Influence of Learner Beliefs and Gender On The Motivating Power of L2 Selves

Influence of Learner Beliefs and Gender on the Motivating Power of L2 Selves
Author(s): TOMOKO YASHIMA, RIEKO NISHIDA and ATSUSHI MIZUMOTO

Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 101, No. 4 (Winter 2017), pp. 691-711
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Influence of Learner Beliefs and
Gender on the Motivating Power
of L2 Selves
TOMOKO YASHIMA,1 RIEKO NISHIDA,2 and ATSUSHI MIZUMOTO1
dansai University, Faculty of Foreign Language Studies, 3-3-35 Yamate-cho, Suita-shi, Osaka 564-8680, Japan
Email: yashima@kansai-u.ac.jp, mizumoto@kansai-u.ac.jp
2 Osaka University, Faculty of Language and Culture, 1-8 Machikaneyama-cyo, Toyonaka-shi, Osaka 560-0043,
Japan Email: rienishi@lang.osaka-u.ac.jp
This study investigates 3 unexplored issues regarding Second Language (L2) Motivational Self Sys-
tem theory. It further validates the theory using multiple structural equation modeling (SEM) along
with a procedure comparing the strength of corresponding paths. Japanese university freshmen
(N = 2,631) responded to a questionnaire and took the TOEFL-ITP test. Results showed the follow-
ing: (a) Stronger Ideal and Ought-to L2 self visions led to intended effort, accounting in turn for
higher levels of objectively measured proficiency, (b) Two types of learner beliefs reflecting L2 learn-
ing experience - Communication Orientation (the tendency to value extensive use of language) and
Grammar-Translation Orientation (the tendency to value learning grammar explicitly) - influenced
the 2 future selves differently. The former affected Ideal self more than Ought-to self, while the re-
verse was true of the latter, (c) Women's greater tendency to value communication activities influenced
their stronger vision of Ideal L2 self. A stronger link between Grammar-Translation Orientation and
Ought-to self in male students than in female students was found. Finally, the etic approach using SEM
allowed for a comparison of studies conducted in different sociocuftural contexts, showing stronger mo-
tivating power for Ought-to self in Japan along with gender differences, a finding with context-specific
explanations.
Keywords: Ideal and Ought-to L2 selves; learner beliefs; implicit and explicit learning; gender differences;
multiple-group structural equation modeling; motivation
ONE OF THE MOST WIDELY USED THEO- different contexts. However, a number of related
retical frameworks for motivation research intro- issues remain unexplored.
duced in recent years is the Second Language Many studies found that the three components
(L2) Motivational Self System postulated byof the model, Ideal and Ought-to L2 self-concepts
Dörnyei (2005, 2009), which claims that when
and positive L2 learning experience, were able to
learners have a clear vision of future selves, that
account for important aspects of motivation. How-
is, Ideal L2 selves and Ought-to L2 selves com-
ever, three issues await clarification. First, strength
of motivation has usually been operationalized
bined with positive L2 learning experiences, their
motivation is enhanced to a substantial degree. as the self-reported intention to make an effort;
The L2 Motivational Self System has been appliedbut it is not clear whether intended effort in fact
accounts for objective L2 motivated behavior or

