Solar Energy 232 (2022) 459–470

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Solar Energy
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Hourly and daily domestic hot water consumption in social housing

dwellings: An analysis in apartment buildings in Southern Brazil
J. Sborz a, *, C. Cominato a, A. Kalbusch a, E. Henning b
a
Santa Catarina State University, Civil Engineering Department, 89.219-710 Joinville, SC, Brazil
b
Santa Catarina State University, Mathematics Department, 89.219-710 Joinville, SC, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Solar water-heating systems have been widely implemented in Brazilian social housing buildings. Although these
Domestic hot water consumption systems have been extensively explored regarding energy consumption, little is known about the water con­
Hourly data sumption. This article analyzes hot water consumption data from 154 social housing apartments in Southern
Daily consumption
Brazil. Hourly and daily consumption were analyzed regarding volume, profile and seasonal variations. The
Seasonal analysis
current system design was analyzed and compared to optimum configurations. The water-heating system only
provides hot water for the shower, and the measurements presented refer to untempered hot water – before
mixing with cold water to reach end-use temperature. Three peaks were found to occur during the day: in the
morning, during lunch time and in the evening, which was the highest. In addition, seasonal ambient temper­
ature and solar radiation showed significantly correlated to daily hot water consumption. Summer average per
capita hot water consumption was lower than other seasons’, while the average consumption during fall was the
highest. If the collectors were installed facing North and with a 26◦ inclination, the solar hot water system would
provide more adequate temperatures.

1. Introduction
Sustainable solutions have been increasingly implemented in social
housing interventions worldwide. Regarding consumption, energy and
water are both fundamental resources for households and are frequently
treated separately in studies on household poverty (Yoon et al., 2019).
Several case studies have explored the installation of renewable energy
and energy-efficient technologies in social housing (McCabe et al.,
2018), many of them focusing on the energy consumption and efficiency
of water-heating systems. Nonetheless, very little has been investigated
regarding the volume of heated water consumed in social housing. In­
formation is also limited on average per capita domestic hot water de­
mand (Fuentes et al., 2018) and on domestic hot water consumption in
social housing (Vine et al., 1987; Filippi and Sirombo, 2019).
In Brazil, Domestic Solar Water-Heating (DSWH) systems have been
part of the country’s energy efficiency policies since the year 2000
(Naspolini and Rüther, 2017). Brazilian social housing program “Minha
Casa, Minha Vida” (MCMV) was introduced in 2009 (Triana et al., 2015),
either recommending or requiring the use of DSWH in its interventions
along the years, depending on the building’s typology and region. The
DSWH system proposed by the MCMV program has some particularities:
it is designed to provide hot water only for the shower, and it is com­
bined with electric showerheads, since the boiler does not have an
electric heating element (Naspolini et al., 2010; Giglio and Lamberts,
2016). Therefore, its efficient use is challenging despite the widespread
implementation in low-income dwellings in Brazil (Giglio and Lamberts,
2016).
This paper analyzes domestic hot water consumption (DHWC) in
MCMV-program social housing interventions in Joinville, Brazil. Local
and recent data on DHWC are the base for the correct modelling of
efficient water-heating systems (Santiago et al., 2017), which enables
the creation of energy policies on efficient water heating (George et al.,
2015). In addition, monitored DHWC studies are crucial to the valida­
tion of standards and regulation, however they lack in the literature
(Fuentes et al., 2018).
In the context of social housing buildings in Joinville, this paper aims
to determine the per capita hot water consumption, the hourly hot water
consumption profile and to verify the correlation between the daily,
monthly and seasonal averages of DHWC and ambient temperature and
solar radiation. The importance of local DHWC measurements and
characterization is justified by its geo-dependency (Hohne et al., 2019).
According to George et al. (2015), real-data based daily consumption

