CONTENTS

Articulators 3
The 14 articulators 3
The articulators' roles 4
Vowels 4
Speech sounds: vowels vs consonants 4
Vowels classification 5
Primary cardinal vowel 5
Short vowels (Lax) 6
Long vowels (Tense) 6
Vowel chart with long and short vowels 7
Diphthongs 7
Triphthongs 9
Consonants 9
Classification 9
Voicing 9
Place of articulation (POA) 10
Manner of articulation (MOA) 11
Consonant chart 16
The syllable 18
Some terms 18
The structure of the English syllable 18
Peak 19
Onset 19
Coda 20
Sonority Hierarchy 21
Syllable division 21
Strong and weak syllables 21
1
 Syllabic consonants 23
Weak forms 24
2 reasons for having weak forms 24
Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives 25
Articles and linking words 25
Prepositions 25
Auxiliary verbs 26
Connected speech 26
Stress 27
Intonation 28
Particular cases 28
Declaratives 28
Imperatives 28
Exclamatives 28
Interrogatives 28
The functions of intonation 29
Morphemes 30
Definition 30
Difference between Word, Morpheme, and Syllable 30
Problems with the definition of morphemes 31
Morphs and allomorphs 31
Conditioning of allomorphs 32
Types of allomorph 32
Types of morpheme 33
Free and bound 33
Roots and affixes 33
Affixes 34
Prefixes vs. Suffixes 35

2
 Bases and stems 35
Lexical vs. grammatical morphemes 36
Derivational vs. inflectional affixes 36
Immediate constituents 38
Immediate constituents (IC) 38
IC division 38
Recommendations 39
Derivational rules (Morphological rules) 39
Words 40
Lexeme and word form (or word) 40
Characteristics of a word 40
Types of words 40
Simple words 40
Complex words 41
Compound words (Compounds) 41
Word formation 41
Derivation 41
Homophones of morphemes 41
Multiple derivation 43
Compounding 44
Structures of compounds 44
Types of compounds 44
Features of endocentric compounds 45
Compounding and Derivation 46
Conversion 47
Back formation (Reversion) 47
Clipping 47
Acronymy 48

3
 Blending 48

PHONETICS VS. PHONOLOGY

Phonetics deals with the production of speech sounds by humans, often without prior
knowledge of the language being spoken.
Phonology is about patterns of sounds, especially different patterns of sounds in different
languages, or within each language, different patterns of sounds in different positions in
words etc.

PHONETICS

Articulators
The 14 articulators
Link worksheet for this

1. Lips (upper lip, lower lip)

2. Teeth (upper teeth, lower teeth)
3. Alveolar ridge (behind upper teeth)
4. Hard palate
5. Soft palate (velum)
6. Uvula
7. Tip of the tongue
8. Blade of the tongue (below 3)
9. Front of the tongue (below 4)
10. Back of the tongue (below 5)
11. Nasal cavity
12. Oral cavity
13. Pharynx
14. Larynx

4
The articulators' roles
- Muscles in the larynx produce many different modifications in the flow of air from
the chest to the mouth
- Pharynx allows air to go through 2 ways: 11 or 12
- Soft palate (velum) controls the air escape (lower: stops through oral, escapes
through the nose)

Vowels
Speech sounds: vowels vs consonants
- Vowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from
the larynx to the lips (air flows easily and freely, no obstruction, vocal tract open)
- Consonants: more muscles involved, exercise more effort, some obstructions in the
vocal tract
➔ The most important difference between vowels and consonants is not the way
that they are made, but their different distributions
+ A vowel can stand alone to form a syllable of its own, a consonant has
to go with a vowel to make a syllable
+ In a word, the number of vowels and syllables correspond whilst there
can be multiple consonants:

● tax: CVC → 2 consonants, 1 vowel, 1 syllable

● brand: CCVCC → 4 consonants, 1 vowel, 1 syllable

Vowels classification
- Vowels are classified based on certain qualities. These qualities are determined by
the position or movement of the articulators in the mouth.
- The three vowel qualities:

+ Tongue height The vertical distance between the upper surface of the

tongue and the palate (can be seen in the position of the jaw - jaw closed,

tongue high → close/high vowel i:)

5
 + Tongue backness The part of the tongue, between front and back, which is
raised highest (which part is curled back)
+ Lip rounding 2 khoé miệng có xu hướng bẹt ra hoặc lại gần nhau

❖ Vowel length Short or long, được mô tả bằng 3 qualities ở trên

Primary cardinal vowel
★ Remember Cardinal vowels are not vowels of any particular language, but a
measuring system.
- A cardinal vowel is a vowel sound produced when the tongue is in an extreme
position, either front or back, high or low.