in a number of studies conducted in various parts
of the world. These studies generally support the
proficiency. A second issue concerns the relations
usefulness of the model and its applicability between
in the three components. As You, Dörnyei,
and Csizér (2016) note, the L2 Motivational Self
System originally hypothesized no directional
The Modern Language Journal, 101, 4, (2017) links between the three components, and past
DOI: 10.1 111/modl. 12430 research is not uniform regarding the direction
0026-7902/ 1 7/691-71 1 $1 .50/0 of the influences between the learning experi-
©2017 The Modern Language Journal ence on the one hand and Ideal or Ought-to
692 The Modern Language Journal 101 (201 7)
L2 selves on the other. Some issues just mentioned.
studies We then look at past r
hypothesize
that learning experience, often search on referred
learner beliefsto aslearning situation
about
atdtude toward the L2 learning and conclude situation
by reviewing andstudies of gender di
operadonalized as enjoyment derived
ferences from
in L2 learning lan-
motivation.
guage learning, affects the formation of future
selves (e.g., Csizér 8c Kormos, 2009; Kormos 8c
L2 Motivational Self System
Csizér, 2008), while other researchers assume the
reverse, namely that clear future The theoretical frameworkinflu-
visions of the L2 Moti-
ence motivation in daily learning vational Self System
(e.g., was developed by Dörnyei
Taguchi,
Magid, 8c Papi, 2009; You et also
(2005; al., see2016).
Csizér 8c Fur-
Dörnyei, 2005; Dörnyei
ther, although past research has 2002)
8c Csizér, explored many
by drawing on self theories from
antecedents of Ideal and mainstream Ought-to self, (Higgins,
psychology none 1987; Markus
examined instructional styles or methods.
8c Nurius, In thisvarious L2 mo-
1986) and integrating
study, we focus on whether tivation
thetheories and frameworks
extended from second
process
of learners' day-to-day learning language acquisition (SLA),
experiences namely, Gardner's
helps
(or hinders) the evolving(1985) Social Educational Model,
development of Noels's
L2(2003)
selves. To do so, we introduce the construct of framework using Self-Determination Theory by
'learner beliefs,' defined as the learners' value Deci and Ryan (2000), and Ushioda's (2001)
judgments regarding learning situations that they framework using a temporal dimension. The L2
develop throughout many years of learning, a Motivational Self System hypothesizes that L2
dimension that is more enduring than attitudes learning motivation is enhanced when L2 learn-
in the immediate learning experience. A third ers are guided by future self-images as L2 users
issue relates to gender differences in motivation. (i.e., Possible Self Theory; Markus 8c Nurius,
Although past studies have rather consistently 1986) and try to reduce the discrepancy be-
found such differences, researchers have only re- tween their future and actual L2 selves (i.e., Self-
cently started to address their possible causes. For Discrepancy Theory; Higgins, 1987). In other
example, Henry and Cliffordson (2013) found words, the theory posits that if the learners' vision
that gender differences in terms of Ideal L2 self of themselves using the L2 is important to them,
were accounted for by women's stronger ten- this self-image will serve as a powerful motivator.
dency to value human relations, while You et al. Two dimensions of possible L2 selves are distin-
(2016) suggested that women's higher visionary guished in the L2 Motivational Self System: Ideal
capacity may be behind their clearer Ideal selves. L2 self, and Ought-to L2 self (Dörnyei, 2009). For
To date no studies have explored the possibility example, in Japan, the Ideal L2 self might repre-
of gender differences being created through sent the image of the English-using self one would
instructed L2 learning experiences themselves. like to become in the future, while Ought-to L2
A notable trend in recent motivation research
self represents the self-images learners recognize
has been to study motivation as a set of complex
they must achieve owing to a sense of obligation to
and dynamically changing phenomena emergent normative pressure from sources such as parents,
in context (Dörnyei, Maclntyre, 8c Henry, 2015),
teachers, or society. As the third component, the
typically using qualitative methods to spotlight a
L2 Motivational Self System includes the learners'
small number of cases. By contrast, this studyattitude
uses toward the immediate learning context
a quantitative method with a large sample as and
a vital component sustaining motivation. While
visions of Ideal self and Ought-to self direct the
applies multiple-group structural equation mod-
eling along with a procedure designed to com- learners as future self guides, favorable learning
experience encourages them to exert daily effort
pare the relative strength of corresponding paths
between groups. The goal is to illuminate whatto learn the language.
is generalizable across contexts and what is spe-Since this theory was introduced, a number of
related empirical studies have been conducted.
cific to particular contexts: The etic (as opposed
to ernie) perspective adopted here allows for Somea have investigated the links among the three
components of the L2 Self System and variables
comparison between studies conducted in differ-
ent contexts. measuring the strength of motivation or the
amount of intended effort (often referred to as
LITERATURE REVIEW a "criterion measure" following Dörnyei, 2009, p.
31); others have explored the antecedents that
We begin by reviewing studies applyinginfluence
the L2 the formation of visions, and yet oth-
Motivational Self System in relation to the ers three
have examined the relations among the three
Tomoko Yashima, Rieko Nishida, and Atsushi Mizumoto 693
in Saudi
components. Many of these studies use Arabia and Arabic-speaking students in
the statis-
the Unitedmodeling
tical procedure of structural equation Kingdom, Al-Shehri (2009) reported a
high correlation
(SEM) to investigate these dimensions of .78 between Ideal L2 self and
in a single
motivated
model (e.g., Apple, Falout, & Hill, behavior.
2013; Csizér
8c Kormos, 2009; Kormos, Kiddle, These
8c Csizér, 2011; indicate that Ideal self
studies generally
Munezane, 2013; Taguchi et al.,encourages
2009; You etto al.,
learners make more effort to learn
2016). the L2 in all contexts studied. Ought-to self had
the same
Regarding the relative importance of effect, though to a lesser degree, in Asian
the three
components of the L2 Motivational contexts, but did
Self not lead to intended effort in
System,
somewhat different results are Hungary
reported depend-
or Chile. Kormos et al. (201 1 ) attributed
ing on the context. In their studythis toofa specific socio-educational factor, refer-
Hungarian
secondary school and university ring to China and
students Japan as exam-oriented con-
learn-
ing English, Csizér and Kormos texts where reported
(2009) considerable pressure is placed on
students.
that the Ideal self led to motivated learningWhenever studied, attitudes to learning
behav-
context operationalized
ior for both groups (with path coefficients of .37 as enjoyment in learning
and .49), while the Ought-to self also
had the predicted
strongest motivational effect. Crucially, in
motivated learning behavior, butnoneonlyof these
in the studies
uni- was an objective measure
versity student group and to a of much weaker
L2 proficiency de-
considered, inviting critiques of
gree (.13). However, L2 learning experience
motivation research had
in general.
the strongest influence on motivatedA number of studies
learning have investigated various
be-
havior, the criterion value, for factors
both that influence
groups the Ideal L2 self, Ought-
(.58,
.49). In the same context, usingtoregression
L2 self, and L2 learning experience. Csizér
anal-
yses, Kormos and Csizér (2008)and Kormos
found (2009)lan-
that reported that in both sec-
guage learning attitudes and IdealondaryL2 school
self andwere
university student groups in
Hungary, international
the two strongest predictors of motivated learning posture (Yashima, 2002)
behavior, while Ought-to L2 selfhad wasthenotstrongest
a predic-influence on Ideal L2 self,
tor. Using multiple SEM analyses comparing
while sec-
parental encouragement was a powerful an-
ondary school students, universitytecedent of Ought-toand
students, L2 self. The same tendency
adult learners of English in Chile, Kormos
was found with theet al. age groups in Chile (Ko-
three
(2011) also found that Ideal L2 self
rmos and
et al., L2 learn-
2011). In their comparison of three
contexts, Taguchi
ing attitudes both influenced motivated et al. (2009) found that atti-
learning
tudes to L2
behavior significantly but Ought-to L2 culture
self did and community and a vari-
not. able labeled instrumentality promotion , or the reg-
Comparing three non-Western contexts (Japan,ulation of the goal to be successful, influenced
China, and Iran), Taguchi et al. (2009) foundIdeal
thatL2 self, while family influence as well as a
Ideal self significantly predicted motivation variable
in all labeled instrumentality prevention , or the
three groups (with path coefficients between regulation
.27 of duties and obligations, were pre-
and .44) . The links between Ought-to self anddictors
mo- of Ought-to self. In her SEM modeling
tivation were weaker but significant for all groups
with Japanese learners of English as a foreign lan-
guage (EFL), Munezane (2013) also confirmed
(between .12 and .20). Aubrey and Nowlan (2013)
theby
focused on Ought-to self rather than Ideal self link between international posture and Ideal
comparing two different contexts within Japan.L2 self. Notably, recent studies have considered
They found that in an environment where learn-additional antecedents, including visionary capac-
ers have opportunities to meet international itystu-
(You et al., 2016) as well as interdependent self-
dents in person, Ought-to self was significantly
construal (a construct postulated by Markus & Ki-
related to motivated learning behavior (.21)tayama,
but 1991, and used in Henry 8c Cliffordson,
not when students had little experience of inter-
2013) in relation to gender differences.
cultural contact. In both contexts, the influenceRegarding learning experience understood as
of the L2 learning experience on motivation was
attitudes to the immediate impact of the teacher,
greater (.36, and .42) . In a recent large-scale the
studycurriculum, and the peer group, You et al.
conducted in China focusing on the role of vi- point out that, although there is variation
(2016)
sionary capacity, You et al. (2016) reported among
that labels, they are operationalized similarly
as the
in their SEM model, attitude to L2 learning was by extent to which students enjoy learning
far the stronger predictor of intended effortthe language (e.g., Csizér 8c Kormos, 2009). Al-
(.68)
compared to Ideal L2 self (.14) or Ought-to L2
though relations between future guides and learn-
ing experience have been investigated in SEM
self (.12). In a study of students learning English
studies, the direction of influence isempirical
2012), little not uniform.
research has investigated
In this study, for learning possible links between
experience, we beliefs
aimandtomotivation in
capture beliefs learners develop
languagethroughout
learning. One such their
attempt was Lou and
learning history of differentNoels 's SEM study and
curricula (2017),teach-
which confirmed that
incremental
ers who differ in how they teach. language
Beliefs beliefbeen
have (the belief that lan-
shown to have an impact on guagehow learners
intelligence ap-
can be improved) predicted
proach learning (Dweck, 1999; Dörnyei
stronger 8cwhich,
learning goals, Ryan, in turn, predicted
2015). We therefore hypothesize intention tothat these
continue learningbe-
as well as reaction
liefs or value judgments regarding to failure. different
They also demonstrated
learn- that an inter-
ing situations influence the formadon
vention can change of future
learner beliefs and resulting
selves, a kind of classroom-based formadon of motivation. Peng and Woodrow's (2010) study ex-
Ideal and Ought-to selves. plored learner beliefs about English learning and
classroom communication using scales adapted
Learner Beliefs
from Sakui 8c Gaies (1999). Using SEM, they
found a significant path from learner beliefs to
Learner beliefs have attracted steady attention motivation as well as to communication confi-
among applied linguists because they are thought dence that in turn led to L2 willingness to com-
to have considerable influence on learning behav- municate (WTC). Peng (2012) also qualitatively
iors (Dörnyei 8c Ryan, 2015). Early studies of be- explored learner beliefs and motivation as ob-
liefs (e.g., Horwitz, 1988; Mori, 1999) fall under served in four Chinese learners of English. Com-
two broad categories: (a) beliefs about the nature paring two high-WTC and two low-WTC students
of language learning, including the role of lan- while acknowledging emergent contextual influ-
guage aptitude or natural talent, and (b) beliefs ences, she reported that the high-WTC learners
about the effectiveness of certain language learn- believed that communicative activities conducted
ing approaches or strategies. Recently, some stud- in class were necessary while low-WTC learners
ies have followed up on the nature of language believed that they were not useful. These be-
learning employing as a theoretical basis the psy- liefs were clearly reflected in their motivation to
chological construct of implicit theories (Dweck, communicate in the classroom, with the former
1999, 2006), or mindsets regarding the nature of willing to participate in communicative activities
intelligence as fixed or changeable (e.g., Lou 8c while the latter expressed reluctance to commu-
Noels, 2016, 2017; Mercer & Ryan, 2010; Noels nicate and indicated strong examination-oriented
8c Lou, 2015; Ryan 8c Mercer, 2011). These stud- attitudes. Finally, in a study of collaborative learn-
ies have probed how learners' implicit theories or ing using SEM, Fushino (2010) showed that be-
mindsets about language learning (e.g., need for liefs about L2 group work significantly - though
natural talent, need for exposure to the context indirectly - influenced WTC.
where the target language is spoken) affect lan- The beliefs we investigate in this study are
guage learning motivation and behaviors. Mean- those related to teaching approaches and learn-
while, beliefs that relate to teaching approaches ing styles, developed through the years of
and learning strategies have been the target of language learning experience. The following
scrutiny for other researchers (Peng, 2011; Sakui studies featuring specific beliefs about language
8c Gaies, 1999). In addition, much more nar- learning therefore have relevance to our inves-
rowly focused beliefs about specific teaching and tigation. Horwitz's study (1988) includes five ar-
learning formats have also been investigated, ad- eas reflected in the instrument called the Beliefs
dressing areas like corrective peer feedback (Sato, about Language Learning Inventory (BALLI).
2013) and group work (Fushino, 2010) and their One of these focuses on beneficial learning and
impact on learning. Recently, beliefs have been communication strategies, with items such as
studied as situated, dynamic, and emergent, using "The most important part of learning English is
qualitative approaches that focus on, for example, learning to translate from my native language,"
emotional dimensions that can make beliefs tena-and "If beginning students are permitted to make
errors in English, it will be difficult for them to
cious as well as on contextually and socioculturally
constructed aspects of beliefs (for a detailed speak
dis- correctly later on." In her study exploring
cussion, see Barcelos 8c Kalaja, 2011; Dörnyei 8c linkage between epistemological beliefs and
the
Ryan, 2015). language learning beliefs among Japanese as a for-
eign language learners, Mori (1999) proposed a
Although numerous psychological studies have
shown that beliefs (or mindsets) have an impact
construct of language learning beliefs that relates
on motivation (for a review, see Ryan 8c Mercer,
to the effectiveness of approaches to or strategies
for Japanese language learning, motivation (Abu-Rabia,

