollution could shift resources demand supply
acquisition and use
 
 
 
 
The Ozone Problem
Types of ozone
 Stratosphere - form naturally in the upper atmosphere and protect us from the sun's UV
rays
 Ground level ozone - created through interaction of manmade or natural emission of
Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) and nitrogen oxides (NO2) in the presence of heat
and sunlight
Sources: vehicles, paints, insecticides, cleaner, industrial solvents