Module 1 Intro To Stat

MODULE 1
What is all about this module?

This module will provide you a general introduction and a fundamental understanding of
the concepts of statistics and statistical inference necessary to effectively employ
statistical methods in contemporary business situations. It is designed to use the
appropriate statistical techniques and any available software application that will facilitate
a data-driven decision-making process in the field of accounting and other related areas.
This module starts with the definition of the key terms used in the study of statistics. It will
also discuss the rules of summation, sampling techniques, collection and organization of
statistical data, constructing frequency distribution tables,
As you go over the discussion and exercises, you will appreciate

more the importance of statistics in daily life. Go over the discussion
Jon Corpuz and examples and enjoy learning.

PLEASE NOTE THAT ALL WORKSHEETS MUST BE SUBMITTED,
joncorpuz21
SEND IT TO THE ULS-CMLS
09163984713
09453991773 This module was designed for you to:

1. classify whether the data are descriptive or inferential, quantitative
or qualitative, continuous or discrete;
2. identify the scale of measurement for a given data;
3. employ the summation notation by applying operations involving the summation;
4. apply the different sampling techniques
5. organize collected data by constructing a chart, graph and or a frequency
distribution
THIS MODULE IS FOR THE EXCLUSIVE USE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LA SALETTE, INC. ANY FORM OF REPRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION,
UPLOADING, OR POSTING ONLINE IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS WITHOUT THE WRITTEN PERMISSION OF THE UNIVERSITY IS
STRICTLY PROHIBITED.
1
Test yourself:
Direction: Read and analyze the following questions. Choose and write the letter of the
correct answer on the space provided for.
___________1. It is a scientific body of knowledge that deals with the collection,
organization, or presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.
A. Statistic B. Statistics C. Descriptive Statistics D. Inferential Statistics
___________2. This refers to the gathering of information or data
A. Collection B. Organization, or presentation C. analysis D. interpretation
___________3. It refers to a large collection of objects, persons, places or things
A. Population B. Sample C. Parameter D. Statistic
___________4. Refers to a small portion or part of a population. It could also be defined
as subgroup, subset or representative of a population.
A. Population B. Sample C. Parameter D. Statistic
___________5. Refers to the process of making conclusions based on the analyzed data.
A. Collection B. organization, or presentation C. analysis D. interpretation
___________6. It is used to present data in a most systematic and organized manner to
make its reading and interpretation simple and easy.
A. Graph B. Table C. Drawing D. Sampling
___________7. Mrs.Yanga wants to study the heights and weights of the students in her
class. Which of the following samples is most likely to be a good representation of
the whole class?
A. A sample consisting of all students whose surnames start with E.
B. A sample consisting of all athletes in the class.
C. A sample consisting of students whose birthdays are from January to June.
D. A sample consisting of students whose names were drawn out of a box which
contained all the names of the students in the class.
___________8. Which of the following means ∑8𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 ?
A. 1 + 2+ 3 + 4 + 5
B. x + 2x + 3x + 4x + 5x
C. x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5
D. none of the above
2
___________9. The table below shows the scores of 300 students in a Statistics test.
Score Number of
Students
45-49 15
40-44 32
35-39 42
30-34 108
25-29 67
20-24 21
15-19 10
10-14 5
300
What interval contains the highest frequency?

A. 10-14 B. 45-49 C. 30-34 D. 25-29
___________10. What class size was used in number 9?
A. 5 B. 4 C. 3 D. 2
3
LESSON 1
Introduction
You may have heard of the word statistics. It is often used in almost all walks of
life. We use statistics every day. For instance, based on surveys statistical firms may
report the popularity survey of the President or the Department of health may announce
the number of positive case, the mortality rate and the recovery rate due to an existing
epidemic. Whenever you talk about the average income of the on-line sellers, or the
number of students who will not enroll this coming semester for fear of the existing
epidemic and the number of student who cannot afford an on-line based teaching-learning
environment, you are concerned with statistical data.
In this lesson, you will learn or relearn what statistics is, its two main parts and how
it is applied in various fields of study. You will also be introduced to some of the most
important terminologies used in the study of statistics. READY?!.. Then let’s start….
Statistics is a branch mathematics that deals with the collection,