including risk-1997; Csizér & Dörnyei,
taking, analytic approach, and reliance 2005; DörnyeionSc trans-
Csizér, 2002; Gardner, 1985;
lation. Kobayashi, 2002; Samimy Sc Tabuse, 1992; Ryan,
In order to assess Japanese EFL learner beliefs, 2009; Sung Se Padilla, 1998; You et al., 2016).
Sakui and Gaies (1999) developed and validated Henry (2011) conducted a review of 21 motiva-
a 45-item questionnaire using a test-retest com- tion studies and reported that 17 found gender
parison as well as interviews. An exploratory fac- differences in favor of women while 4 did not.
tor analysis yielded four factors, three of which He concluded that very few studies failed to find
are related to teaching and learning approaches: differences in at least some domains and that
(a) beliefs about a contemporary (communica- women had stronger integrative motivation or
tive) orientation toward learning English, (b) be- related tendency, indicating that this differenc
liefs about a traditional orientation toward learn- is found in the way women identify with the tar
ing English, and (c) beliefs about the quality get and language and culture. Drawing on studies b
sufficiency of classroom instruction for learning psychologists, including Josephs, Markus, and Ta
English. Items loading on Factor 1 included those farodi (1992), of socially constructed difference
relating to the value of interaction in English in andself-concept, Henry argued that these differ
instrumental and communicative values, includ- ences should relate to gender differences in L
ing two highly endorsed items, namely "English self-concepts.
conversation class should be enjoyable," and "In Within applied linguistics, gender difference
learning English, it is important to repeat and have been more frequently discussed from a post
practice a lot." Factor 2 included items that specify structuralist critical perspective (Norton, 2000
the need for translation and grammar rules pre- Pavlenko, 2001; Pavlenko Sc Piller, 2008). These
sented and explained in Japanese. The authors studies regard gender not as a variable but as
concluded that Japanese learners have "internal- system of social relations. They reveal how gen
ized a coherent set of beliefs about methodologi- der identities are discursively constructed in th
cal options for the English classroom" (p. 488). inequity of social power and highlight languag
In their attempt to elicit learner belief through learning as part of these processes.
metaphors and drawing, Suzuki and Childs Studies applying the motivational L2 system
(2016) asked Japanese university students to draw also report gender-based differences. In Ryan
pictures of themselves learning English. They (2009), Japanese women exhibited a higher
found that 70% of the 126 participants did not sense of Ideal L2 self as well as of integrativene
draw anyone other than themselves and that 55% and intended learning effort than did men. Fo
drew books along with themselves, indicating that cusing on changes in the possible selves held by
for the majority of the students, visions of them- Swedish schoolchildren, Henry (2009) revealed
selves learning English did not include interper- that girls' L2 self-concepts, the Ideal L2 self in par
sonal interactions. ticular, strengthened over 3 years of language ed
Due to the similarity between Asian EFL con- ucation while boys' self-concepts weakened. Th
texts, where learners go through both tradi- tendency was found in both English and other for
tional and communicative teaching, the present eign languages. Searching for causes, You et al
study draws on Sakui & Gaies (1999) and Peng (2016) found gender differences in the use of v
(2013). These studies suggest that in Japanese sualization in secondary school students and uni
and Chinese EFL contexts, both communica- versity non-English majors, showing that wome
tive and traditional teaching are widely practiced had stronger "visualization capacity" operationa
and help learners form beliefs. Accordingly, the ized by "vividness of imagery" and "ease of us
study focuses on beliefs about communicative anding imagery" (p. 103). In addition, there were
grammar-translation approaches in EFL and in- more female than male high-visualizers, and fe
vestigates links between these, future selves, and males were more likely to expand on their vi-
motivation. sualization experiences than males. Females als
scored significantly higher on Ideal L2 selves, a
Gender and Motivation though the researchers reported no gender differ
ences in the way visualization capacity influenc
Until recently, gender has not been the the components of the L2 Motivational Self Sys
target of systematic investigation in research tem. Earlier on, Henry and Cliffordson (2013)
on motivation (Dörnyei & Csizér, 2002). Yet, had reported that women's stronger sense of th
studies show that women consistently record Ideal L3 self (Spanish/French/German as a thir
higher scores than men on some indicators of language [L3] with English as the L2) is explaine
by gender differences in tion in other contexts, such as cram