* Corresponding author at: Rua Paulo Malschitzki, 200 - Zona Industrial Norte, Joinville, SC 89.219-710, Brazil.
E-mail address: julia.sborz@edu.udesc.br (J. Sborz).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.12.067
Received 22 June 2021; Received in revised form 24 December 2021; Accepted 28 December 2021
Available online 13 January 2022
0038-092X/© 2021 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Sborz et al.
profiles are preferred to simulate water-heating systems to obtain better
performing designs. Also, better end-use modelling leads to better de­
mand forecasting and, therefore, management (Boyle et al., 2013).
Knowledge on daily and seasonal variability, obtained through high-
resolution water consumption metering, allows water utilities to
perform better resource planning (Boyle et al., 2013). Therefore, the
results will be particularly useful for enhancing water-heating system
simulations and subsidizing hot water consumption forecasting. In the
context of the analyzed social buildings, results can also help evaluate
the usability of current water-heating systems.
Solar water-heating systems like the one explored in this case study
have already been addressed from an energy perspective (Naspolini and
Rüther, 2017; Naspolini, Militão and Rüther, 2010; Giglio and Lamberts,
2016; Giglio, Santos and Lamberts 2019). Although similar systems have
been analyzed by other authors, there are differences regarding the
building typology (houses, as in Giglio and Lamberts (2016) and Giglio,
Santos and Lamberts (2019)) and the water-heating storage system, as
seen in Naspolini and Rüther (2017) and Naspolini, Militão and Rüther
(2010). Local climate and seasonal variations play a significant role on
DHWC, impacting the consumption volume and the required energy to
achieve the desired end-use temperature (Ahmed et al., 2015). Brazil has
an extensive territory, with a considerable variety of climates. Conse­
quently, domestic hot water needs also vary across the country (Vechi
and Ghisi, 2018). Brazilian dwellings are usually equipped with hot
water only for the showers (Sangoi and Ghisi, 2019), except for the
homes in warmer regions, especially in the Northeast, which frequently
have no water-heating systems (Ghisi et al., 2007). A large social
housing program in Brazil offers a particular hot-water system in
multifamily buildings that has not been studied in terms of the DHWC
monitoring, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, as proposed in this
research paper. The main contribution of this manuscript is the evalu­
ation of water consumption in relation to weather variables and the
determination of the hourly hot water consumption profile in multi­
family social buildings with solar water heating in a developing country
with an extensive territory, such as Brazil.
Fig. 1. Illustration of the hot water system analyzed in this case study.
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Solar Energy 232 (2022) 459–470
2. Materials and methods
Data collection was carried out from 600 apartments in two social
housing interventions located in Joinville, Southern Brazil. Information
on socioeconomic characteristics and water consumption habits was
obtained through a survey with residents, and 154 apartments were
included in the water consumption analysis. The hot water consumption
data were obtained with the Municipal Water Utility, Companhia Águas
de Joinville. The water meters for each apartment were equipped with a
telemetry system, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The water meters operate with
a maximum permissible error of ± 3% for flow rates between 0.060 m3/
h and 1.500 m3/h, and of ± 5% for flow rates between 0.015 m3/h and
0.060 m3/h.
Ambient temperature and solar irradiation data were obtained using
measurements from the weather station installed in Joinville’s airport,
located approximately 4 km away from the apartments. This work
proposes to evaluate the volume of heated water that is mixed with cold
water to reach the desired temperature for shower use.
The apartments’ floor plans and the building’s infrastructure infor­
mation were obtained from the construction companies. The size of the
apartments was approximately 40 m2. In all of them, the existing
plumbing fixtures are an electric showerhead, a toilet, a lavatory,
kitchen and laundry taps, but the shower is the only fixture receiving hot
water. The water is heated in a solar water-heating system with the
support from an electric showerhead installed in each apartment (Brasil,
2017), as shown in Fig. 1. The hot-water storage tank has no source of
heat other than solar energy.
The sample encompasses 14 five-story buildings and 20 four-story
ones. All the 34 buildings have 4 apartments per floor. The five-story
buildings had two 1500-liter hot water storage tanks, serving 10
apartments each. Every four-story building had two 1000-liter hot water
storage tanks, serving 8 apartments each. Table 1 describes more details
of the solar water-heating systems installed in the analyzed buildings.
J. Sborz et al. Solar Energy 232 (2022) 459–470