organization or presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data. Its
fundamental purpose is to describe and draw inferences about the numerical properties
of a population.
statistics
Descriptive Inferential
-Presentation of summary of
definition of sampling data Samplilng Hypothesis Correlation and Simple time
measures of
terms techniques Distribution Testing regression series analysis
-Summation data
Normal Distribution z-test t-test p-value chi-square test
4
Descriptive Statistics is a statistical procedure concerned
The origin of descriptive statistics

with describing the characteristics and properties of a group of
can be traced to data collection
methods used in censuses taken persons, places or things; it is based on easily verifiable facts. It
by the Babylonians and
Egyptians between 4500 and organizes the presentation, description, and interpretation of data
3000 BC.
gathered. It includes the study of relationships among variables.
In the Roman Empire between
27 BC to 17 AD conducted
surveys on births and deaths its
If you have gathered data from a survey and have
citizens, the number of livestock
and the harvested crops yearly. organized them in a systematic, easy-to-read manner then you
Luke 2:1-4 have succeeded in applying the basic principles of descriptive
In those days a decree went out
from Caesar Augustus that all statistics.
the world should
be registered. 2 This was the
first registration
Among the measurements falling under descriptive
when[a] Quirinius was governor of
Syria. 3 And all went to be statistics are the measures of central tendency, measures of
registered, each to his own
town. 4 And Joseph also went variability, skewness, kurtosis, minimum, maximum, summation
up from Galilee, from the town
of Nazareth, to Judea, to the city and other items which help in describing a data set.
of David, which is
called Bethlehem, because he
was of the house and lineage of
Descriptive statistics answers the questions such as:
David…
1. How many students are interested to take online classes?
2. What months has the highest and the lowest number of covid-19 positive?
3. What are the most likable Netflix series according to students?
4. Who performed better in the entrance examination?
5. What proportion of the ULS college students likes online class?
Inferential Statistics is a statistical procedure used to draw inferences for the
population on the basis of the information obtained from the sample. With inferential
statistics, you are going to try to arrive at conclusions extending beyond the data alone.
You may use it to make judgments of the possibility that an observed difference between
groups/data is a dependable one or it just happened due to chance. It is a matter of
deciding between reality and coincidence.
Inferential statistics can answer questions such as:
1. Is there a significant difference in the academic performance of students
enrolled in an online and modular class?
2. Is there a significant difference between the proportions of students who are
interested to take statistics online and those who are not?
5
WORKSHEET 1
Name: ________________________________ Course/year: __________
Direction: Read the research article, then classify whether each statement
is DESCRIPTIVE or INFERENTIAL.
1998 Soda Drinking Statistics for the USA
Americans shelled out $60 billion for 196 million barrels of cola in 1998, generating $29
billion in retail profits (1) ______________. Average per Capita consumption during 1998
was 22.2 gallons (2) ________________.
Coca-Cola accounted for one-third of the market in 1990, (3) ______________ and is
projected to claim half of the cola market by 2013 (4) ________________. This is
attributed, apparently, to the increased number of men drinking cola. Men currently
account for only 15% of total cola consumption (5) _________________.
As the baby boom generation’s children come of age, approximately 48 million adults will
be eligible to join the cola-drinking ranks over the next 11 years (6) ________________.
Highest per capita consumption: Nevada, 48.8 gallons. Lowest per capita consumption:
Utah, 20.9 gallons (7) _______________________.
Half as many men as women drink cola; 17.2 vs 37 million. And men drink half as much:
11.3 servings monthly vs 22.8. But, men drink 15% more low-calorie than regular
domestic or imported cola (8) ________________.
Sales of foreign cola are also growing fast – up 14% in 1998 (9) ___________________,
and are projected to account for 13% of the market in 2013 (10) ___________________.
11. Which division of statistics is based on facts?

_________ Descriptive
_________ Inferential
12. Which division is based on assumptions/inferences?
_________ Descriptive
_________ Inferential
_
6
Population – refers to a large collection of objects, places or
things.
Parameter – is any numerical value which describes a population.
Example: There are 7, 592 students enrolled in a certain
Marian Institution.
Parameter (N)
N = 7, 592
Sample – is a small portion or part of a population; a representative of the population in
a research study.
Statistic – is any numerical value which describes a sample.
Example: Out of the 7, 592 students enrolled in a Marian Institution, 3,568 are
Female.
Statistic (n)
n = 3,568
Data - are facts, or a set of