- 1 to 5: unrounded
- 6 to 8: rounded
- Describing cardinal vowel quality:
+ [i]: close, front, unrounded

Short vowels (Lax)

- Pronounced without much tenseness in the muscles

6
 ● /ɪ/: not as close or front as [i], slightly spread
● /e/: front, between [e] and [ɛ], closer to [ɛ],
slightly spread
● /æ/: not as open or front as [a], slightly spread
● /ʌ/: central, more open than open-mid, neutral
● /ɒ/: between open and open-mid, not fully
back, slightly rounded
● /ʊ/: more open and more central than [u],
rounded

● /ə/ (schwa): mid, central, neutral → centre of

the vowel chart (shorter than a short vowel,

never occurs in a stressed syllable)

★ Teaching tips Using minimal pairs to teach pronunciation (same pronunciation, only
1 difference, and that difference is what we want to highlight). For example: mad -
mud, men - man,...
Long vowels (Tense)
- Produced with some tenseness in the articulation as you need to lengthen the sounds

● /i:/: closer to [i] (closer and more front

than /ɪ/), slightly spread
● /ɜː/: mid, central, neutral
● /ɑː/: open, not as back as [ɑ] , neutral
● /ɔː/: between [ɔ] and [o], closer to [o],
almost fully back, rounded
● /uː/: less back and less close than [u],
moderately rounded

★ Minimal pairs bead - bid, half - huff, part - pat,...

7
Vowel chart with long and short vowels

Diphthongs
- Functions as a vowel in one syllable

8
Triphthongs
- A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced
rapidly and without interruption. (lướt trong cùng 1 syllable)
- The triphthongs can be looked on as being composed of the five closing diphthongs
described in the last section, with ə added on the end:

9
 Consonants
Classification
● Voicing
● POA
● MOA
Voicing
- Whether the sound made is voiced or voiceless

10
Place of articulation (POA)
- The points at which the flow of air can be modified
- POA specifies where in the vocal tract the narrowing (or constriction) occurs
- 8 POAs, from the outermost articulator (lips) to the innermost (glottis):
Link worksheet

Classification Examples of Examples

Where the constriction occurs
based on POA consonants of words

/p/, /b/, /m/, pin, bin,

Bilabial between lower lip and upper lip
/w/ moon, why

between the lower lip and the upper

Labio-dental /f/, /v/ fit, vet
teeth

between the tip of the tongue and the

Dental /θ/, /ð/ thin, breathe
upper teeth

Alveolar between the blade or tip of the tongue /s/, /t/, /d/, sin, tea,
and the alveolar ridge /n/, /z/, /l/ dog, new,
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 zoo, long

ship, chair,
Post-alveolar between the blade of the tongue and /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /ʒ/,
garage,
Palato-alveolar the palato-alveolar /dʒ/, /r/
jean, red

between the front of the tongue and

Palatal /j/ yes
the hard palate

between the back of the tongue and cool,

Velar /k/, /g/, /ŋ/
the velum garden, long

Glottal between vocal folds (in the glottis) /h/ happy

Manner of articulation (MOA)

- The manner in which a consonant is articulated
- 6 MOAs (Depending on the degree of constriction that occurs during articulation:
complete closure, close approximation, and open approximation)
Link worksheet

Examples of consonants
Classification based Description of MOA (Degree of
on MOA constriction) Voiceless Voiced
(Fortis) (Lenis)

/p/ /b/
complete closure to block airflow
Plosives (or Stops) /t/ /d/
-> sudden release of airflow
/k/ /ɡ/

/f/ /v/
close approximation -> air escapes
/θ/ /ð/
through a narrow passage, creating
Fricatives /s/ /z/
friction and hissing sound ->
/ʃ/ /ʒ/
continuant consonants
/h/