Table 1 Based on the distribution profile, the method to calculate correlations

Details of the solar water-heating systems design. was chosen (Bishara and Hittner, 2012). This process was repeated to
Characteristic/ Five-story buildings Four-story buildings monthly and seasonal daily consumption averages. If all the parameters
building presented a normal distribution, Pearson’s correlation was employed.
Type of collectors Flat-plate However, if one was not normally distributed, Pearson’s correlation
Dimension of 0.9 m × 1.50 m = 1.35 m2 0.9 m × 1.3 m = 1.17 m2 could inflate Type I error rates (Bishara and Hittner, 2012) and, there­
collectors fore, Kendall’s method was preferred over Spearman’s (Puth et al.,
Number of 32 per building 2015). All analyses were performed with R software (R Core Team,
collectors
Roof slope 12% (6.84◦ ) 30% (16.70◦ )
2020) and the significance level adopted was α = 5%.
Position of 6 buildings with all 32 16 collectors face
collectors collectors facing northwest and northeast and 16 face
8 buildings with all 32 northwest (in every 2.4. Design analysis and hot water system validation
collectors facing north building)
Electric shower Plugs sized to support showers Plugs sized to support This section presents the design principles of solar water-heating
up to 6500 W showers up to 5400 W
systems given the configurations used in Brazil. These principles help
Pipe (boiler outlet) ∅ = 28 mm ∅ = 42 mm
Pipe (shower hot- ∅ = 22 mm ∅ = 22 mm to understand the aspects of the analyzed DSWH system and how they
water inlet) relate to the outcomes of this research. In Brazil, the design and instal­
Automatic None lation requirements for the solar heating system are determined by the
adjustment
NBR 15,569 standard (ABNT, 2021), which comprises recommendations
system
regarding geographic orientation, inclination angle, requirements, hot
water tank, place of installation, cold water inlet, protections and others.
2.1. DHWC data treatment An energy analysis was employed to check if the water-heating sys­
tem was able to meet the demand. The goal was to verify what water
Data were collected during a 484-day period, from January 1st, 2018 temperature the solar water-heating system was able to provide. In cases
to April 30th, 2019. Apartments with no consumption in most or all in which the system was not able to reach the necessary temperature, the
measurements (not using water from the solar heater) were removed electric showerhead consumption to bring the temperature up to at least
from the analysis. Discrepancies were removed from the consumption 43 ◦ C was calculated (Giglio and Lamberts, 2016).
data since they were identified as anomalous leaks or errors in the The Brazilian National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technol­
measurement or telemetry system. The 154 remaining apartments ogy (INMETRO) provides publicly available information on the effi­
composed the final sample. ciency of the collectors (INMETRO, 2018a), and on the hot water tank
monthly heat loss (INMETRO, 2018b). The Brazilian Technical Standard
2.2. Hourly analysis NBR15747-2 (ABNT, 2019) determines how the collector’s efficiency is
calculated for INMETRO’s data based on empirical tests and is in
The last available measurement was selected for each hour of the day accordance with Duffie and Beckman (2013) definition, as in Eq. (1).
for every apartment and for all the analyzed days. Then, the hourly per Qu
capita consumption was calculated dividing the hourly hot water con­ η= (1)
GT Ac
sumption of each apartment by the respective number of occupants. This
analysis was conducted in order to obtain the average hourly hot water where η is the collectors’ efficiency, Qu is the useful energy (J), GT is the
consumption overall, for the weekends for the weekdays. Regarding radiation on a tilted surface (collectors’ plane, in kWh/m2/day), and Ac
seasonal and monthly behavior, the consumption profile was deter­ is the collectors’ area (m2). In Brazil, solar collectors are recommended
mined from the average hourly hot water consumption in each season to be installed with an inclination based on the latitude plus 10◦ , facing
and month of the year. The monthly variations were observed along North, with a maximum deviation of 30◦ (ABNT, 2021). The latitude in
with the monthly average hourly ambient temperatures. The cubic this case is about 26◦ , while the slopes of the collectors in the analyzed
spline interpolation method was used to fill in incomplete hourly tem­ systems are either 6.84◦ or 16.70◦ , as specified in Table 1. The
perature data (Hyndman and Athanasopoulos, 2018; Chapra and Ray­ geographic orientation is right for some of the collectors that are facing
mond, 2010). North, but many were facing Northeast or Northwest, which represents a
Hot water hourly consumption profiles were generated based on 45◦ deviation from the North.
calculated averages. For weekends and weekdays, the R Chron package For the two types of collectors used, η is 55% according to INMETRO
(James and Hornik, 2020) was employed to calculate descriptive sta­ (2018a). GT monthly information was obtained using the online PVGIS
tistics of hot water consumption and also to establish the consumption European Communities tool and database (Huld et al., 2012). Qu is given
profile. For the seasonal analysis, data were separated according to the by Eq. (2) (Duffie and Beckman, 2013).
seasons in the Southern Hemisphere and the hot water consumption
Qu = ṁCp ΔT (2)
profile was built using the average hourly hot water consumption. The
procedure was repeated to perform the monthly analysis. Where ṁ is the mass flux, Cp is the specific heat of water, and ΔT is
the temperature difference between inlet and outlet water in the col­
2.3. Daily analysis lector. Inlet water temperature was assumed to be equal to ambient
temperature minus 2 ◦ C, in accordance to the regulation for the Energy
To calculate daily DHWC per apartment, the last measurement of Efficiency of Residential Buildings - RTQ-R (INMETRO, 2012).
each day was selected for each apartment. Therefore, the daily DHWC The hot-water storage tank has no resistance, but it is thermically
descriptive statistics for all apartments was calculated, and its average isolated to reduce heat losses. This particularity was also used in the
was used in further analyses. The daily DHWC averages were also Brazilian social housing buildings of the MCMV program that were
computed per month and per season of the year. analyzed by Naspolini et al. (2010) and Giglio and Lamberts (2016). The
The correlations between daily hot water consumption, solar radia­ specific monthly energy loss in the hot-water storage tank is defined as
tion and the ambient temperature averages were calculated. For this the relation between the energy dissipated in a month and the volume of
purpose, the Shapiro-Wilk test (Shapiro and Wilk, 1965) was used to the hot water tank (ABNT, 2018). Specific monthly energy loss average
verify if the data distribution profiles resembled a normal distribution. for hot-water tanks this size (1000 to 1500 L) was equal to 0.11 kWh/