information gathered or
under study. Data
Qualitative Data – are variables that

can be placed into distinct
categories, characteristic or
attributes. Quantitative Qualitative
Quantitative Data – are numerical
and can be ordered or ranked.
Discrete Data – assume exact value

and can be obtained through
counting. e.g: number of students
Continuous Data – assume infinite
values within an interval and
obtained through measurement. e.g: Discrete Continuous
Temperature
Researchers are Constant – is a characteristic or property of a population or sample which

not interested in makes the members similar to each other.
constant since they
do not make the
subjects of research Variable – is a characteristic or property of a population or sample which
different from makes the members different from each other.
another. They are
specifically Dependent Variable – A variable that is affected by another
interested in
variables variable.
Independent Variable – a variable which affects the dependent
variable.
7
Scales of Measurement
1. Nominal level of measurement classifies data into mutually exclusive categories
in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data. Nominal numbers are
just labels. e.g. SSS number
2. Ordinal level of measurement classifies data into categories that can be ranked;
however, precise differences between the ranks do not exist. e.g. size of t-shirt.
3. Interval level of measurement ranks data, and precise differences between units
of measure do exist; however, there is no meaningful zero. e.g. temperature.
4. Ratio level of measurement possesses all the characteristics of interval
measurement, and there exists a true zero. in addition, true ratios exist when the
same variable is measured on two different members of the population. e.g. height
8
WORKSHEET 2
Name: ________________________________ Course/year: __________
A. Classify the following as QUANTITATIVE or QUALITATIVE DATA:
________________1. Color of the eye
________________2. Number of computers in the computer laboratory.
________________3. Civil Status
________________4. Address
________________5. Phone numbers
________________6. Age of Teachers
________________7. Rank of Students
________________8. Speed of a car
________________9. Birth rates
________________10. Score in mathematics examination
B. Identify each of the following as CONTINUOUS or DISCRETE:
________________1. Weight of a body
________________2. Length of a rod
________________3. Number of quarantine protocol violators during ECQ in
Manila.
________________4. Dimensions of a table
________________5. Number of COVID-19 positive patients in March
________________6. Number of repatriated OFW in Isabela
________________7. Amount of sales of a business firm
________________8. All rational numbers
________________9. Speed of light
________________10. Area of a land
________________11. Lifetime of smart tv
________________12. Life span of a person
________________13. Number of passengers in an airplane
C. Identify the scale of measurement for each of the following:
________________1. Religion
________________2. IQ scores
________________3. Speed of a car
________________4. Civil status
________________5. Number of books in the library
________________6. Address
________________7. Size of t-shirt
________________8. Land area
________________9. Salary of workers
________________10. Number of hours spent in studying
9
Lesson 2
Sum it Up
The study of statistics involves the collection of data or measurement. Thus,
there is always a need to add several numbers. The Greek capital letter sigma, Σ
is used in the process. The symbol Σ, read as the sum of tells you to add certain
numerical values.
Example 1: Consider the scores obtained by 10 students in a 50-items

mathematics test.
Student No. Score

1 35
2 40
3 29
4 37
5 25
6 33
7 49
8 47
9 28
10 42
For convenience, variables will be used to present the data.
Let x = score obtained by each student

xi = different values or observations of x
xi is read as “x sub i” where i is a subscript which indicates the position of
each value in the series.
In the given data, there are 10 observations denoted as x 1, x2, x3, x4, x5,
x6, x7, x8, x9, x10. Hence,
10
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥6 + 𝑥7 + 𝑥8 + 𝑥9 + 𝑥10
𝑖=1
10
The symbol ∑ 𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1
is read as “the sum of 10 observations x1 to x10”.

To substitute the data:
10
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 35 + 40 + 29 + 37 + 25 + 33 + 49 + 47 + 28 + 42
𝑖=1
10
10
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 365
𝑖=1
For large observations, say 50, the summation will be expressed as:
50
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥50
𝑖=1
𝑛
In general,
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛
𝑖=1
If all the given values of a variable are to be used in finding the sum, the
limits of the summation are usually omitted, as
10
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = ∑ 𝑥
𝑖=1
Example 2: Given are the ages of the first 4 shoppers at a newly opened
convenience store in the neighborhood 12, 24, 30, 45.
1. What will x represent in the information given?