12
 The begin as plosives and end as
Affricates /tʃ/ /dʒ/
fricatives

/m/
Air escapes through the nose ->
Nasal /n/
lowered soft palate
/ŋ/

open approximation -> the

/j/
articulators are not close enough
Approximants /r/
to create friction or a “complete"
/w/
consonant

The air escapes along the sides of

Lateral /l/
the tongue

13
14
15
16
Consonant chart
* Trái voiceless, phải voiced

MOA POA

17
 Labio- Alveola Palato-
Bilabial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal
dental r alveolar

Plosive pb td kg

Nasal m n ŋ

Fricative fv θð sz ʃʒ h

Affricate tʃ dF

Approxi
w r j
mant

Lateral l

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 PHONOLOGY

The syllable
Some terms

The structure of the English syllable

- Phonetically:
+ A centre with little or no obstruction to airflow (the vowels - comparatively
loud)
+ Before and after this centre: greater obstruction to airflow (the consonants -
less loud)
- Phonologically:
+ Possible combinations of phonemes
+ Phonotactics (tell whether the combination is possible in a language)
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 - The main constituents in a syllable:

➔ The peak is the most important as it is usually the vowel (in a word, the
number of vowels and syllables correspond)
Peak
- Usually vowel
- Isolated syllables do not end with short vowels, there must be a coda there
- A syllable containing only peak: minimum syllable (I, or,...)
- 1 vowel in 1 peak for 1 syllable
Onset
- Consonants (max 3)
- Zero/empty onset No consonants preceding the peak

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Coda
- Consonants (max 4)
- Zero coda No final consonant

* Với từ bond thì n có thể ở pre-final hoặc final, d có thể ở final hoặc post-final

21
Sonority Hierarchy
- Refers to the loudness of the sounds
- The centre of the syllable is the loudest, then it becomes less loud onwards or
backwards
- Vowel > Approximants > Nasal > Fricatives > Plosives
Syllable division

Strong and weak syllables

- Weak vowels:

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 1. ə (‘schwa’) (ở đâu: xem trang 65, 66 Roach)
2. i (i.e. a close front unrounded vowel in the general area of /i:/ and /І/)

3. u (i.e. a close back rounded vowel in the general area of /u:/ and /ʊ/)

- Strong vowels are any other vowels except /ə/, /i/ and /u/.

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Syllabic consonants

- In a word like ‘bottle’ bɒt.l the weak second syllable contains no vowel at all, but
consists entirely of the consonant 1. We call this a syllabic consonant.

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 - Common syllabic consonants:
+ Syllabic l
+ Syllabic n
+ Syllabic m, ŋ
+ Syllabic r
Weak forms
2 reasons for having weak forms
- Most native speakers of English find an "all-strong form" pronunciation unnatural
and foreign-sounding, something that most learners would wish to avoid
- Speakers who are not familiar with the use of weak forms are likely to have difficulty
understanding speakers who do use weak forms

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Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives

Articles and linking words

Prepositions

26
Auxiliary verbs

Connected speech
Hiện tượng biến đổi âm khi phát âm một chuỗi âm

27
Stress

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 Intonation

Particular cases
Declaratives
- Fall: most cases, since we are just giving information
- Fall - rise: creating some suspense, the rise here may indicate that the speaker hasn't
finished speaking yet
- Low rise: question
- High rise: disbelief, surprise
Imperatives
- Fall: conveying definiteness/impatience/anger/…
- A low rise can soften an imperative
Exclamatives
- Fall (or rise - fall)
Interrogatives
- Yes/No:
+ Low rise
+ Fall: gently pressing
+ Alternative questions:

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 ● Rise khi nói những ý trong list
● Fall at the end (last item of the list): đã list hết choices
● Rise at the end (last item of the list): chưa list hết, có thể chọn cái khác
- Wh-:
+ Fall
+ Low rise: tentative
+ High rise: repetition (or highest rise for surprise)
- Tag:
+ Rise: The speaker is not sure and is demanding an answer
+ Fall: The speaker already knows the answer, wanting others to confirm or
agree with him/her
The functions of intonation
- Express attitudes
- Focus attention on particular words
- Indicate grammatical boundaries
+ Vd: Those who sold quickly made a profit, câu này có 2 kiểu ngắt trc hoặc sau
chữ "quickly"
- Convey discourse meaning (stress on information that is important or new)

MORPHOLOGY

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 Morphemes
Definition

- A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language.