interdependent school and
self-
study abroad.
construal (Markus 8c Kitayama, 1991 As ) a. consequence,
For Markus college-level
and Kitayama, self-construalEFL
isclasses
how receive
thefreshmen
self iswith a range of
con-
language and
structed in relation to others, learningthey
experiences, with some stu-
propose
dents having been extensively
two contrasting types of self-construal: exposed to CLT
indepen-
while others
dent and interdependent. These have mainly
have been taken classes following
widely
traditional to
used in cross-cultural psychology grammar-translation.
explore attitu- Reflecting such
dinal or behavioral differences between different varied learning experiences, students develop
cultural groups and social classes. Interdependent beliefs about how language should be taught
self-construal refers to the cognitive, affective, and learned. Some students welcome CLT (e.g.,
behavioral tendency to value the "formation readingand for enjoyment, meaning-focused tasks,
maintenance of social relationships" (Henry discussions)
& while others find value in more
Cliffordson, 2013, p. 213). Henry and Clifford-traditional methods (e.g., discrete grammar
son found gender differences in the Ideal L3 explanation,
self memorizing words, translation), as
observed in Peng (2012). These reactions reflect
through i-tests, while no gender differences were
noted in the Ideal L2 (English) self. They fur-their beliefs about how language should be
ther demonstrated through confirmatory factor taught and learned. This study investigates how
these beliefs influence the formation of Ideal and
analyses that gender differences in self-construal,
with women showing stronger interdependent Ought-to L2 selves, which are assumed to lead to
self-construal, account for women's higher sense
intended effort and eventually to proficiency.
of Ideal L3 self relative to men. Henry and Clif-
fordson attribute this result to the tendency for
women to place "greater emphasis on relation- RESEARCH QUESTIONS
ships and self-other interaction" (p. 272). Their
We pose the following three research questions:
argument is that women can envision situations
RQ1. Do stronger visions of Ideal L2 self and
where they might interact with L3-using partners
and get involved in future communicative situa- Ought-to L2 self account for greater effort
tions so that their L3 Ideal selves tend to be more by learners, which, in turn, predicts higher
elaborate and vivid. As a result, these Ideal selves proficiency?
RQ2. Do two types of learner beliefs, namely
have stronger motivational power. The present a Communication Orientation and a
study responds to Henry and Cliffordson 's sug- Grammar-Translation Orientation, affec
gestion that future studies should examine gen- visions of Ideal L2 self and Ought-to
der differences arising from activities taking place self, and if so, how?
RQ3. Are gender differences observed in
in the language classroom. Specifically, it investi-
gates whether or not gender differences in these processes described in RQs 1 and 2?
beliefs influence the strength of Japanese learn- We aim to answer these questions with two
ers' Ideal and Ought-to English selves. analyses. Based on past research on links be
beliefs and motivation (including those usin
RESEARCH CONTEXT: INSTRUCTED EFL IN plicit theories), combined with the L2 Mo
tional Self System, we hypothesized the m
JAPAN
shown in Figure 1 for the first SEM analysis
Japanese schools show a mixture of swer RQs 1 and 2, and used the same mode
communication-focused approaches, which are multiple-group SEM to answer RQ3 about g
recommended and encouraged by the Ministry differences.
of Education, alongside a persistent preference

for traditional approaches (e.g., skills-focused
METHOD
drills, grammar-translation; for examples of
other Asian EFL contexts, see Lamb 8c Budiyanto,
Participants
2013; Peng, 2011). Researchers attribute this
situation to various sociocultural and contextual The participants were 2,631 freshmen (femal
factors (e.g., university entrance examinations, 798, males: 1,883) 1 majoring in 11 different
class size) as well as teachers' beliefs regarding ulties (medicine, science, engineering, nursi
communicative language teaching (CLT; for de-
dentistry, pharmacy, literature, law, foreign l
tailed discussions, see Hino, 1988; also Gorsuch, guage studies, human science, and economic
1998, 2000; Nishino, 2008, 2012). In addition at a university in West Japan. In October 20
to regular classes, many learners receive instruc- 3,347 freshmen took the TOEFUTP as par
FIGURE 1
Hypothesized Inter-Correlations Between Variables to be Tested
Communication
Orientation toward
learning English '
v x ' Intended TOEFL
effort score
Grammar-Translation s*
Ought-to L2
Orientation toward
self
learning English
curricular requirements, and a questionnaire in translation approaches refer to explicit grammar

Japanese was distributed to them at the same time. instruction, with skills-focused drills and inter-
Of those freshmen, 2,631 took the TOEFL-ITP preting the text through translation. The eight-
and also responded to the questionnaire. item scale was piloted with 2,869 students from
the same university (Nishida 8c Yashima, 2012).
Procedure The result of the factor analysis confirmed a two-
factor solution, which was labeled Communication
In a test-taking session set for all freshmen, Orientation toward learning English and Grammar-
students first responded to the questionnaire Translation Orientation toward learning English. A
(30 min.) and then took the TOEFL-ITP test high Cronbach's alpha was reported for each
(2 hours), both in paper format. The studentsfactor (.75 and .79, respectively) . A separate study
were informed that their TOEFL-ITP scores or investigated the construct validity of these items
questionnaire responses would not affect(unpublished
their data in Yashima 8c Nishida, 2016). 2
school record in any way. To apply SEM, the A similar
ex- result was obtained when the factor
pectation maximization (EM) algorithm was ap- was replicated with the population of the
analysis
present study (see Table 1). Communication Ori-
plied to fill out the missing data in the question-
naire. entation toward learning English and Grammar-
Translation Orientation were used as two sepa-
rate scales (4 items each, Cronbach's a = .79 and
Mateńals ( Questionnaire )
a = .75, respectively).
To address learner beliefs and preferences Other instruments used in the study include
about effective L2 learning, we adapted some the following scales (with Cronbach's alphas
items from Sakui 8c Gaies (1999) concerning reported in parentheses): (a) Ideal L2 self
beliefs about how English should be learned (5 items, a = .89) adapted from Ryan (2009)
in Japan while also consulting other research and Ought-to L2 self (5 items, a = .86) adapted
(Horwitz, 1988; Peng, 2013). By adding items from Taguchi et al. (2009), in which students in-
based on our understanding of the study context, dicated the extent to which they affirm their fu-
we constructed a scale consisting of eight items, ture Ideal self (e.g., "I often imagine myself as
including beliefs in communicative approaches someone working using English in the future; I
and grammar-translation approaches. Commu- often imagine myself speaking English with inter-
nication approaches refer to an emphasis on national friends") and Ought-to selves using En-
implicit learning through using the language and glish (e.g., "I study English because I do not want
enjoying it (e.g., extensive reading) with the goal to disappoint my parents; I study English because
of communicating with others, while grammar- people I respect think I should study it"), and b)
TABLE 1
Results of Factor Analysis of Learner Beliefs About Effective L2 Learning Methods
Pattern Matrix
Factor 1 Factor 2
Grammar-
Communication Translation
Items Commonality Orientation Orientation
1. 1 believe that the best way to learn 0.65 0.80 -0.05

English is to enjoy learning it.
(Comi)
2. 1 believe that the best way to learn 0.82 0.90 -0.07
English is to use it as much as
possible. (Com 2)
3. 1 study English because I want to be 0.34 0.57 0.10
able to communicate with people in
English. (Com3)
4. In order to acquire reading abilities 0.31 0.55 0.11
in English, we need to read a lot.
(Com4)
5. Mastering English means acquiring 0.44 -0.05 0.66
English grammar. (Gram 1)
6. In order to understand English, I 0.59 -0.14 0.76
need to translate sentences from
English to Japanese. (Gram 2)

