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Park YW (2011) Milk | Milks of Other Domesticated Mammals (Pigs, Yaks,

Reindeer, etc.). In: Fuquay JW, Fox PF and McSweeney PLH (eds.), Encyclopedia of
Dairy Sciences, Second Edition, vol. 3, pp. 530–537. San Diego: Academic Press.

ª 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

 Author's personal copy
Milks of Other Domesticated Mammals (Pigs, Yaks, Reindeer, etc.)
Y W Park, Fort Valley State University, Fort Valley, GA, USA
ª 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Information on the milk of domesticated species is not
readily available, since the milk of some of these mam-
mals is produced for human consumption only in certain
regions of the world and only limited studies have been
conducted. However, their milk is important for human
consumption, or nutritional and health research.
Reports on the composition of milk of wild and domes-
ticated minor species vary in accuracy due to the lack of
sample numbers, difficulties in defining stage of lactation,
bias introduced during sampling, and different analytical
procedures. The objective of this article is to discuss the
milk of sow, yak, reindeer, musk ox, llama, alpaca, and
other minor dairy species.
General Composition of Milk of Minor
Domesticated or Wild Mammals
The chemical composition of the milk of different species
is designed by natural selection to provide the nutritional
needs of the neonate of the specific species. There are
considerable differences in the basic composition of milk
among different domesticated and wild mammals
(Table 1). Frequently, little is known about the stage of
lactation and milk sampling time from the gland, which
can result in misleading interspecies differences. Even
under standard conditions of milk sampling, there are
substantial short-term (diurnal and day-to-day) variations
in composition, which are due to environmental condi-
tions, feeding, management, season, locality, disease, and
yield per day, as is also the case for the major domestic
milk producers – the cow, buffalo, camel, goat, and sheep.
Colostrum contains much higher levels of total solids,
protein, and ash than mature milk obtained 2 or 3 weeks
after parturition in all species. The high protein level in
colostrum is due to the globulins, which contain the
antibodies. Since the antibody titer of blood of the
newborn is low, mammals such as cows, sheep, goats,
horses, and pigs acquire passive immunity from colostrum
and its immunoglobulins.
The amount of dietary intake of roughage is important
for the level of milk fat in ruminants. A decrease in
roughage intake depresses the milk fat content and causes
changes in rumen fermentation and parakeratosis.
The daily ruminant diet should contain at least 17%
crude fiber in order to prevent the decrease in the molar
530
Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences, Second Edition, 2011, Vol. 3, 530-537
percentage of acetic acid and the increase in propionic
acid in the rumen, which results in a low fat content in the
milk.
Production and Composition of Milk from
Minor Species
Sow Milk
Little has been documented on the production and utili-
zation of sow milk, while a large amount of data have been
reported on the composition of sow milk. Since humans
and pigs have similar digestive and physiological systems,
research data on the production and composition of sow
milk are useful and applicable for the nutritional and
medical well-being of humans.
The yield of sow milk is affected by the stage of
lactation, suckling frequency, sow body weight, metabolic
state, litter size, ambient temperature, and amount of
mammary tissue. The daily yield of sow milk may range
from 400 to 2000 ml. Peak milk yield is at about 3 weeks
post-partum and then declines. Increased suckling
frequency plays a role in increased mammary gland
mass and milk production.
The composition and quantity of sow milk depend on
the body condition of the sow at farrowing and early
lactation. The efficiency of utilizing dietary nutrients
depends on litter size, suggesting that sows nursing large
litters utilize dietary nutrients more efficiently than sows
nursing small litters. Since ambient temperature influ-
ences the proportion of blood flow into skin capillaries
for dissipation of body heat, it also affects the composition
and yield of milk during nursing.
The fat and protein levels of sow milk vary in a
curvilinear manner during lactation. Sow milk fat is
highest at the onset of lactation and lowest at around day
20 (Figure 1). The level of proteins in sow milk follows a
similar pattern, but does not vary as much as fat content.
The fat and protein levels in the milk of ruminants, such as
cows, sheep, and goats, follow a somewhat different trend,
usually increasing with advancing lactation (Figure 2).
The essential and semi-essential amino acids of sow
milk constitute 45.5% of the total amino acid content, and
the ratio of Lys to Met plus Cys is 1:0.5. The amino acid
composition of sow and bovine caseins (CNs) is shown in
Table 2. Bovine CN contains lower levels of Glu, Pro,
Val, Ala, Phe, Lys, Tyr, and His than sow CN, while
human milk proteins are reported to have less Glu, Met,
 Author's personal copy
Milk | Milks of Other Domesticated Mammals (Pigs, Yaks, Reindeer, etc.) 531