- A morpheme is a short segment of language that meets three criteria:
+ It is a word or part of a word that has meaning.
+ It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts without violation of its
meaning or without meaningless remainders.
+ It recurs in different verbal environments with a relatively stable meaning.
Difference between Word, Morpheme, and Syllable

31
Problems with the definition of morphemes

Morphs and allomorphs

32
Conditioning of allomorphs
- The condition of allomorphs: the presence of the surrounding areas

- Grammatically-condi với lexically-condi có thể đc gom chung thành

morphologically-conditioned
Types of allomorph
- Suppletive: form change completely
- Replacive: có thể thay thế 1 âm hoặc nhiều hơn
- Zero: no change, but it doesn't mean it's not there

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 Types of morpheme
Free and bound

Roots and affixes

- Roots can be free or bound, most are free
- Affixes are always bound, b4 or after a root
- There can be one or more than one root and affixes in a word

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Affixes

In a word, suffixes outnumber prefixes.

35
Prefixes vs. Suffixes

Bases and stems

- Base can be free or bound
- Stem can only be free
- Root là base, nhưng base chưa chắc là root

36
Lexical vs. grammatical morphemes

- Roots, prefixes, suffixes are lexical morphemes

Derivational vs. inflectional affixes
- List of 8 inflectional affixes:

37
 Criterion Deri Inflect

Position Can be prefixes or suffixes Always suffixes

Closer to root than inflectional End the word

Number A lot more than 8 in language Eight in English language

More than one in a word One in a word

Influence on root Change meaning + word-class No change

Productivity Not (take the case of nouns, some Very productive (apart from
is added with -ment, some -ion, exceptions, you just need to
some -ness) => have to memorize identify the grammatical purpose
and attach it with the appropriate
affix)

38
 Immediate constituents
- A hierarchy of two parts
➔ Successive division into two parts
➔ Immediate constituents
Immediate constituents (IC)
- Any of the two meaningful parts forming a larger linguistic unit
IC division
- The breaking down of a word into its ICs
- Example: un|gentle|man|ly
+ "gentle" and "man" are the ICs of "gentleman"
+ "gentleman" and "ly" are the ICs of "gentlemanly"
+ "un" and "gentlemanly" are the ICs of "ungentlemanly"
+ Hình ở trên là dùng để phân tích (chỉ vẽ khi đề yêu cầu)
+ Hình ở dưới là IC division diagram (khi vẽ thì đi từ ngoài vào)

39
Recommendations
- The 1st cut: cutting off the inflectional suffix
- One of the ICs should be a free form (if possible)
- The meaning of the IC
- Examples:

* Đối với untruly, cả 2 cách trong hình đều đc, nhưng cách 2 đc chuộng hơn vì nó thể hiện
cách form từ thông thường (un- added to adj, -ly added to adv)
Derivational rules (Morphological rules)
- Rules that predict how words may be formed in English

40
 - Applied in IC division
- Examples:
+ un- + Adj = another adjective meaning "not Adj"
+ re- + Verb = another verb meaning "Verb again"
+ Verb + -able = an adjective meaning "can be Verb-ed"

Words
Lexeme and word form (or word)
- Lexeme
+ An abstract unit of meaning, a unit of morphological analysis in linguistics
+ Can occur in many different forms in actual spoken and written sentences
+ Regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected
+ Example: pockle, pockled, pockling are different realisations of the lexeme
POCKLE
- Word form (or word)
+ A particular physical realisation of that lexeme in speech or writing
Characteristics of a word
- Indivisibility: cannot be divided into two smaller free forms (without a change
in meaning)

- Internal stability: the structure of the word is stable → the combination of

morphemes is stable, if jumbled you will receive a different word

- Positional mobility: when the word is used in a larger unit, it is mobile in that it has
some freedom to move around within a sentence
+ Slowly, he walked down the street.
+ He slowly walked down the street.
+ He walked slowly down the street.
+ He walked down the street slowly.
➔ A word is a minimal linguistic unit which is freely movable with a meaning
➔ A word is a free form that cannot be divided wholly into smaller free forms