7. 1 should be able to use English well 0.42 0.1 1 0.64
if I memorize a certain number of
words and learn grammar. (Gram 3)

8. When I translate from English to 0.38 0.20 0.58
Japanese, I understand the meaning
better. (Gram 4)
Interfactor Correlation Matrix Factor 1 Factor 2
Cumulative Contribution Ratio
Cronbach's or 0.79 0.75
Note. Commonality is the

Communication and Gramm
Intended were identified, with a cumulative effort

learning contribution
rion of 61.11%. Table
measure of 1 showsmotivat
the two factors along
Ryan (2009). with the items Allloading on eachitems
factor as well as
C. Students rated
the Cronbach's each
alphas for each one. Judging from i
from 1 (Strongly
the high alphas, internal consistencyDisagr
for each sub-
scale was satisfactory. Factor 1, labeled Commu-
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS nication Orientation toward learning English, in-
cludes items revealing the belief that using the
L2 extensively and enjoying learning is an effec-
First, we report the results of a factor analysis
of eight items under Beliefs about effective L2 tive way of learning. Factor 2, labeled Grammar-
learn-
ing methods. An exploratory factor analysis Translation
(prin- Orientation toward learning English,
cipal component factor analysis) was conducted includes items showing a belief in learning gram-
using SPSS version 24 with promax rotation on
mar, memorizing words, and relying on transla-
the eight items. After examining a scree tion. Since the factorial structure was now con-
plot,
eigenvalues greater than 1.0 and cumulative con- these items were used in the investigation
firmed,
tribution ratios were used as the threshold for that follows using structural equation modeling
determining the number of factors. Two factors (SEM).
Tomóko Yashima, Rieko Nishida, and Atsushi Mizumoto 699
Structural Equation Modeling spectively). Evidently, both Communication Ori-

entation and Grammar-Translation Orientation
Two SEM analyses were performed based
lead to the on of future selves, but they
formation
the hypothesized model (Figuredo so 1) using the
differently. While Communication Orienta-
lavaan package in R (Rosseel, tion
2012). As Mar-
influences Ideal L2 self more strongly than
dia's Muldvariate Normality Test indicated theOrientation, the latter in-
Grammar-Translation
data were not multivariate normal, we used
fluences Ought-to L2 self more strongly than
the Satorra-Bentler rescaling method (Satorra Communication
8c Orientation.
Bender, 1994), which is robust to non-normal
Addressing gender differences, independent t-
data. Specifically, we fit the model using stan-
tests revealed statistically significant gender differ-
dard maximum likelihood to estimate the model
ences in favor of women in all variables except
parameters, but along with robust standard er- Ought-to L2 self and Grammar-Translation Ori-
rors and a Satorra-Bentler scaled test statistic (see
entation, but with small effect sizes (see Appendix
Rosseel, 2012, for details). In order to ensure re-
A and B for descriptive statistics of variables for
producibility and transparency in the data analy- males and females). The ¿-test results are: Com-
sis (Marsden, Mackey, 8c Plonsky, 2016), the data munication Orientation (t (1675.53) = -6.176,
and R codes used in this study are available online
p < .001, d = 0.25, 95% CI [0.17, 0.33]); Ideal L2
in the IRIS Digital Repository (https://www.iris- self (t [1398.63] = -4.127, p < .001, d= 0.19, 95%
database.org/iris/app/home/detailPid = york:CI [0.10, 0.27]); Intended effort (t [1490.10] =
932411). The results of the SEM analyses are
-2.704, p < .001, d= 0.12, 95% CI [0.03, 0.20]);
shown in Figure 2. In addition to the originally and TOEFL-ITP total score: ( t [1592.6] = -9.406,
hypothesized paths, covariances were added fol- p < .001, d= 0.39, 95% CI [0.31, 0.47]). Given the
lowing the modification index. All the path coef- reported small effect size, we cannot claim that
ficients were significant. Following the suggestion there were gender differences in Intended effort.
by In'nami and Koizumi (2011), we report three To respond to RQ3, which explored the
goodness of fit indicators: CFI (Comparative Fit part played by gender differences in account-
Index) = .908; SRMR (Standardized Root Mean
ing for the weight of antecedents influencing
Square Residual) = .067, and RMSEA (Root Mean future self concepts and motivation, multiple-
Square Error of Approximation) = .055 with 90% group SEM was conducted. Multiple-group SEM
confidence interval (CI) [.053, 057] . These results
is a process that performs SEM analyses in
confirm that the model fits the data well.
more than two groups simultaneously (e.g.,
The resulting model revealed significant pathsmales and females, or Japanese, Chinese, and
from Future possible selves to Intended learning
Americans) to compare parameters using the
effort (Ideal L2 self to Intended learning effort:
same model across the groups (Garson, 2015).
.55; Ought-to L2 self to Intended learning effort: Multiple-group SEM involves a few model test-
.38). Ideal L2 self was shown to exert a strongering steps to examine whether or not the mea-
influence than Ought-to L2 self. The path fromsurement and structural model is equivalent
Intended effort to TOEFL-ITP score was also sig-
across the groups (Byrne, 2016). Table 2 sum-
nificant (.15). Thus the motivating power of fu-marizes the models and their parameters in-
ture selves leading to higher proficiency was con-
cluded in testing for the invariance, and Table 3
firmed (RQ1). shows the result of multiple-group measurement
Next, paths from two learner beliefs factorsinvariance analysis. Comparing the fit indexes,
(Grammar-Translation Orientation and Commu-the x2-difference (A/2) test, and the difference
nication Orientation) to future selves provided in CFI (ACFI) in Table 3, it was confirmed
responses to RQ2. The path from Communi-that multiple-group measurement invariance was
cation Orientation to Ideal L2 self was signifi- not sufficiently supported. Accordingly, we deter-
cant, with a high standardized coefficient of .56,mined Model 1 , with no equality constraints and
while that from Communication Orientation to
all parameters varying freely between males and
Ought-to L2 self was also significant but with a
females, as our final model (Figures 3 and 4) .
much lower standardized coefficient (.09). On
To examine whether the path coefficient in the
the other hand, paths from Grammar-Translation male students' model differed significantly from
Orientation to future selves showed an oppo-the corresponding coefficient in the female stu-
site tendency, with the path from Grammar- dents' model, an additional statistical procedure,
Translation Orientation to Ought-to L2 and thatnamely Critical Ratio of Differences tests (e.g.,
from Grammar-Translation Orientation to Ideal
Garson, 2015) , was employed using AMOS ver.20.
L2 self both being significant (.46 and .15,The re-results indicate that significant differences
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TABLE 2 tween future selves, effort, and linguistic outc
Summary of the Models for the Measurement measured by a standardized proficiency test
Invariance Analysis confirmed.
Regarding the relative motivational powers of