2. What will the subscript i represent?
3. Write an expression for the sum.
4. What are the lower and upper limits of the expression?
5. Write the formula for the summation and find the sum of the given
information.
Answers:
1. x will represent the ages of the first 4 shoppers in the newly opened
convenience store.
2. I will represent the first 4 shoppers in the newly opened convenience
store.
4
3. ∑ 𝑥𝑖 is the expression for the summation.

𝑖=1
4. The lower limit is 1 and the upper limit is 4.

4
5. ∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4
𝑖=1
= 12 + 24 + 30 + 45
= 111
11
This time, consider 5 observations. If the sum of five observations is
written as: 5
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥5
𝑖=1
the sum of the squares of the five observations is represented as:

5
∑ 𝑥𝑖 2 = 𝑥1 2 + 𝑥2 2 + 𝑥3 2 + 𝑥4 2 + 𝑥5 2
𝑖=1
the sum of the products of pairs of five observations is expressed as:
5
∑ 𝑎𝑖 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + 𝑎3 𝑥3 + 𝑎4 𝑥4 + 𝑎5 𝑥5
𝑖=1
Example 3: Consider the first four multiples of 2: 2, 4, 6, 8. Use the
corresponding summation formula to find the following:
1. the sum of the first four multiples of 2

2. the sum of the squares of the first four multiples of 2
3. the sum of the products of pairs of values consisting of the first four
counting numbers and the first four multiples of 2.
Solutions:
4
1. ∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4
𝑖=1
=2+4+6+8
= 20
4
2. ∑ 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2
𝑖 1 2 3 4
𝑖=1
= 22 + 42 + 62 + 82
= 4 + 16 + 36 + 64
=120
3. ∑ 𝑎𝑖 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + 𝑎3 𝑥3 + 𝑎4 𝑥4
𝑖=1
12
= 1(2) + 2(4) + 3(6) + 4(8)
= 2 + 8 + 18 + 32
= 60
6 6
Example 4: Find 1. ∑ 3 2. ∑(−3)
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
Solutions:
6
∑3 = 3+ 3+3 +3 +3+3
1. 𝑖=1
= 6(3) = 18
3. ∑(−3) = (−3) + (−3) + (−3) + (−3) + (−3) + (−3) = 6(-3) = -18

𝑖=1
Observe that in example 4, the summation of a constant c is the product of

the constant and the number of terms n in the summation, that is,
𝑛
∑ 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐
𝑖=1
13
WORKSHEET 3
Name: ________________________________ Course/year: __________
Express each of the following as a sum:
7 5 3 5 3
1. ∑ 𝑥𝑖 2. ∑ 𝑧𝑖 3. ∑ 𝑦𝑖 4. ∑ 𝑝𝑖 5. ∑ 𝑎𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
Express the following sums in summation notation:
6. x1+ x2+ x3 + …..+x20

7. x12+ x22+ x32+ x42+ x52+ x62+ x72+ x82
8. a1x12+ a2x22+ a3x32+ a4x42
9. 4x12+ 4x22+ 4x32+ 4x42
10. (y1 + z1) +(y2 + z2)+ (y3 + z3)+ (y4 + z4)+ (y5 + z5)
Use summation to find the following:
11. the sum of the positive odd integers less than 20