461
J. Sborz et al.
month/liter (INMETRO, 2018b) and determined empirically using
steady-state tests and applying Eq. (3), given by the standard for hot-
water tank test methods for thermal performance (ABNT, 2018).
[ ( )]
Qloss
=
1
× ρ × Cp × 30 × (ti − tamb ) × 1 − exp
− Us × Δt
(3)
V 3600 ρ × V × Cp
where Qloss is the specific monthly energy loss average (kWh/month/
liter), V is the volume (liters), ρ is the density of water (kg/l), Cp is the
specific heat of water , ti is the initial temperature (50 ◦ C for standard­
ized calculations), tambient is the ambient temperature (21 ◦ C for stan­
dardized calculations), Δt is the duration of a day in seconds, and Us is
the heat loss coefficient (W/m2/◦ C).
Finally, when hot water is needed for a shower, it goes through CPVC
pipes, located within a 16-cm-thick brick and concrete wall, until it
reaches the shower for final use. Therefore, as in the work of Lima et al.
(2015), Eq. (4) was used to determine the water outlet temperature and,
finally, check if it was suitable for use.
( )
Up Ap
− ṁCp
Tp,o = Tamb + (Tp,i − Tamb )e (4)
where Tp,o is the water temperature when it leaves the pipe, Tamb is the
ambient temperature, Tp,i is the water inlet temperature, and the
subscript p refers to pipe variables. The pipe length used was an average
for the apartments of each building. In order to calculate the heat loss
coefficient for this case, the heat transfer between the CPVC pipe, the
brick and concrete wall and the air convection at the wall were
considered. A series of thermal resistances approach, as in Bergman et al.
(2011), was applied, allowing the construction of Eq (5).
1 7.30% of the households, the solar heating system was totally unknown
Up = L (5)
wall L
pipe
+ kpipe + h1ar
kwall
where L refers to the thickness (m), and h refers to the heat convection
coefficient (W/m2/◦ C).
The calculations on how much electric energy is saved due to the use
of solar energy to heat water were made considering an end-use water
temperature of 43 ◦ C. Fuentes et al. (2018) reviewed domestic hot water
consumption profiles and pointed out that tempered water temperature
typically ranges from 40 ◦ C to 45 ◦ C, with untempered temperatures
considered between 55 ◦ C and 60 ◦ C for energy estimations. In fact,
Giglio and Lamberts (2016) noticed in their study that water at 43 ◦ C in
the hot-water tank was sufficient to meet the user’s needs. Finally, no
major heat loss occurs after the electric showerhead, since it is the end-
use fixture.
Energy supplied by the electric showerhead is calculated using
Equation (6), which is a modified version of Equation (2) accounting for
equipment efficiency, in two different scenarios. In the first scenario, the
energy needed for the electric showerhead (QCH ) is calculated in a hy­
pothetical case with no solar water-heating system involved, therefore
ΔT is the temperature difference between shower temperature (43 ◦ C)
and cold-water temperature. In the second scenario, the energy needed
for the electric showerhead is calculated considering the solar water-
heating system, in which case ΔT is the shower temperature (43 ◦ C)
minus the hot-water temperature reached at the pipe outlet due to the
solar water-heating system. For the latter, QCH is defined as Qaux (energy
rate from auxiliary system). Electric showerheads’ efficiency is above
95%, according to the Institute for Technological Research (IPT, 2019)
data available from the Brazilian Electrical and Electronics Industry
Association (Abinee). In agreement with the work of Giglio et al. (2019)
and a few mathematical steps, Equation (6) is found from Equation (2).
QCH = Qu + (0.05×Qu ) = 1.05 × ṁCp ΔT (6)
Finally, according to Lima et al. (2015), the solar fraction can be
defined by Eq.7.
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Solar Energy 232 (2022) 459–470
QCH − Qaux
F= (7)
QCH
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Characterization of socioeconomic and water consumption habits
The socioeconomic characterization of the residents showed that the
income of 64.96% of the analyzed households was less than or equal to 2
minimum wages. In addition, the household income median and mean
were both approximately 2 minimum wages. Few units presented
household incomes higher than 3 minimum wages. The per capita in­
come analysis showed that, in 37.96% of the households, people live
with less than half a minimum wage per person (below the poverty
line1), 44.52% earned from half to 1 minimum wage per person and
17.52% lived with more than 1 minimum wage per person.
Occupancy varied from one to eight residents per apartment, with
both median and mean of approximately 3. Most residents were female,
which has also been observed in other social housing studies (Vine et al.,
1987; Karatasou et al., 2018). The MCMV program prioritizes, among
other criteria, households in which women are the breadwinner, people
with disabilities, and 3% of the units are reserved for the elderly (Brasil,
2013). The elderly and people with disabilities are either retired or
eligible for government financial support if considered unable to work
(Brasil, 1993). This study found that 54.66% of the work-capable resi­
dents were employed. Regarding education, most residents had at least
started high school.
When asked about the solar-heating system operation, 44.44% of the
residents spontaneously mentioned that it depended on the weather. In
by users, who were only familiarized to the existing electric showerhead.
As reported by respondents, the electric showers are used in 94.16% of
the households, and the solar water-heating system is used in 79.56%.
Therefore, not all residents use both technologies, although they are
available in all analyzed apartments.
3.2. Hourly DHWC profile
The average hourly hot water consumption per resident was calcu­
lated using data collected from January 1st, 2018 to April 30th, 2019.
The shower hot water consumption has a well-defined hourly profile
with similar patterns for weekends and weekdays, and slight variations
as Fig. 2 shows. Considering all days of the week, DHWC ranges from
0.117 to 1.966 L/person/hour, peaking at 19:00. Considering just