Model Equality Constraint Ideal self and Ought-to self, past studies have not
1 No equality constraints (Baseline) been consistent. Our results indicate a signifi-
2 Factor loadings cant role by Ought-to self in Japan and confirm
3 Model 2 + item intercepts what appears to be context-driven differences.
4 Model 3 + factor intercepts/means According to the theory, Ought-to self is a less
5 Model 4 + factor variances/ covariances internalized type of self-concept than Ideal self
6 Model 5 + regression path coefficients (Dörnyei, 2005); it can be assumed, based on Self-
Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000;
Noels, 2003), that more deeply internalized self-
arose between males and females in the follow- concepts exert stronger motivating power. This as-
ing coefficients: (a) path from Communication sumption is generally supported by past studies
Orientation to Ideal L2 self (females > males, as well as by our results. However, regarding the
p < .001), (b) path from Grammar-Translation more substantial role of the Ought-to self in Asian
Orientation to Ought-to L2 self (males > females, contexts, which Kormos et al. (2011) suggested is
p < .05), and (c) covariance between Communica- exam-related, other- or self-imposed pressure to
tion Orientation and Grammar-Translation Ori- do well may have a more significant role to play in
these contexts.
entation (males > females, p < .001).
Thus the results revealed not only that The fe- analysis undertaken to respond to RQ2
examined whether the formation of Ideal and
male students scored higher in Communication
Orientation, Ideal self, and proficiency butOught-to
also L2 selves is helped by learners' be
that the influence of Communication Orienta- lief in communicating in order to learn English
tion on Ideal self is greater among female and their belief in grammar-translation. By de
stu-
dents than among male students. On the sign, otherthese orientations are independent, that is
hand, Grammar-Translation Orientation exerts students
a can endorse both. While the descrip-
tive
stronger influence on Ought-to self among statistics show that participants generally hel
male
students than among female students. stronger communication orientations than gram
mar orientations, the influence of these two type
DISCUSSION of beliefs on future selves differs markedly. Having
a Communication Orientation - in other words,
As regards RQ1, the results demonstrated that to believe in implicit learning or
the tendency
students who have a stronger sense of usingIdealEnglish
and as much as possible and enjoying
Ought-to L2 self make more of an effort to learn
doing so - is effective in acquiring the language,
English; this in turn accounts for higher profi-
and this is mediated by future selves. Holding a
belief in communication
ciency. It is a useful addition to the validation of with others as a valued
the L2 Motivational Self System that the link be-
objective leads to a stronger sense of the Ideal
TABLE 3
Result of Multiple-Group Measurement Invariance Analysis
Model X2 df CFI RMSEA SRMR AIC BIC AX2 A df ACFI

1 2576.3""" 526 .910 .054 .068 186595 187617 -
2 2525.1""" 552 .909 .053 .070 186595 187464 51.2* 26 .001
3 2809.1** 571 .902 .055 .071 186747 187505 232.8** 45 .008
4 2903.9** 600 .898 .055 .073 186836 187559 327.6** 74 .012
5 2928.6** 600 .898 .055 .076 186861 187537 352.3** 74 .012
6 2928.6** 585 .898 .055 .076 186861 187537 352.3** 59 .012
Note.
*p <. 01,
**p <. 001. df= degrees of freedom. AIC = Akaike Information Criterion. BIC = Bayesian Information Criterion. A
stands for difference between Model 1 (baseline) and each model. The values reported in the table are all based on
robust estimation.
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learn English
self, whereas it has less influence on thethat they intended to exert. How-
Ought-to
ever, for female students, more so than for male
self. In contrast, having a Grammar-Translation
Orientation - or the tendency
students,
to value
the English-using
learning self is desirable and
grammar explicidy, memorizing represents the person
words, and they want to be. In terms
trans-
lating sentences in order to learn English
of learner - results
beliefs, female students scored signif-
in a stronger sense of an Ought-to
icantly higherself, while Orientation.
on Communication
exerdng limited influence on This the
means Ideal self.
that female Inhave a stronger
students
other words, those who believetendency
thatthan they
do male students
learn to believe that
English best when they use they it and enjoy
learn English bestdoing
by using it and enjoy
so tend to possess clearer visions
learning itof hoped-for
for communication with others. On
the other hand,
selves as communicating in English the endorsement
with foreign of Grammar-
friends or in possible futureTranslation
occupations.
Orientation Because
by female students was no
beliefs influence actions, it different
is likely that
from male these
students. In other words, gen-
students chose to engage in dercommunicative ac-
differences in the motivation process may be
tivities in the classroom andattributable
possibly in students
to female natural having a stronger
Communication
L2 contexts as well, and, through Orientation,
these expe-which in turn leads
riences, were able to form vivid and elaborate to a stronger sense of Ideal L2 self. Crucially, this
L2 selves. On the other hand, students with a tendency may lead to higher proficiency more
stronger Grammar-Translation Orientation tendeffectively; despite the lack of difference in the
to possess self-images that were the result of out- amount of effort expended, male students did not
side pressures or were self-imposed, as suggested attain the same level of proficiency as measured by
by Ought-to self items such as "I will study English TOEFL as did female students.
because not doing so will disappoint my parents," Further multiple-group SEM analyses, com-
and "Studying English is important to me because bined with statistical comparisons of paired pa-
an educated person is supposed to speak English."rameters, clarified the extent to which these dif-
This implies that a Grammar-Translation Orien- ferent beliefs influence motivation processes in
tation is more likely to be linked to a tendency each gender, thus contributing to our under-
to study English because it is an important school standing of how gender differences are created
subject. (As an aside, all participants had passed through learning experiences. For both men and
an entrance examination that required discrete women, a stronger Communication Orientation
grammar knowledge and translation ability.) led to a clearer sense of Ideal self. But while this
Our findings regarding Grammar-Translation influence was substantial for both groups, it was
Orientation are consistent with those of Suzuki 8c greater among female students, where it was also
Childs (2016), whose study revealed that visions more strongly linked to a vision of Ideal selves
of university students learning English did not than in male students. In both groups, the in-
include interpersonal interactions. In fact, many fluence of Grammar-Translation Orientation on
university freshmen have developed a Grammar- Ought-to self was high. However, this time, the
Translation Orientation because grammar drills influence was stronger among male students. In
combined with vocabulary learning and reading other words, when male students develop the ten-
through translation are what they have been dency do- to value learning grammar and vocabulary
ing. Since these activities are usually carried as outwell as translating, they have stronger visions
of Ought-to L2 self compared to female students.
sitting alone at a desk, these learners are less likely
to form visions of themselves communicating with Since these activities are typically required in
others. preparation for entrance exams to university, this
Finally, the analyses conducted to respond to is an indicator of how seriously all students were
RQ3 revealed important gender-related influ- engaged in achieving their educational goals. Im-
ences. First, a comparison of means between male portantly, the link between this tendency and an
and female students for the study's variables not Ought-to self vision is stronger among male stu-
only confirmed previous findings but showed fe- dents. To determine why this is the case, we need
male students as having a stronger sense of Com- to examine the sociocultural context, specifically
munication Orientation, Ideal L2 self, and higher how genders are positioned in this society, which
proficiency. By contrast, no gender difference was may explain somewhat stronger pressure being
found in their scores on Ought-to self, suggesting placed on male students to achieve their goals.
that both men and women feel equally obliged Why might Communication Orientation be
and socially expected to be competent in English. linked more strongly to Ideal L2 selves in fe-
Nor did the respondents differ in the effort to male students? The answer is partly suggested
in Henry & Cliffordson's (2013)"not findings

as separate
that
from the social context but as
women's "greater concern with interpersonal more connected and lessin-
differentiated from oth-
teraction and a greater interest in ers" (Markus in