41
Types of words
- Based on the kinds of morphemes and the combinations of morphemes of which they
are composed
Simple words
- A single free base (= a free morpheme) (and a superfix) (± IS)
- Examples: stay, flea, long, spirit, eucalyptus, Connecticut, etc.
Complex words
- At least one bound morpheme as an IC (and a superfix) (± IS)
- Examples: supervise, contradict, inspire, teacher, uncertain, impossibility
- Complex words with a bound base (C-BB): have a bound form for each IC
- Complex words with a free base (C-FB): have one free form as an IC
Compound words (Compounds)
- They are similar to words
- They sometimes also resemble grammatical structures
- Fall somewhere between words and grammatical structures
- A compound has at least 2 free bases (± bound morphemes)
- Examples: honeymoon, ill-treated, washing machine
➔ An intermediate position between words and grammatical structures
- Phân biệt compounds và grammatical structures:
+ Phonological feature: Superfix và stress chỉ đúng với đa phần compound noun
chứ kh xuyên suốt và thống nhất
+ Syntactic feature:
● Compounds are solid blocks - they cannot be divided by the insertion
of any other elements
● Members of a compound cannot participate in a grammatical structure
+ Semantic feature: Compounds have specialized meanings

42
 Word formation
Derivation
- The process by which a new word is built from a base, usually through the addition
of an affix / the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or
morphemes
➔ Derivation: base + derivational affixes
- 2 types of derivation: prefixation and suffixation
Homophones of morphemes
- Morphemes that are written/represented in similar ways, yet have different functions
and have different meanings.
- Examples (some forms can represent DS or IS):
+ Morpheme {-er}
● {-er1}: comparative adjective
● {-er2}: noun-forming
● {-er3}: verb-forming DS that means 'involving repetition' (chatter,
mutter, glitter, glimmer,…)
➔ However, this is problematic and raises questions about the remainders
in words of this class. (việc xem er là 1 verb-forming DS vẫn còn tranh
cãi và ngta kh chấp nhận rộng rãi er là morpheme)
★ Note "anger" là monomorphemic word, vì er kp là cái đc thêm vào "ang" trong word
formation process
★ Trường hợp của "cleaner", ta kh biết {-er} đc thêm vào clean là verb hay là adj
+ Morpheme {-ing}
● {-ing1}: verbal present participle
● {-ing2}: noun-forming (added to a verb) (droppings, findings,...)
● {-ing3}: adjective-forming (added to a verb) (interesting, amazing,...)
➔ Distinguishing verbal {-ing1} from adjectival {-ing3}:

43
 ➢ Có đứng sau danh từ đc kh, nếu đc thì là verbal:
I saw a burning house. I saw a house burning.
I saw a charming girl. I saw a girl charming.
➢ Có modify đc từ đó bằng adv hay kh, nếu đc thì là adjective:
I saw a very charming girl.
I saw a very burning house.
+ Morpheme {-ed}
● {-ed1}: past simple tense
● {-ed2}: verbal past participle
● {-ed3}: adjective-forming
➔ Distinguishing verbal {-ed2} from adjectival {-ed3}: Tương tự như ở {-
ing}, xét nghĩa và có take modifier kh
+ Morpheme {-en}
● en + Adj: to make (enable, enrich, enlarge)
● en + Noun: to put in or into (encage, endanger)
+ Morpheme {-ly}
● {-ly1}: adverb-forming
● {-ly2}: adjective-forming
+ Morpheme {un-}:
● un + Adj: not
● un + Verb: reverse, do the opposite of

44
Multiple derivation
- Khi thêm nhiều derivational affix vào 1 base
- Some derivational rules:
+ {re-} added to a verb, not an adj
Từ "reusable", {re-} đc thêm vào "use" trc, sau đó "reuse" mới đc thêm {-able}

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Compounding
- The process of joining two or more words to form another with specialized meaning
other than that of the word taken separately.
Structures of compounds
- Compound nouns:
+ N + N: bookcase, schoolboy, teapot,...
+ A + N: sweetheart, sweet potato, hothouse,...
+ V + N: breakfast,...
+ Prep + N: afterthought, underdog, outskirts,...
- Compound adjectives:
+ N + A: user-friendly, world-wide, foolproof,...
+ A + A: kind-hearted, short-lived, hard-hearted,...
+ Adv/Prep + Participle: everlasting, overwhelming, outspoken,...
- Compound verbs:
+ Prep/Adv + V: undertake, underestimate, upset,...
+ Compound verbs are derived chiefly from compound nouns by conversion:
blackmail, honeymoon