weekends, DHWC varies between 0.125 and 1.903 L/person/hour, with
a peak at 19:00. On weekdays (Monday to Friday), the consumption goes
from 0.115 L/person/hour to 1.958 L/person/hour, with a peak at
19:00. In September, the month with the highest hot water consump­
tion, it ranges from 0.113 to 2.799 L/person/hour, peaking at 20:00.
The profile pattern shown in Fig. 2 is in accordance with what is
reported in the literature, even though the water-heating technology is
different and provides hot water for the shower only. Previous studies in
Finnish apartments show that hot water consumption profiles generally
present two consumption peaks: one during the morning and another in
the evening (Ahmed et al., 2016a), both periods when people typically
take a shower or a bath. However, George et al. (2015) found an average
profile for DHWC heated with a solar thermal system in which the
morning peak was higher than the evening peak, and the authors
attributed the morning peak to showers. Nonetheless, they have found
several different profile patterns, which vary from one household to
another, mainly changing from morning to evening consumers. The
1
corresponding to the standard used by the Brazil’s Federal Government
register according to IBGE (2020).
J. Sborz et al.
Fig. 2. Hourly shower hot water consumption profile.
DHWC hourly profile is also expected to change according to the
country, due to cultural and climate differences. For example, in
Finland, the highest consumption is in the evening, as in this case study,
while in Germany and Australia, it occurs during the morning (Ferran­
telli et al., 2017; Chao et al., 2015). The present study found three peaks:
a small one in the early morning, a narrow one near noon and a large one
in the evening. The noon peak might be explained by the fact that, in
Brazil, people usually have lunch at home (Gorgulho et al., 2014; Carús
et al., 2014), which may not occur in some other cultures, mainly due to
full-time schooling (Barbosa, 2010). The fact that the evening peak is the
largest supports the use of solar water-heating systems to replace elec­
trical showerheads to reduce electricity demand peaks in Brazil (which
occur between 18:00 and 21:00), as proposed by Giglio et al. (2019). An
analysis of hot water usage per activity showed that long activities (e.g.
taking shower) also presented three main consumption periods (morn­
ing, noon and evening) in weekends and/or weekdays, depending on the
dwelling (Santiago et al., 2017).
The DHWC profile is also consistent with the findings regarding
residential energy consumption in Brazil. Electrical showerheads are
intensively used during Brazilian peak time (Filippo Filho et al., 2014),
and they are the highest-power devices found in a household (Naspolini
et al., 2010). In fact, the usage of electric showers significantly accounts
for the residential sector energy demand which, in turn, is a represen­
tative part of the power load curve peak for the Southern, Southeastern
and Midwestern regions of Brazil (Naspolini and Rüther, 2017). The
power load in Brazil is known to be higher between 18:00 and 21:00,
peaking at 19:00 (Giglio et al., 2019; Naspolini and Rüther, 2017).
In Greece, Papakostas, Papageorgiou and Sotiropoulos (1995) found
that, on weekdays, there are typically two peaks. The highest usually
occurs between 20:00 and 22:00 and the smallest at 13:00. DHWC was
higher on weekends, during which the patterns showed a more uniform
distribution (Papakostas et al., 1995), with only one peak on Saturdays
(18:00) and two on Sundays (12:00 and 21:00). In South Africa, the
DHWC profile usually presents two peaks throughout the day (Meyer
and Tshimankinda, 1996).
A study in Spain showed that low-income dwellings present a
different hourly DHWC pattern, in which weekdays consumption
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Solar Energy 232 (2022) 459–470
indicates domestic occupation all day, as in the typical weekend profile
(Vogt et al., 2014). Nevertheless, Vine et al. (1987) noticed that, for low-
income buildings, there is a considerable difference between weekday
and weekend hourly draw patterns. The authors observed that, while
weekends presented a larger peak in the middle of the day, weekdays
had two narrower peaks in the morning and evening (Vine et al., 1987).
In South Africa, during summer or winter, the morning peaks on
weekdays were always at 7:00 and, on weekends, they occurred at 9:00
(2 h later), while evening peaks were always 1 h earlier on weekdays
than on weekends (Meyer and Tshimankinda, 1996). Santiago et al.
(2017), as well as Ahmed et. al (2016b), observed that the morning
consumption peak occurs later on weekends than on weekdays (about 2
to 3 h of difference). This was not observed in this case study, in which
the consumption on weekends gradually increases over the hours.
However, Rouleau et al. (2019) described that, in social housing, so­
cioeconomic factors can influence the DHWC hourly profile given the
different family routines, and could explain why the consumption pro­
file does not present a peak in the morning on weekends, as it does on the
weekdays. Fuentes et. al (2018) and George et al. (2015) also describe
that the DHWC peaks occurs later on Sundays than on the other days of
the week.
3.3. Hourly and daily DHWC averages and seasonality
Average daily hot water consumption was 20.97 (standard deviation
s = 4.93) liters/person/day and the median was 21.20 L/person/day.
The magnitude of the results is similar to those obtained by Ahmed et al.
(2016b) (47 L/person/day) considering the months of highest con­
sumption for both studies, and that showers represent about 39.1% of
the hot water consumption according to DeOreo et al. (2016), varying
from 22% to 44%, according to Gill et al. (2011). This consideration was
made because, in the study developed by Ahmed et al. (2016b), the hot
water system supplies baths, showers, washbasins and kitchen facilities
and, in the present study, the system supplies hot water exclusively for
the shower.
The daily DHWC average is close to that found in social housing
single-family unities in the UK, which was, on average, 27.1 L/person/
J. Sborz et al.