Table 1 Average composition (g per 100 ml) of milk of minor mammalian species

Mammals Days of lactation No. of samples Total solids Protein Lactose Fat Ash

Ass 60–120 9 9.1 1.6 6.2 1.0 0.4

Bison ? 2 13.7 4.2 4.7 1.7 1.0
Caribou ? 3 23.6 7.6 3.7 11.0 1.3
Dromedary ? 15 13.6 3.6 5.0 4.5 0.7
Elk 14–77 28 19.0 5.7 4.2 6.7 1.3
Llama 2–120 54 13.1 3.4 6.5 2.7 0.5
Moose >2 15 23.6 11.0 3.3 8.5 1.5
Musk ox 1 19.0 5.3 3.8 8.2 1.7
Piga 21 18 19.2 6.0 4.5 6.65 0.79
a
Farreira AS, de Assuncao Costa PM, Sant Anna R, and Comes JC (1988) Composition of sows milk. Revista de Sociediade
Brasileira de Zootaxa 17: 212–220.
Park YW (2006) Minor species milk. In: Park YW and Haenlein GFW (eds.) Handbook of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals, pp. 393–406.
Ames, IA; Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.

Figure 1 Profiles of fat and protein levels in sow milk through
51 days of lactation (cubic order regression). Adapted from Garst
AS, Ball SF, Williams BL, et al. (1999) Influence of pig substitution
on milk yield, litter weights, and milk composition of machine
milked sows. Journal of Animal Science 77: 1624–1630.
Met, Tyr, Lys, and His and more Cys and Trp than sow
milk proteins.
In light of fatty acid composition, the differences
between sow and bovine milks are primarily in
short-chain fatty acid levels and the degree of saturation.
Sow milk fat contains C4–C12 fatty acids at barely detect-
able levels and these fatty acids represent only 0.2% of the
total, whereas in bovine milk these fatty acids represent
8% of the total. Bovine milk fat contains more myristic,
palmitic, and stearic acids, and far less palmitoleic, oleic,
linoleic, and linolenic acids than sow milk.
There is little information available on the effect of
genetics on mineral concentrations in sow milk. The level
of cholesterol is less than 0.5% of total lipids in cow and
sow milk. Somatic cell counts in sow milk are affected by
litter replacement and oxytocin administration and may
increase from about 8  106 cells ml–1 milk on day 2 to
more than 12  106 cells ml 1 on day 51 post-partum.

Figure 2 Lactation curves of milk yield, and milk fat and protein
percentages of Holstein cows. Adapted from Schmidt GH (1971)
Mammary gland anatomy. Biology of Lactation, pp. 6–35.
San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Yak Milk
Origin and distribution of yak
Yak is called ‘the ship of cold regions’ and serves many needs
related to food, fiber, and transportation of the people in the
cold mountainous regions of northern China, Mongolia,
Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Russia, Nepal, and Bhutan. Yaks
are members of the subfamily of Bovinae and are classified
as Bos grunniens or Poephagus grunniens. They originated in
the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and were first domesticated
about 4500 years ago. Yak have a unique ability to live under
extreme environmental conditions and are able to survive
unsheltered through the winter months, exposed to harsh
snowstorms and temperatures below 40  C at high alti-
tudes, 3000–5000 m above sea level. China has an estimated
13 million yaks, with the largest numbers in the Sichuan
Province, followed by Qinghai Province, the Tibet
Autonomous Region, Gansu, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia,
and Yunnan Province. Outside of China, the largest yak

Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences, Second Edition, 2011, Vol. 3, 530-537

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532 Milk | Milks of Other Domesticated Mammals (Pigs, Yaks, Reindeer, etc.)