12. the sum of the first ten positive even integers
13. the sum of the squares of the first five positive even integers
14. the sum of the products of the first four counting numbers and the first four
multiples of 3.
15. the sum of the products of 5 times the positive odd integers less than 15.
Compute:
6
16. ∑(5)
𝑖=1
10
17. ∑(−2)
𝑖=1
8
∑(4)
𝑖=1
14
Lesson 3
In doing research, if the population is too big a scientific number of samples is acceptable.
One way of getting a number of samples is by using the RAOSOFT survey tool. You can
use the raosoft calculator tool online to compute the desired and substantial sample size.
Note that the “e” is called the margin of error. It is a value which quantifies possible
sampling errors. Usually the margin of error is either 0.01 or 1%, 0.10 or
10 % and 0.05 or 5%. Sampling error means that the results in the
Sampling is the process
of selecting samples from sample differ from those of the target population because of the “luck of
a given population the draw”.
There are two types of
sampling techniques Since you already know what to use to compute the appropriate sample
(1) Probability size, the next is how to select the samples from the population. this is
Sampling: samples
are chosen in such a referred to as sampling.
way that each
member of the
population has an
We will only consider and discuss the probability sampling techniques,
equal chance of these are:
being selected in the
samples
(2) Non Probability
simple random sampling. This is a procedure where a sample is
Sampling: each selected in such a way that every element is as likely to be selected as
member of the
population does not any other element in the population.
have a known chance
of being included in Example:
the sample. Hence,
personal judgment
plays an important Lottery: this needs a complete list of the population. you write the
role in the selection. names or codes of each member and place them in a
container, then randomly draw the desired number of
samples. This is easy if the population is small.
systematic random sampling. This method is a sampling procedure with a random start.
Samples are randomly chosen using the rules set by the researchers. This involves
𝑁
choosing the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ member of the population, with 𝑘 = 𝑛 , but there should be a random
start.
Example: Choose a sample of size 10 from N = 500.
1. Choose a random start, say 10.
500
2. Determine the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ period by 𝑘 = 10 = 50, so every 50th member will be
chosen starting from 10
15
3. So the respondents will be member number 10, 60, 110, 160, 210, 260,
310, 360, 410, 460.
stratified random sampling. This is used when the population can be naturally classified
into groups or strata.
Example: A survey to find out families living in a certain municipality are in favor of charter
change will be conducted. To ensure that all income groups are represented, respondents
will be divided into high-income (Class A), middle (class B) and low-income (class C)
groups. Below is the distribution of income groups.
Strata Number of Families
Class A 1000
Class B 2 500
Class C 1 500
N 5 000
http://www.raosoft 1. Use Raosoft Calculator to find the sample size (n), use 5% margin of
.com/samplesize.
error with 50% response rate.
html
2. Use proportional allocation, how many from each group should be

taken as sample?
Strata Number of Percent Number of

Families Samples (n)
Class A 1000 1000 (0.2)(357)
= 0.2 = 20%
5000 = 71.4 = 71
Class B 2 500 2500 (0.5)(357)
= 0.5 = 50%
5000 = 178.5 = 179
Class C 1 500 1500 (0.3)(357)
= 0.3 = 30%
5000 = 107.1 = 107
N 5 000 n = 357
So, 71 families should be taken as respondents from Class A, 179 from Class B and 107
from Class C, for a total of 357.
16
WORKSHEET 4
Name: ________________________________ Course/year: __________
Stratified Random Sampling

1. Below is the number of students taking up statistics from each department. A
seminar will be conducted outside the campus.
a. At 3% margin of error with 50% response rate, how many participants
should be taken as samples?
b. Complete the table
Course Number of Percent n
students
COA 120
CBE 89
CAS 57
COED 34
Total 300
c. Give a simple interpretation of the results
2. Table 2 indicates the number of employees at San Miguel Corp.

Course Number of Percent n
students
Administration 82
Accounting 131
General Services 215
Production 450
Engineering 324
Total 1202
a. Using 5% margin of error with 75% response rate, compute for the
acceptable number of sample.
b. Interpret the result
3. If you are going to conduct a survey on the opinions of students regarding HB6875 or
the proposed Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020.
a. Who will be your target population?
b. How many samples will you get at 𝑒 = 10% with 50% response rate,
assuming that there are 2 000 students?
c. What sampling technique will you use? Why?
17
Lesson 4
The study of statistics begins with the collection of data or measurements. Data
collected should be organized systematically for easier and faster interpretation. They
maybe presented in any of the following forms:
The textual form can be used if the data to be presented if few.
The tabular and graphical forms are used when more detailed information about the
data is to be presented.
A table is used when you want to present a data in a systematic and organized
manner so that reading and interpretation will be simpler and easier. When a table is
used, you must consider the following parts:
1. Table number Table 3
Distribution of students Hogwarts School According to Year Level
2. Table Title
3. Column header Year Level Number of Students
Freshman 350
4. Row classifier Sophomore 300
5. Body of the table Junior 250
Senior 200
6. Source note total 1 100
Source: Hogwarts Registrar
Example 1:
Table 1
Mahusay National High School
Enrolment, SY 2005-2006
Year Level Male Female
First 216 267
Second 197 216
Third 187 227
Fourth 176 215
Total 776 925
You will observe that the table above shows clearly the enrolment data in Mahusay
National High School for the school year 2005-2006.
Another type of tabular presentation is the frequency table also known as a