day of heated water (Gill et al., 2011), although the end use was not
described. The results obtained are also close to those reported by Giglio
(2015), in which the average hot water consumption of MCMV-program
households was 17 L/person/day. In Greece, where hot water tanks are
typically coupled with solar collectors (Atikol, 2013), a study has shown
that, for the majority of the families, DHWC was between 25 and 35 L/
person/day (average = 32.2 L/person/day) (Papakostas et al., 1995).
For seasonal averages, daily hot water consumption was 18.17 (s =
5.12) liters/person/day in the summer, 21.19 (s = 3.39) in the spring,
23.61 (s = 4.63) in the fall and 21.68 (s = 3.70) liters/person/day in the
winter. The lowest daily average was 6.15 L/person/day, which
occurred on February 2nd, 2019 (summer). The highest was 38.25 L/
person/day on April 17th, 2018 (fall). The average hot water con­
sumption during the summer is lower than during the other seasons
(Fig. 3). The highest peaks for each season were 2.267 L/person/hour in
the fall, 2.247 in the spring, 2.192 in the winter and 1.643 in the sum­
mer, also shown in Fig. 3.
The obtained results are also comparable to those reported by Giglio
(2015), where the average hot water consumption of MCMV-program
households varied from 9.1 L/person/day in the summer to 31.5 in
the winter. In addition, Chao et al. (2015) found that hot water repre­
sented around 24% of the total water consumption in the summer and
38% in the winter.
In the study conducted by Meyer and Tshimankinda (1996) in South
Africa, morning peaks in both the summer and the winter were always at
the same time. On the other hand, night peaks occurred one hour later in
the summer (20:00 on weekdays and 21:00 on weekends) than in the
winter (19:00 on weekdays and 20:00 on weekends) (Meyer and Tshi­
mankinda, 1996). Fig. 3 shows that the evening peak is earlier in the fall
and the winter (around 18:00), later and smaller in the summer (19:00)
and even later in the spring (20:00). Morning peaks are hard to distin­
guished since they are much larger, but consumption seems to start al­
ways at 5:00, with a smaller slope on winter.
Hourly hot water consumption by month and hourly average
ambient temperatures can be seen in Fig. 4. It is possible to notice that,
in the warmer months, such as December and January, the consumption
Fig. 3. Hourly hot water consumption profile per season.
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Solar Energy 232 (2022) 459–470
of hot water decreases. This may be related to the fact that, as stated by
some residents in the questionnaires, the solar heating system overheats
the water.
3.4. Correlations to temperature and solar radiation
The Shapiro-Wilk test showed that the daily average hot water
consumption distribution cannot be assumed normal at a 5% signifi­
cance level. The daily solar radiation and temperature averages were not
normally distributed either. Kendall’s correlation tests for daily averages
indicated that hot water consumption is significantly correlated to both
temperature and solar radiation, although the correlation itself (tau) is
negligible. Monthly averages for daily hot water consumption, temper­
ature and solar radiation were all accepted as normally distributed, as
well as the seasonal averages. Results for daily, monthly and seasonal
averages are compiled in Table 2.
All averages (daily, monthly and seasonal) were negatively corre­
lated to temperature and solar radiation at the 5% significance level.
Nonetheless, seasonal hot water averages present the strongest corre­
lations between DHWC and temperature or solar radiation, while daily
averages have the lowest ones. The effects of occasional variations are
smoother when the values are averaged over a month or season.
Figs. 5 and 6 bring an analysis of the association between the hot
water monthly consumption profile and, respectively, the monthly
temperature and solar radiation. Fig. 5 shows that hot water consump­
tion in warmer months (December to February) is lower than in the rest
of the year. However, even though the coldest months (June to August)
present a greater consumption, the month of absolute maximum con­
sumption is May. Contrary to what would be expected, Fig. 6 shows that
the higher the solar radiation, the lower the consumption, which may be
due to the fact that, in months when the radiation is stronger, the
temperature is higher and, consequently, the hot water demand drops.
Indeed, during interviews, some residents mentioned that, in sunny
days, the water reached uncomfortably hot temperatures.
Daily consumption and outdoor temperature have been found to
have no correlation in previous studies (Santiago et al., 2017). Giglio
J. Sborz et al.
Fig. 4. Comparison of monthly hot water and ambient temperature profiles.
and Lamberts (2016), however, have found a strong correlation between
air temperature and shower temperature in a social housing complex in
Southern Brazil, with no use of electricity for backing up the solar water-
heating system from October to April. In Canada, the monthly DHWC
averages for dwellings with solar thermal systems showed a strong
negative correlation to inlet (r = − 0.80) and cold-water supply (r =
− 0.70) temperature, which decreases as a consequence of colder out­
door temperatures (George et al., 2015). The authors stated that this is
probably a consequence of the changes in the mixing proportion of hot
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Solar Energy 232 (2022) 459–470
and cold water to achieve the desired temperature. According to Table 2,
daily DHWC seasonal averages have the strongest correlations. The re­
sults show that there is a significant seasonal variation and that hot
water is less consumed during the summer, which agrees with what was
found by Parker et al. (1996). They evaluated a social housing building
in a hot and humid climate in the USA and found seasonal variations
presenting a higher DHWC in the colder period of the year and lower
during the summer. Also, a case study in the city of Adelaide, Australia,
showed that the DHWC in the summer was considerably lower than in
J. Sborz et al. Solar Energy 232 (2022) 459–470