investing 8c Kitayama,
self- 1991, p. 227). As such,
other relationships" (p. 289) made it easier
it is likely for
that significant others' voices are in-
them to have visions of themselves communicat- ternalized to a larger extent in the Asian self-
ing in the L2. From a sociocultural perspective, concept, which explains the stronger influence of
female students in Japan may find using English the Ought-to self.
In relation to gender differences, in Henry and
liberating as a way to construct a self that is more
Cliffordson's (2013) Swedish study, interdepen-
self-expressive than their LI self, just as Japanese
women felt in McMahill's study (1997) of a femi- dent self-construal accounted for stronger visions
nist EFL class. For them, English opened a wayoftoL3 self held by women. This was true despite
participating in an imagined international com- extremely high gender equality in Sweden (Gen-
munity. der Inequality Index of the United Nations Hu-
The correlation between Communication Ori- man Development Program, 2011). The current
entation and Grammar-Translation Orientation study demonstrated that Grammar-Translation
among male students was significantly higher Orientation has stronger links to the Ought-to
than among female students. This may indicate self among Japanese male students than among
that male students who subscribe to the value of female students. In other words, when male stu-
using English to improve it are also more likely
dents value grammar and translation, they tend
than female students to hold the belief that gram-
to hold stronger visions of themselves meeting ex-
mar drills and translation will help them do pectations
well imposed by others as well as by them-
in English as a school subject. This may be an selves,
in- than do female students. This tendency
dication of male students' allegiance to thesemay ac- be a reflection of the Japanese social con-
tivities. text, where men are generally expected to com-
Henry and Cliffordson (2013) acknowledge pete the and advance in the labor market more com-
need to explore gender differences that have petitively than women, an expectation that can
be inferred from the Global Gender Gap Index
their origins in classroom activities. In response,
this study identified women's tendency to value (World Economic Forum, 2015).
communicative language learning as well as the Henry and Cliffordson (2013) reported no gen-
stronger influence of this tendency on the Ideal der difference in Ideal English self. They at-
self among women. tributed this to the Swedish social context, where
English has become "a basic must-have social and
educational skill" (p. 285), with a corresponding
Comparison Between Different Sociocultural Contexts
loss of value as a foreign language, whereas L3s,
Past studies found that Ought-to self exhibitsincluding French, German, and Spanish, con-
stronger motivating power in Asian contexts than tinue to elicit attitudes toward the target language
in Hungary or Chile, as Kormos et al. (2011)community
ob- and culture that closely relate to mo-
tivation to learn these languages. From this per-
served. The results of the present study shed light
on why this may be the case. The tendency to
spective, the results of the current study reflect the
value explicit learning of grammar combined with power of English as an international language in
translation reflects the participants' long-term an EFL context, where, unlike in Sweden, English
is not widely used domestically but is regarded
learning experience that this is the best way to pre-
pare for entrance examinations; at the same time,as a tool to relate to the global community, such
this tendency is strongly linked to the Ought-to that Ideal L2 self is affected by attitudes toward
international communities (i.e., international
L2 self, that is, a strong sense of external social
pressure, including from parents, to succeedposture)
aca- as well as visions of learners communi-
demically, and internal pressure to measure up cating
to with others in such communities.
who they wish to be as educated persons. In their
discussion of Ought-to self in China and Iran,
Pedagogical Implications
Taguchi et al. (2009) also described how children
are pressured by their family to obtain high sta- The strength of links between future self guides
tus and be successful. This tendency may relate and intended effort vary depending on socio-
cultural contexts, giving rise to different issues
to interdependent self-cons trual, which character-
ized women in Henry 8c Cliffordson (2013). and
Inconcerns. This means we need to exercise
addition, interdependent self-construal has greatalso care when we apply the L2 Motivational
been used to characterize Asians, seeing the Self self System to language education to address the
706 The Modem Language Journal 101(2017)
unique needs of each context. may Unlike in Hungary
not be as transparent to the learner as that of
or Chile, Ought-to self exerts motivating
grammar drills. power
in Japan, suggesting that working To develop on Communication
learners'Orientation and
Ought-to self in instruction is effective
positive L2 selves, in encour-
positive L2 experience is cru-
aging them to exert an effort to learn
cial. Instructors the
need lan-
to have learners experience
guage. Constantly reminding them
using of what
the language they
and enjoy doing so, so that us-
should do with adequate teacher ing English control
becomes (e.g.,
a natural part of language
in quizzes and homework) may work
classrooms andwell in this
(hopefully) beyond, thus helping
context. Differences based on age
learners group
create wereself-images. For vi-
English-using
observed within a single culture sions to be vivid and elaborate
in past and thus increase
studies
(Csizér 8c Kormos, 2009; Kormos motivating et power,
al., 2011)
L2 selvesas need to be rooted
well as on gender differences among
in realistic university
experiences of communication. In ad-
students in the present study. These
dition, differences
many ideas for enhancing future self vi-
inform instructors regardingsions how arethey
available. For example,
should ad- Hadfield and
just priorities in teaching each Dörnyei
group.(2013) introduced
Given that a number of activi-
female students have stronger Communication
ties (e.g., visualization training techniques, role-
Orientadon and Ideal self, leading plays, etc.)to higher
within pro-
instructed L2 learning designed
ficiency, while male studentstowith developequal
Ideal L2readiness
selves. Past studies agree on
to make an effort did not attain the of
the influence same profi-
international posture on the for-
ciency level, instructors may mation need of toIdeal self. This suggests
influence the that ideal L2
learners, male students in particular, toward
selves can be enhanced in EFLde-teaching that ad-
veloping Communication Orientation dresses international as well
posture.as Through content-
lucid and realistic ideal future visions. based teaching in global studies with some visual-
As the endorsement of Communication Orien- ization as well as goal-setting trainings, Munezane
tation or Grammar-Translation Orientation re- (2015) showed that Japanese university students'
lates to whether particular learners mainlywillingnessvalue to communicate increased after the
implicit or explicit learning, it may be worthwhile treatment. In a teaching intervention to create
for the teacher to raise consciousness of the real- L2 visions, Japanese engineering students gave
istic roles for each type of learning. SLA research presentations on technical inventions in English
suggests that abundant exposure and opportuni- to an imagined community of engineers, which
ties to use language facilitate L2 learning (e.g., led to improvement in attitudes and motivation
fluency, acquisition of implicit knowledge under- (Maekawa & Yashima, 2012).
lying natural L2 use). At the same time, a great Activities that foster Ought-to self-images are
deal of research has accumulated on the roles of helpful to facilitate self-regulated learning, as
explicit learning of language forms particularly Hadfield and Dörnyei (2013) suggest. For partici-
within meaning-focused instruction (e.g., pants Ellis, in the current study, with a motivationally
2008, 2015; Norris 8c Ortega, 2000, 2001). Ineffectiveview Ought-to self, the emphasis should be
of these findings, valuing the explicit learning on of
how Ought-to self and Ideal self can be co-
linguistic forms is not a problem in itself, ordinated
while and be in harmony (Dörnyei, 2005).
beliefs in some instruction techniques used Tointhis end, instructors can design tasks in which
grammar-translation approaches, including the will be genuinely interested, for example,
learners
rote learning of isolated sentences, discrete gram- in areas closely related to their academic majors,
mar drills, and extensive use of the LI may not and have
be them listen to and read materials exten-
so useful. How can students shift away from sively
these in order to gain the knowledge they need to
traditional beliefs toward stronger Communica- acquire to be successful in their hoped-for occu-
tion Orientation? In Lou 8c Noels 's (2016) study, pational field. They can then use this knowledge
having learners read scientific evidence about in-
to communicate the content that they find mean-
cremental theories influenced their mindset as ingful and generate ideas. When these activities al-
well as their approaches to learning. This low sug-learners to imagine themselves using English
gests that teachers' explanations about the in effec-
an imagined community of professionals, they
tiveness of each instruction method or task can be will help them create visions of Ideal selves that
are in accord with their Ought-to selves. Gram-
influential in shaping learners' beliefs. In fact, the
literature on motivating strategies (e.g., Keller, mar and vocabulary learning should be integrated
1987) emphasizes that explaining the value of ac- into communication activities instead of being iso-
lated and decontextualized, thus bolstering the
tivities and tasks is of vital importance, particularly
when the value of some communicative activities possibility of constructing an L2 self image. The
explicit learning of words, phrases, andfor