Table 2 Amino acid composition of sow and Yak breeds and milk production
bovine casein (g per 100 g protein) On average, yaks produce less milk than dairy cows,
Amino acid Sow caseina Bovine caseinb approximately 1.5 kg day 1 after suckling the calf, or
300 kg per lactation, with a lactation period of 5–6
Asp 7.2 7.4 months. Milk production by the Chauri and Jom yak
Thr 4.8 4.3
breeds exceeds the yield of pure-bred yak. Jom can pro-
Ser 5.3 6.6
Glu 29.5 23.2 duce 1.5–3 l milk per day. When yaks are artificially
Pro 12.4 11.8 inseminated to Brown Swiss (BS) cattle, the female
Gly 1.8 2.1 hybrids (BS Joms) produce about 3–4 l day 1. Chauri are
Ala 3.8 3.4 considered more versatile than pure-bred yak throughout
Val 8.1 7.5
Met 1.3 3.2 Nepal and are more manageable draught and pack ani-
Ile 5.8 6.6 mals, tolerating lower altitudes. Jhopkyo yak can carry
Leu 10.2 10.0 between 60 and 80 kg loads.
Tyr 6.2 5.8
Phe 5.7 5.4
Lys 8.7 8.1
His 3.9 3.2 Yak milk composition
Arg 3.9 4.1 Yak milk is high in total solids and has a sweet fragrance
Trp 1.5 1.3 and golden rich color. Because of its higher fat and protein
a
Nake T and Kataokak (1973) Comparative studies on
content than bovine milk, yak milk quality is often
the milk constituents of various mammals in Japan. IV. referred as ‘thick’ or ‘rich’. Research data on the composi-
Comparison in composition of milk proteins from various tion of yak milk produced in China, Mongolia, and Nepal
mammals. Japanese Journal of Dairy Science 22:
A20–A28.
are shown in Table 3. The fat content of yak milk is about
b
Davendra C (1980) Milk production in goats compared twice that of average cow milk, ranging from 5.45 to
to buffalo and cattle in humid tropics. Journal of Dairy 8.60%, depending on season, time of milking, stage of
science 63: 1755–1767.
Gallagher DP, Cotter PF, and Mulvhill DM (1997) Porcine lactation, and availability of supplementary feeds.
milk proteins: A review. International Dairy Journal Yak milk contains lower levels of short- and medium-
7: 99–118. chain fatty acids than caprine or bovine milks. The major
fatty acids in yak milk are C16:0, C18:1, C18:0, and C14:0;
oleic acid is the most abundant among the unsaturated
population is in Mongolia with approximately 600 000 fatty acids. Semihard cheeses made from yak milk reared
head. Wild populations of yak are estimated to be about in the highlands of the Nepalese Himalayas contain lower
150 000. myristic and palmitic acids, higher total long-chain

Table 3 Composition (range) of normal milk and colostrum of yak at different regions

Normal milk Colostrum

China Mongolia Nepal China

Total solids (%) 15.70–18.36 16.00 17.40 33.01

Fat (%) 5.45–8.60 5.60 6.50 14.00
Protein (%) 4.20–6.40 4.23 5.40 16.14
Lactose (%) 3.30–5.80 5.29 4.65 1.86
Ash (%) 0.40–0.90 0.91 0.85 1.01
Energy (kca l l 1) 871–957
-Lactalbumin (% of protein) 3.8
-Lactoglobulin (% of protein) 15.3
Serum albumin (% of protein) 2.2
Calcium (mmol l 1) 36.8
Phosphorus (mmol l 1) 24.8
Potassium (mmol l 1) 27.6
Sodium (mmol l 1) 20.8
Magnesium (mmol l 1) 2.5

Pu Jiabi (2004) Yak milk production in China. Southwest Agricultural University Report, p. 4.
Chengdu, China.
Silk TM, Guo MR, Haenlein GFW, and Park YW (2006) Yak milk. In: Park YW and Haenlein GFW
(eds.) Handbook of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals. pp. 345–354. Ames, Lowa; Oxford, England:
Blackwell Publishers.

Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences, Second Edition, 2011, Vol. 3, 530-537

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Milk | Milks of Other Domesticated Mammals (Pigs, Yaks, Reindeer, etc.) 533

saturated fatty acids, and much higher polyunsaturated Reindeer

fatty acids than Cheddar cheese made from cow milk.
Reindeer husbandry and milking evolved at least
The levels of protein and total solids in yak milk from
2000 years ago on the Taiga region of eastern Siberia
China and Nepal range from 4 to 7% and 16 to 18%,
around Lake Baikal and spread to nearby ethnic groups.
respectively. As in bovine milk, there is an inverse rela-
Reindeer milking regimen developed along the borders of
tionship between milk yield and fat and protein levels.
Russia, Mongolia, and China. This was probably triggered
Lactose and ash contents of yak milk range from 3 to 6%
by cultural exchange and expansion of pastoral nomads
and 0.4 to 0.9%, respectively (Table 3).
living on the northern fringe of the Asian steppe. The
Yak milk has six major proteins comparable with
Yakuts, famous horse and cattle breeders, adapted rein-
bovine: -lactalbumin (-La), -lactoglobulin (-Lg),
deer raising as they pushed north and introduced an
-CN, s-CN, bovine serum albumin (BSA), and lacto-
advanced milking culture into the region.
ferrin. The major proteins in yak milk are CNs, which
Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and caribou
account for over 60% of total proteins. The relative
(Rangifer tarandus granti) are closely related in species
percentage of -La in yak milk is significantly lower
and ancient associations in northern lands. For indigenous
(P < 0.05) than that in bovine milk, while differences in
Northern Americans, caribou have provided meat, skins
other proteins between yak and bovine milk including
for clothing and shelter of exceptional warmth and light-
CNs, immunoglobulins, lactoferrin, BSA, and -Lg are
ness, and implements made from bones and antlers. The
not significant. Yak milk has a good level of essential
fur trade led to early exploitation of North American
amino acids. Mean lysine and methionine contents are
caribou.
80.0 and 30.6 (mg 1 g protein), respectively, and glutamic
Reindeer milking also evolved in Scandinavia inde-
acid is the most abundant (184 mg 1 g protein) amino
pendently by the Nordic Saami people of Lapland. Saami
acid in Mongolian yak milk.
reindeer herding families in the late 1800s practiced
small-scale reindeer pastoralism, and the milk was used
Yak milk products
to manufacture cheese and butter for their own consump-
Yak milk has been a major traditional staple food for yak
tion and for sale. As new technology developed, intensive
herders and their families in the highland plains of Tibet.
production in larger herds became possible by using snow
Yak milk is consumed as full-fat milk by children and the
mobiles.
elderly, and is used to manufacture butter, ghee, cheese,
Reindeer milking starts usually a month after calving
and yogurt. In some areas, it is processed into powder,
during May, depending on latitude and environmental
which can provide up to 60% of the total income for yak
conditions, and continues up to the rut in late
herders. ‘Milk tea’, a mixture of boiled tea and yak milk,
September and early October. Among advanced south-
is popular and is consumed throughout the year. It is
eastern Siberian reindeer herders, the calves and females
made by boiling tea leaves (cut from a tea brick) in water
are normally tethered during alternate periods to ensure
and then adding yak milk and boiling for a few more
that both remain close to the campsite, but are kept
minutes.
separated during part of the day. The females are milked
A Swiss Gruyere-type cheese has been made from yak
up to 3 times daily and the separation time of the calves
milk since 1952, supported by the Food and Agriculture
from their mother varies with the stage of lactation. The
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, transferring
most efficient but labor-intensive form of Saami milking
Swiss cheese technology from the Alps to Nepal.
regime is called ‘kjevle’ of the calf, in which small herds
Butter is a major product from yak milk, and it repre-
are driven into a restricted or fenced compound, where
sents one of the staple foods of yak-raising people in
the calves are caught and a small wooden stick is placed in
China. Milk is first heated to about 35  C and then filtered
their mouth to prevent them from sucking, but this does
to separate cream. The cream is naturally fermented for a
not hamper grazing seriously after milking.
1 or 2 days and then transferred to a wooden churn, where
it is stirred/churned by rotating the stick until the fat
solidifies. ‘Butter tea’ is especially popular with yak her- Yield of Reindeer milk
ders in China and Tibet. The pattern of the lactation curve of reindeer is similar
Yak milk cake is made from whole yak milk or some- to that of other ungulates (Figure 3), where the peak of
times skimmed yak milk. It is hard in texture and looks lactation occurs during weeks 2–4 with a daily output
like a cake. It is usually consumed with butter and sugar, of around 1 l, depending on the weight of the animal,
which are used to enhance flavor, by yak herdsmen and with a total milk yield of about 100 kg, but also less
their guests. Milk curd is also widely consumed as a depending on the nutritional state of the female.
dessert by yak herdsmen on the Tibetan Plateau. Yak Isotope tracer techniques have been used to study the
milk whey is used as pig feed or for traditional leather potential milk production of reindeer and caribou,
processing. which are accurate, but elaborate and expensive.

Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences, Second Edition, 2011, Vol. 3, 530-537

 Author's personal copy
534 Milk | Milks of Other Domesticated Mammals (Pigs, Yaks, Reindeer, etc.)

predominant protein fraction in reindeer milk, with a

Figure 3 Lactation curves of reindeer for potential daily mean
milk production (solid line) and energy output (dotted line) of an
average female (75 kg) through lactation. Adapted from Holand Ø,
Aikio P, Gjøstein H, Nieminen M, Hore K, and White RG (2002)
Modern reindeer dairy farming – the influence of machine milking
on udder health, milk yield and composition. Small Ruminant
Research 44: 65–73.
The lactation curve of reindeer has been determined on
the basis of milk yield during a few selected stages of
lactation. The estimated total milk yield of reindeer is
lower than that of red deer (150 kg) and Iberian red
deer (224 kg), but slightly higher than that of black-
tailed deer (93 kg).
Composition of Reindeer milk
It is difficult to give a typical composition of reindeer
milk, due to limited sample size, individual variation,
difference in sampling techniques, feeding regime, and
variations in the lactation stage among different studies.
In general, wild and semi-domestic ruminants give richer
milk, particularly in late lactation, than the domesticated
species. Reindeer milk at peak and mid-lactation has
a relatively high level of fat (11–15%) and protein
(7–10%), but a moderately low level of lactose (about
3.5%) (Table 4).
The protein content of reindeer milk increases from
around 9% in early lactation to about 11% in late lacta-
tion, while the relative levels of different amino acids are
rather constant throughout lactation. The amino acid
profile resembles those in sheep and goats, except for
low cysteine and high tyrosine contents. CN is the
Table 4 Gross composition (%) of reindeer milk at peak lactation, 3–5 weeks post-partum
Weeks of lactation No. Total solids
4–5 8 27.1
4 3 23.7
5 5 38.1
3–5 7 31.6
5 2 32.8
Holand Ø, Gjøstein H, and Nieminen M (2006) Reindeer milk. In: Park YW and Haenlein GFW (eds.)
Handbook of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals, pp. 355–370. Ames, IA; Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences, Second Edition, 2011, Vol. 3, 530-537
content of 7–9%. -Lg is the main whey protein: it con-
tains 162 amino acids. Reindeer milk contains high levels
of non-protein nitrogen (NPN), urea, ammonium, and
carnitine (at 84–118 mg per 100 ml). Urea content is
about 48 mg per 100 ml and free carnitine 71 mg kg 1.
Fat is the major energy component in reindeer milk,
representing 67% of the energy content at peak lactation
and 75% at late lactation. Fatty acids of reindeer milk are
dominated by palmitic acid (16:0), accounting for one-third
of the total fat, and stearic (18:0), oleic (18:1), and myristic
acids (14:0), contributing around 13%. The levels of short-
chain fatty acids, especially butyric (4:0) and capric (6:0)
acids, are higher in reindeer than in red deer, roe deer, and
fallow deer milk. Reindeer milk contains about 3–3.5%
lactose at peak lactation, which is lower than in other wild
ungulates, and also has small amounts of oligosaccharides.
The mineral content of reindeer milk is moderate to
high (1–1.5%), compared to most other ungulates.
Reindeer milk is high in fat- and water-soluble vitamins.
Vitamin C content is around 2 mg per 100 ml, which
is similar to that in red deer and fallow deer milk.
Reindeer milk is several times higher in vitamin D3
(0.5–2.0 mg kg 1) as compared to cow milk.
Utilization of reindeer milk
Reindeer milk is consumed as fluid and processed pro-
ducts. Children drink fresh milk and adults consume it in
tea and coffee. The milk is also dried and processed into
cheese, butter, and sour cream, as well as used in medica-
tions (Table 5). The milk is curdled and often mixed with
tasty herbs (Oxyria spp. and Angelica spp.). Reindeer milk is
also stored frozen and often mixed with berries (Vaccinium
spp., Empetrum nigrum).
Normally, reindeer milk from the first part of lactation
is consumed fresh, the second part is mainly used for
cheese production, and the last part of lactation is used
more appropriately for churning butter. Reindeer milk
and its products are highly priced, and are also used for
medical purposes such as cures for digestive problems,
owing to its anti-diarrheic properties and for healing
wounds. Fat oozed by heat from reindeer cheese is used
to cure nursing pains, frostbites, and other injuries.
Colostrum is used for children’s ailments.
Fat Protein Lactose Ash
11.1 11.1 3.0 1.5
10.2 7.5 3.7 1.2
19.6 13.0 3.7 2.7
15.5 10.7 3.7 1.3
17.1 10.9 2.8 1.5
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Milk | Milks of Other Domesticated Mammals (Pigs, Yaks, Reindeer, etc.) 535