Table 2
Analysis of the correlation between hot water consumption, temperature and solar radiation.
Variable 1 Variable 2 Correlation method Correlation result Interpretation of correlation *

Daily average hot water consumption Daily average temperature Kendall − 0.12 Negligible correlation
Daily average hot water consumption Daily average solar radiation Kendall − 0.20 Negligible correlation
Monthly daily average hot water consumption Monthly daily average temperature Pearson − 0.45 Low negative correlation
Monthly daily average hot water consumption Monthly daily average solar radiation Pearson − 0.60 Moderate negative correlation
Seasonal daily average hot water consumption Seasonal daily average temperature Pearson − 0.63 High negative correlation
Seasonal daily average hot water consumption Seasonal daily average solar radiation Pearson − 0.77 High negative correlation
*
As proposed by Hinkle et al. (2003).

Fig. 5. DHWC and ambient temperature averages per month.

Fig. 6. DHWC and global horizontal irradiation averages per month.

the winter (Chao et al., 2015). In South Africa, daily DHWC was shown
to increase 70% from the summer to the winter (Meyer and Tshi­
mankinda, 1996) with thermostats fixed at 65 ◦ C. Fuentes et al. (2018)
stated that season and climate affect DHWC because of their impact on
the temperature of the mains water, leading the user to change the hot
water flow rate in order to obtain the desired end-use temperature.
3.5. Design analysis and hot-water system validation
The solar collector and hot-water tank heat losses were calculated
considering the full volume of the hot-water tanks, since the daily
consumption volume was lower. In fact, some households did not even
use the solar water-heating system, as all measurements were zero.
Additionally, in some other dwellings, the use of the solar water-heating
system was very occasional or even seasonal. Apartments with no con­
sumption in most or all measurements were removed from the analysis
as stated in the Material and Methods Section. Pipe heat losses only
considered the used volume of water. Table 3 presents a comparison of
the building and solar system characteristics, as well as the results for
the final temperature of water at the shower considering the use of the
solar water-heating system only.
The collectors’ direction only varies between NE, N and NW. As

466
J. Sborz et al. Solar Energy 232 (2022) 459–470

Table 3
Hot water temperature according to building and solar water-heating parameters.
Building and solar water-heating parameters Hot water temperature at the shower (◦ C)

Number of stories Collectors per direction, slope DHW tank volume (L) Min. 1stQ Median Mean 3rdQ Max.

5 32 to N, 6.84
◦
2x1500 24.28 30.73 38.13 38.03 46.09 51.03
5 32 to NW, 6.84◦ 2x1500 23.89 30.32 37.84 37.79 45.83 50.91
4 16 to NE, 16.70◦ 1000 32.05 39.40 47.69 47.49 56.91 61.95
16 to NW, 16.70◦ 1000 32.72 40.02 47.69 47.68 56.70 61.29

Table 3 shows, a change from N to NW with a slope of 6.84◦ impacts the
temperature in less than one degree Celsius in mean end-use tempera­
ture. In the buildings with a 16.70◦ slope on the roof and variations of
direction from NW to NE, the magnitude of the variation in the mean
end-use temperature is also less than one degree Celsius. The effects of
the slope seem much more evident, although not directly comparable,
since there are other system characteristics that diverge.
To optimize the direction of collectors, the geographic north
(INMETRO, 2012) was assumed. To optimize the slope, the latitude was
considered to be the optimum angle for maximum annual incident solar
radiation (Duffie, Beckman, 2013), and the latitude increased by 10◦ , as
recommended by the RTQ-R (INMETRO, 2012) and NBR 15,569 (ABNT,
2021). Results showed that using the latitude as the slope angle for
collectors provided the highest water temperature during the winter.
The lowest value was 5 ◦ C higher than the minimum value found using
latitude plus 10◦ .
Fig. 7 shows the system temperatures for each configuration, with
dashed lines simulating collectors facing north with a 26◦ inclination,
the same as the latitude. Tc is the collector outlet temperature, Tt is the
hot-water tank outlet temperature and Tp is the pipe outlet temperature,
which is the end-use temperature, and the subscription “opt” refers to
the same variables but considering the optimized configuration. All

Fig. 7. Monthly hot-water temperature for each system configuration and comparison to the optimized setting.