reviewers grammar
their helpful suggestions on an earlier
sion of thethe
will then be natural steps in reaching manuscript.
learn-
ers' ideal L2 selves. As Dörnyei argues, a future
self image needs to be accompanied by relevant
and effective procedural strategies.
NOTES
1 The imbalance between men and women reflects

CONCLUSION
this university's student body. Through consultation
This study employed multiple-groupwith
SEM literature and statisticians, we concluded that as
and
long as
contributed to the validation process of one ofthe population is large enough (a minimum of
the
200 for SEM, according to Kline, 201 1 ) , imbalance is not
most influential current L2 motivation theories by
a problem for ¿-tests or multi-group SEM. See, for ex-
addressing some unexplored issues. An etic per-
ample, Marsh et al. (2006), who conducted multi-group
spective allowed for a comparison between our
SEM with samples ranging from 2,295 to 6,593.
findings and those from different sociocultural
2 We administered the 8-item questionnaire to 140
contexts and highlighted what is generalizable
freshmen inas the same university. These students re-
well as what is unique in this context, sponded
leading to
separately to open-ended questions asking
implications regarding how the theory needs
them to about the learning methods and activ-
to write
ities they perceived as having been effective in im-
be differentially applied in each context.
As a cross-sectional quantitative studyproving their English in their past L2 learning experi-
relying
ence. These were coded either as Grammar-Oriented,
on questionnaire data, this study has limita-
Communication-Oriented, both, or neither, based on
tions in that it does not capture motivation
which participants were categorized as such. At the same
as emerging in context or factors dynami-
time, based on responses to the questionnaire, scores for
cally interacting with each other. It therefore
each student on Grammar-Orientation and Communi-
needs to be complemented by qualitative stud-
cation Orientation were calculated. An ANOVA revealed
ies as well as long-term investigations.thatInparticipants
this who were categorized as Grammar-
study, students from only one universityOriented par-
in the qualitative study scored significantly
ticipated; it would be desirable to study
higherother
in Grammar-Translation Orientation and lower
in Communication Orientation.
types of institutions in varied geographical lo-
cations. Nevertheless, the study fills gaps in past
research in significant ways: First, the strength
of the Ideal L2 self and Ought-to L2 self held by
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APPENDIX A
Descriptive Statistics for Male Students ( n = 1,833)
Min Max Ai SD Skewness Kurtosis
TOEFL score 357 663 485.24 38.16 0.46 1.49

Ideal L2 self 1 5 2.83 0.95 0.08 -0.13
Ought-to L2 self 1 5 2.38 0.90 0.10 -0.32
Intended effort 1 5 2.61 0.81 0.11 0.31
Communication Orientation 1 5 3.62 0.78 -0.43 0.56
Grammar-Translation Orientation 1 5 2.75 0.76 -0.01 0.69
APPENDIX B
Descriptive Statistics for Female Students (w = 798)
Min Max M SD Skewness Kurtosis
TOEFL score 357 677 499.92 36.20 0.58 2.26

Ideal L2 self 1 5 3.01 1.04 0.11 -0.49
Ought-to L2 self 1 5 2.33 0.88 0.30 -0.02
Intended effort 1 5 2.71 0.82 0.17 0.12
Communication Orientation 1 5 3.81 0.70 -0.40 0.52
Grammar-Translation Orientation 1 5 2.70 0.73 0.09 0.74
APPENDIX C
Questionnaire Items
Ideal L2 Self
Ideal 1. 1 often imagine myself as someone working using English in the future.
Ideal 2. 1 often imagine myself as someone who is able to speak English.
Ideal 3. The things I want to do in the future require me to speak English.
Ideal 4. If my dreams come true, I will use English effectively in the future.
Ideal 5. 1 often imagine myself speaking English with international friends.
Ought-to L2 Self
Ought 1 . 1 study English because close friends of mine think it is important.

Ought 2. 1 study English because I do not want to disappoint my parents.
Ought 3. 1 study English because people I respect think I should study it.
Ought 4. 1 study English because an educated person is supposed to be able to be able to speak Engli
Ought 5. 1 study English, because if I fail to learn English, people around me will be disappointed.
Intended Effort
Effort 1. 1 am working hard at learning English.

Effort 2. If an English course was offered in the future, I would like to take it.
Effort 3. If English-speaking TV programs are on air, I would always try to watch them.
Effort 4. 1 am the kind of person who makes great efforts to learn English.

Influence of Learner Beliefs and Gender On The Motivating Power of L2 Selves

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Influence of Learner Beliefs and Gender on the Motivating Power of L2 Selves

Author(s): TOMOKO YASHIMA, RIEKO NISHIDA and ATSUSHI MIZUMOTO

National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations, Wiley are collaborating

accounts for objective L2 motivated behavior or

for Japanese language learning, motivation (Abu-Rabia,

by gender differences in tion in other contexts, such as cram

of Education, alongside a persistent preference

Hypothesized Inter-Correlations Between Variables to be Tested

learning English '

v x ' Intended TOEFL

curricular requirements, and a questionnaire in translation approaches refer to explicit grammar

Results of Factor Analysis of Learner Beliefs About Effective L2 Learning Methods

Items Commonality Orientation Orientation

1. 1 believe that the best way to learn 0.65 0.80 -0.05

English to Japanese. (Gram 2)

words and learn grammar. (Gram 3)

Cumulative Contribution Ratio

Cronbach's or 0.79 0.75

Note. Commonality is the

Intended were identified, with a cumulative effort

Structural Equation Modeling spectively). Evidently, both Communication Ori-

Regarding the relative motivational powers of

Result of Multiple-Group Measurement Invariance Analysis

Model X2 df CFI RMSEA SRMR AIC BIC AX2 A df ACFI

in Henry & Cliffordson's (2013)"not findings

teraction and a greater interest in ers" (Markus in

explicit learning of words, phrases, andfor

1 The imbalance between men and women reflects

on Japanese engineering students: Norris,

can Psychologist , 41, 954-969. Pavlenko, A. (2001). Bilingualism, gender

affective constructs: Cross-cultural psychometric Peng, J. (2012). Toward an ecological unde

Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package fo

Descriptive Statistics for Male Students ( n = 1,833)

Min Max Ai SD Skewness Kurtosis

TOEFL score 357 663 485.24 38.16 0.46 1.49

Descriptive Statistics for Female Students (w = 798)

Min Max M SD Skewness Kurtosis

TOEFL score 357 677 499.92 36.20 0.58 2.26

Ought 1 . 1 study English because close friends of mine think it is important.

Effort 1. 1 am working hard at learning English.

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