Table 5 Traditional products and uses of reindeer milk

Fresh milk Consumed by children (often diluted with water), used in tea and coffee and in medical treatments
Stored milk
Frozen Stored for consumption during winter, ice cream mixed with berries
Fermented
Short Sour cream and cultured milk inoculated with a bacterial starter, for consumption
Long Stored in wooden containers often mixed with herbs, curdled, consumed during winter and spring migration,
both the liquid and solid phases
Dried Dried in stomach compartment, reticulum, for winter consumption
Manufactured milk
product
Cheese Curdled by heating or by adding dried abomasum, dried and stored for consumption and sale
Butter Churned from both fresh and fermented milk, for consumption and sale
Other products Buttermilk and whey, consumed fresh and reduced and eaten as soup

Holand Ø, Gjøstein H, and Nieminen M (2006) Reindeer milk. In: Park YW and Haenlein GFW (eds.) Handbook of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals,
pp. 355–370. Ames, IA; Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.

Musk Ox Table 6 Gross composition of musk ox milk

Musk ox ranges across northern Alaska, Canada, and Study 1 a Study 2 b

Greenland. Musk ox was extinct in Alaska by the mid-
Total solids (%) 27.1 21.5
1800s, possibly due to hunting by native people, explorers,
Water (%) 72.9 78.5
and whalers. In the early 1900s, the musk oxen population in Fat (%) 10.9 11.0
the world was estimated to be as few as 5000 animals, which Solid-not-fat (%) 16.2 10.6
was considered to be in danger of extinction. Beginning in Ash (%) 1.20 1.8
1917, the Canadian Government enforced protection of the Protein (%) (N  6.38) 11.9 5.3
Lactose (%) 2.1 3.6
species from hunting and made efforts to save musk oxen.
Specific gravity 1.023 -
The species was translocated from Greenland to Alaska and pH 5.4 -
held in captivity in Fairbanks for feeding, growth, and Vitatmin B12 (mg l 1) - 3.4
breeding studies until 1935–36, and then released into the a
Baker BK, Cook HW, and Teal JJ (1970) musk ox
wild on Nunivak Island. (Ovibos Moschatus) milk. I. Gross composition, fatty
Although the lactational strategies differ in length, acid, and mineral constitution. Canadian Journal of
musk oxen and caribou live in similar arctic environ- Zoology 48:1345–1347.
b
Tener JS (1956) Gross composition of musk ox milk.
ments, and often eat similar forages. Healthy musk oxen Canadian Journal of Zoology 34:569–571.
continue to nurse their young throughout the rutting
period, until December to February, and they may lactate
throughout the winter in the field. The fatty acid composition of musk ox milk reveals that
Musk oxen have three recognized subspecies: Ovibos approximately 38% of the total fatty acids is oleic acid, and
moschatus moschatus, Ovibos moschatus niphoecus, and Ovibos only a trace amount of butyric acid is detected. The levels
moschatus wardi. Musk oxen in Alaska are descendants of of small- and medium-chain fatty acids (C4–C14) of musk
animals transplanted from Greenland (O. moschatus wardi). ox milk range from 9.8 to 17.4%, which are significantly
A comparative study of allozyme electrophoresis has lower than those of bovine or caprine milk. Must ox milk
shown that little genetic variation exists within and also contains lower levels of long-chain fatty acids (above
between populations of Alaskan and Greenlandic Musk C18) compared to the milk of other Arctic species.
Oxen.
The gross composition of musk ox milk is shown in
Tables 1 and 6. Although there are some variations
Llama Milk
between reports, musk ox milk contains a much higher
level of total solids than cow milk. This is due to the higher Milk Yield
fat and protein, which is a common characteristics of the Llama has a milk secretory system consisting of four
milk of Arctic and sub-Arctic species. The gross composi- mammary glands, similar in structure to the cow, with
tion of musk ox milk such as total solids, solid-not-fat, and four teats each having two streak canals, which enter into
lactose contents increases from day 1 to 3 months of lacta- separate teat and gland cisterns. Milk is collected by
tion. Musk oxen have the highest milk production at variable numbers and sizes of milk ducts from the gland
3 weeks postpartum, and production remains high for and emptied into the gland cistern. The amount of milk
about 1 month and then tapers off gradually. produced daily by individual llamas varies significantly

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536 Milk | Milks of Other Domesticated Mammals (Pigs, Yaks, Reindeer, etc.)