467
J. Sborz et al.
systems performed better in contrast with the current configuration, and
the systems with a 12% slope benefitted the most from the changes.
The size of the hot-water tanks proved to be sufficient to meet the
demand. For the 5-story buildings, there were two 1500 L hot-water
tanks per building, and maximum consumption reached 2962 L. For
the 4-story buildings, maximum consumption reached 1636 L per
building per day, and there were two 1000 L hot-water tanks per
building.
As Fig. 7 shows, the temperature of the hot water in the tank ranged
between approximately 30 ◦ C and 59 ◦ C in the five-story buildings and
between 37 ◦ C and 69 ◦ C in the four-story buildings (existing systems).
As for the optimized proposed systems, the temperature of the hot water
in the tank ranged between approximately 39 ◦ C and 62 ◦ C in both 4-
story and 5-story buildings. In social housing buildings with solar
heating systems in Brazil, electric showerheads are commonly used as a
support system, since the boiler does not have an electric heating
element (Naspolini et al., 2010; Giglio and Lamberts, 2016). Nonethe­
less, for Legionellosis prevention, Brazilian Technical Standard NBR
16,824 (ABNT, 2020) recommends that the minimum hot-water storage
temperature be 50 ◦ C in residential buildings.
As hot water is stored in collective tanks in the systems analyzed in
this study, the use of an electric showerhead installed in each housing
unit means that energy consumption is included in each family’s elec­
tricity bill. However, to meet the aforementioned NBR 16,824 (ABNT,
2020) recommendations regarding Legionellosis prevention, using
auxiliary systems other than electric showerheads is suggested. Another
suggestion, considering the financial expenses brought about by an
auxiliary heating system, is the analysis of individual solar heater stor­
age systems technical and economic viability.
Fig. 8 shows the monthly average energy consumption with and
without the solar system, and with the solar system at its optimum
design. No energy from the electric showerhead would be needed from
October to May if the system had been constructed using the optimized
configurations. Nonetheless, the built system provides hot water at 43 ◦ C
from November to April, requiring additional heating from the electric
showerhead in the other months. Table 4 gives the average energy
provided by the electric showerhead in each configuration.
The results are comparable to Giglio et al. (2019) findings, which
show a monthly electricity consumption that varies from 33.8 kWh to
98.7 kWh per social household, with an average of 61.5 kWh/household
and savings of about 48.1 kWh/household with the use of a DSWH.
Furthermore, it is important to highlight that a null consumption of
electricity, as shown in Table 4 and Fig. 8, depends heavily on user
behavior.
Fig. 8. All buildings’ average showerhead energy use per apartment according to the DSWH system.
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Solar Energy 232 (2022) 459–470
Solar fraction was 83.5% for the optimized DSWH, while for the real
system it was on average 62.0%. In this study, for the existing systems,
the lowest solar fraction was obtained with collectors facing Northwest
with a 6.84◦ slope, with a solar fraction of 53.1%, followed by the
configuration of collectors facing North with the same slope, with
54.4%. As for the existing systems with a 16.70◦ collector slope, the
building with collectors facing Northwest reached a solar fraction of
76.7%, while the collectors facing Northeast reached 73.7%.
4. Conclusion and final considerations
This study succeeded in determining the volume of hot water
consumed per social housing resident. The obtained value is reasonable,
based on the literature and the particularities of the analyzed buildings.
Although some aspects of the hourly DHWC profile agree with the
literature, the observed pattern is unique and matches cultural charac­
teristics. For instance, the tendency to shower at night was evident,
therefore subsidizing the importance of using solar thermal water
heaters as an alternative to the electric showerheads typically found in
Brazilian dwellings. Although daily ambient temperature and DHWC
were negligibly correlated, monthly and seasonal averages showed
correlations.
Since the focus of this study is the DHWC, there are limitations that
can be overcome with future studies. For instance, the data were pro­
vided by the Municipal Water Utility, and therefore they were limited to
water consumption measurements. Due to the absence of an electric
boiler with temperature monitoring and the impossibility to make any
changes to the building, the water temperatures could not be measured.
The observed hourly DHWC profile can be incorporated into simu­
lations of water-heating systems designed for social housing projects in
Brazil, since they provide actual information on hot water draws dis­
tribution during the day. The observations of seasonality may subsidize
hot water consumption forecasting. Seasonal and monthly climate were
shown to be much more correlated to the DHWC than daily climate.
Users seem to use the shower in three peaks during the day: morning,
noon and evening. The fact that the DHWC is lower in the summer shows
that users are able to control the mixing process, using less hot water
when the temperature is higher – as naturally expected. Since residents
stated that water reaches uncomfortably high temperatures on sunny
days, this fact must be taken in consideration in future systems to avoid
scalding issues. A more appropriate design would also help. For
instance, improvements in the collector’s inclination and orientation
could increase hot water temperature during colder months and slightly
reduce it in warmer months. The proposed collector slope was equal to
J. Sborz et al.
Table 4
Electric showerhead monthly average of required energy per apartment in each scenario.
Month 1 2 3 4 5 6
Energy needed from the electric showerhead (kWh/month/apartment)
No DSWH 24.91 32.44 41.31 43.50 62.19
Optimized DSWH. 0 0 0 0 0 17.54
Real DSWH 0 0 0 0 21.79
the latitude, which differs from the recommendations given in the na­
tional standard for the design of solar water-heating systems. The
changes proposed in this case study would allow users to save on electric
energy, which is a very relevant issue in social housing projects.
This article has presented key characteristics of DHWC, subsidizing
future research and technology developments towards water and energy
sustainability in a social housing context. In addition, it shows that an
adequate system design could provide hot water using exclusively solar
energy for 8 months a year, even in a city located in the South of Brazil,
where solar radiation and air temperature are lower than in the rest of
the country.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento
Científico e Tecnológico – CNPq for the Scientific Initiation scholarship.
This study was also financed by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de
Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES - Finance Code 001. This work was
also supported by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e
Tecnológico – CNPq [grant number 421062/2018–5]; and Fundação de
Amparo à Pesquisa e Inovação do Estado de Santa Catarina – FAPESC
[grant number 2019TR594]. We would also like to thank Companhia
Águas de Joinville – CAJ for making this research possible by sharing the
water consumption data. We also thank all the dwellers from the studied
buildings who accepted sharing their water consumption data and
participated on the survey.
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