46
Types of compounds
- Endocentric compound (headed compound)
+ Head the part that contains the basic meaning of the whole compound, and is
usually on the right of the compound
+ Modifier the part that restricts this meaning
+ Endocentric compounds have the same part of speech as their heads
+ The status of the compound is determined by one of its two
components (head)
- Exocentric compound (headless compound)
+ No formal head, and its meaning often cannot be transparently guessed from
its constituent parts
+ The word class is determined lexically, disregarding the class of the
constituents
+ Examples: white-collar, must-have, lazybones, pickpocket, cutthroat,...
➔ Most English compounds are endocentric.
Features of endocentric compounds
- Syntactically:
+ Inflection is done to the head and percolates to the entire compound

● bookcase → bookcases

● passer-by → passers-by

● sportsman → sportsmen

- Semantically:
+ Indicates the sub-grouping within a more general class
● Từ scissor-handle cho ta biết trong nhóm các handle thì có 1 cái loại
gọi là scissor-handle
● Từ apple juice cũng có thể đc giải thích tương tự
- Structurally:

47
 + A compound never has more than 2 constituents → When there are more

than 2 elements in a compound, we need to consider the order of

combination, aka the composition of binary

Compounding and Derivation

- Compounding and Derivation may also feed each other
- Phân tích vd trong hình:
+ money lender: derivation trc (lend + er), compounding sau (money + lender)
+ honeymooner: compounding trc (honey + moon), derivation sau
(honeymoon + er)

+ N → V: conversion (turn "honeymoon" to a verb, so that we can add "er"

to form a noun)

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Conversion
- Words may be formed without modifying the form of the input word that serves as
the base
- Conversion có thể đgl zero derivation hoặc zero affixation

- Verb → Noun: bore, throw, walk, buy

- Adj → Noun: comic, young

- Noun → Verb: bottle, corner, nurse, silence

- Adj → Verb: calm, dry, empty

- Conversion can go with a slight change of pronunciation (stress): rebel, record,

produce, contrast, export,...
Back formation (Reversion)
- The reverse of suffixation: Deriving words by removing what is thought to be a
suffix from an existing word
- Major sources: Nouns ending in -er/-or/-ar, -ing and -tion/-ion
- Mainly forming verbs from nouns and some from Adj (từ viết phía trước có trước,
sau một khoảng thời gian thì verb mới ra đời)

+ burglar → burgle

+ babysitter → babysit

+ dry-cleaning → dry-clean
dry-clean is a compound word that is formed from an existing compound noun

+ television → televise

+ lazy → laze
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Clipping
- Cutting off the beginning or the end of a word or both, leaving a part to stand for the
whole
- The resultant part is called a clipped word
- Reduces a longer word, doesn't increase the vocabulary
- Used in casual speech
- Examples:

+ doctor → doc

+ examination → exam
range of meaning của 2 từ có khác nhau một chút

+ dormitory → dorm

+ Professor → Prof.

+ omnibus → bus

bus is more widely used than omnibus, making omnibus an outdated

word → bus can be used in formal situations as well

+ telephone → phone

+ influenza → flu

+ refrigerator → fridge

+ science fiction → sci-fi

+ situation comedy → sitcom

Acronymy
- A word is formed from the initials or beginning segments of a succession of words.
- Written in capital letters or as common nouns
- Created to help remember organisations in speech or in writing more easily
- Rules of pronunciation:
+ 2 letters: pronounce từng letter

50
 + 3 or more: có thể form thành syllable thì đọc luôn, khi kh đc thì pronounce
từng letter
Blending
- The fusion of two words into one, usually the first part of one word with the last part
of the other.
- The blend has the meaning of two words.
- Examples:
+ brunch = breakfast + lunch
+ bit = binary + digit
+ Singlish = Singaporean + English
+ emoticon = emotion + icon
+ spork = spoon + fork
+ multiversity = multi + university

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