and ranges from 16 to 413 ml per animal, with a median of to that of cow milk (0.50 mg kg 1), but higher than that of
62 ml per animal. human milk (0.3 mg kg 1) and lower than that of camel
milk (1.3–2.5 mg kg 1). Llama milk proteins contain
significant proportions of phosphorus, being 0.36, 0.45,
Milk composition
-CN, and the pro-
Llama milk contains an average of 13.1% total solids,
6.5% lactose, 3.4% protein, and 2.7% fat. The energy
content of llama milk varies between 50.0 and 95.8 kcal
per 100 g with an average of 70.0 kcal per 100 g, which is
lower than that of bovine (85.2 kcal per 100 g), caprine
(103.6 kcal per 100 g), and ovine milk (155.6 kcal per
100 g). Llama milk has a density of 1.033 g ml 1, a milk
fat density of 0.935 g ml 1, and a pH of 6.52 at 20  C.
The mineral content of llama milk is different from
human and bovine milk, in which potassium is the
most abundant mineral, while calcium is the main
mineral in llama milk, followed by phosphorus and
potassium. The calcium content of llama milk is
higher (1310–2210 mg kg 1) than that of human, cow,
and goat milk (280, 1120, and 1400 mg kg 1, respectively),
but similar to that of camel milk. The concentration of
sodium in llama milk (193–413 mg kg 1) is lower than in
cow milk (530 mg kg 1), but higher than in human milk
(180 mg kg 1).
The most abundant trace element in llama milk is zinc,
similar to that in milk of other species. The mean zinc
content of llama milk (about 4.2 mg kg 1) is higher than
that of human milk (1.2 mg kg 1), but similar to cow milk
(3.9 mg kg 1) and camel milk (4.0–5.0 mg kg 1). Barium
concentration in llama milk (0.278 mg kg 1) is higher than
that of cow milk (188 mg kg 1). The mean copper
concentration of llama milk (0.109 mg kg 1) appears to
be lower than that of mare (0.155 mg kg 1), human
(0.250–0.314 mg kg 1), or guinea pig (0.500 mg kg 1)
milk. The relatively low copper concentration in llama
milk agrees with low blood serum copper concentration
of llamas compared to other domestic animals. Mean iron
concentration of llama milk (0.65 mg kg 1) is comparable
0.30, and 0.15% for -CN, -CN,
teose peptone fraction, respectively.
Alpaca
There are four species of South American camelids:
vicuna, guanaco, llamas, and alpacas. The vicuna and
guanaco are wild species. The vicuna is native to the
altiplano regions of Chile, Bolivia, and Peru. The guanaco
is native to the Patagonia regions of southern Chile and
Argentina. Llamas and alpacas are the two domesticated
species in this camelid family.
Alpacas are highly important for the village economy
in Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Argentina. Alpacas
are an essential source of income and provide food and
wool for the native people, who live on the high altiplano
regions. Alpaca-producing regions in these countries have
a conception rate of 50% or lower and a 20% mortality
rate of the young called ‘cria’. Nutritional inadequacies,
infectious diseases, and changes in the environment may
cause these reproductive problems.
Studies on the composition of alpaca colostrum at 48 h
postpartum for Andean high plateau and Patagonia
regions (Table 7) showed 21 and 19% total solids, 9.8
and 9.2% protein, 4.8 and 2.7% fat, 4.4 and 5.3% lactose,
1.6 and 1.8% ash, respectively. The colostrum of Andean
altiplano alpaca has higher dry matter, protein, and fat,
but lower lactose than Patagonia region alpaca. A similar
trend was observed for the major constituents of mature of
milk alpaca from 1 to 5 months of lactation (Table 7).
The higher fat content of alpaca milk at the Andean high
plateau compared to the lower altitude Patagonia region
may suggest that the animals at the higher altitude may

Table 7 Comparison of gross compositions of colostrum and mature milk of alpaca from
two regions of Chile

Dry matter Protein Fata Lactosea Ash

Colostrum
AHPb 20.66  1.3 9.84  0.6 4.80  1.2 4.41  0.1 1.63  0.0
Patagoniac 19.06  0.5 9.24  0.5 2.71  0.6 5.33  0.1 1.78  0.1
Mature milk
AHPb 16.8  0.7 6.9  0.3 3.8  0.6 4.4  0.5 1.7  0.3
Patagoniac 15.8  0.6 6.5  0.3 2.6  0.5 5.2  0.5 1.4  0.1
a
Differences in fat and lactose contents of both colostrum and mature milk between the two regions are
significant (P < 0.05).
b
AHP: Andean high plateau region (4400 m above sea level); 24 alpacas were tested.
c
Patagonia: Patagonia region (12 m above sea level); 18 alpacas were tested.
Data were reorganized from Parraguez VH, Thenot M, Latorre E, Fernando G, and Raggi LA (2003) Milk
composition in alpaca (Lamo pacos): Comparative study in two regions of chile. Archivos de Zootechia
52:431–439.

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Milk | Milks of Other Domesticated Mammals (Pigs, Yaks, Reindeer, etc.)
require more energy for body maintenance by natural
selection compared to those at the lower altitude. The
differences in fat and lactose composition between the
two regions could also be explained by the pasture com-
position and availability of the regions as well as the
grazing behavior of the alpacas.
The main immunoglobulin of colostrum found in
alpaca crias is IgG. Mean IgG concentrations are
similar in llama (2370 mg per 100 ml) and alpaca crias
(2340 mg per 100 ml), and are not different between
males and females. Llama and alpaca crias are born
agammaglobulinemic, with IgG concentrations increasing
after suckling.
Further Reading
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