frequency distribution. It is an arrangement of the data that shows the frequency of
occurrence of different values of the variables.
18
A frequency table is constructed by listing the measurements from highest to
lowest, then making tally marks to record how often each number occurs. After tallying,
count the marks and record them in the proper column.
Example 2: The scores of 45 students on a 20-point Science quiz are as follows:
17 20 15 18 19 16 11 10 15 16
12 12 13 14 11 10 14 13 12 11
13 15 14 10 15 16 17 17 18 20
20 18 19 19 18 17 16 15 12 12
13 14 15 19 20
Prepare a frequency table for the set of data.
Solution: To prepare a frequency table for the given set of scores, the scores are
listed from highest to lowest, tally marks are made and counted. The
counted tally marks will then be recorded under the column frequency.
Notice that every 5th tally crosses the first four tallies. This is done to
make counting of marks easier especially if the number of cases is rather
big.
Score Tallies Frequency

20 //// 4
19 //// 4
18 //// 4
17 //// 4
16 //// 4
15 //// / 6
14 //// 4
13 //// 4
12 //// 5
11 /// 3
10 /// 3
Total 45
19
WORKSHEET 5
Name: ________________________________ Course/year: __________
1. The school budget for Maintenance and Other Operating Expenses of
a certain school for Calendar Year 2019 is given below.
Expense Item Amount (in Pesos)

Power 600 000
Water 95 000
Communication 60 000
Supplies 1 600 000
Repair 920 000
Others 100 000
a) How much is the total budget of the school for CY 2019?

b) Which expense item received the biggest allocation? What percent
of the total budget was allocated for it?
c) Which expense item received the least allocation? What percent of
the total budget was allocated for it?
2. The following shows the scores of 15 students in mathematics for the second
grading period. Prepare a frequency table given the data below.
87 90 89 92 94
88 90 91 88 87
90 94 92 91 90
3. The following are heights of male fourth year students in a school. Prepare a
frequency table for this set of data.
1.36 1.51 1.61 1.61 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.59 1.58 1.61
1.38 1.49 1.65 1.63 1.58 1.57 1.61 1.62 1.63 1.65
1.44 1.59 1.57 1.57 1.58 1.60 1.61 1.63 1.64 1.64
1.55 1.58 1.59 1.65 1.66 1.72 1.56 1.68 1.69 1.63
20
Lesson 5
If the number of measures in consideration is rather big, the presentation
of data is further simplified by grouping the measures into class intervals called a
frequency distribution.
A frequency distribution is a distribution of the total number of measures or

frequencies over arbitrarily defined categories or classes. The number of
measures falling under a class is called class frequency.
Example 1.
The frequency distribution below shows the scores obtained by 300

students in an English test of 50 items.
Number of
Score Students
45-49 15
40-44 32
35-39 42
30-34 108
25-29 67
20-24 21
15-19 10
10-14 5
Total 300
In the example above, the symbol 45-49 and the other symbols which follow up to
10-14 are called class intervals. The end numbers are called class limits. For instance
in the class interval 45-49, 45 is called the lower limit while 49 is called the upper limit.
Each class interval has also a lower boundary and a higher boundary. For the
class interval 45-49, the lower boundary is 44.5 while the higher boundary is
49.5. Hence, for the class interval 45-49, 44.5 – 49.5 are called the class
boundaries.
The size of the class interval, also called class size is the difference between the
upper boundary and the lower boundary. Hence, the class size in the given example is
5
A class interval has also a midpoint or a class mark. It is obtained by taking half
21
the sum of the lower and upper class limit. For instance, the midpoint
45−49
of the class interval 45-49 is or 47.
2
Range (R) is the difference of the Highest score (H) and the lowest score (L) in the
given data set.
The following are the suggested steps on how to make a class interval:
1. Determine the desired number of classes (n) (number of rows)
2. Solve for the class width (i)
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑖=
𝑛
3. Start the lowest class interval with the lowest value / score in the given data
set. (lowest score plus i)
4. Continue until the highest value in the distribution is reached.
Graphical Presentation of Data
The Graphs
1. Bar chart
 A bar chart shows the open, high, low, and close prices for a specified
period of time.
 The vertical line on a price bar represents the high and low prices for the
period.
 The left and right horizontal lines on each price bar represent the open
and close prices.
 Bar charts can be colored coded. If the close is above the open it may be
colored black or green, and if the close is below the open the bar may be
colored red. (https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/barchart.asp).
2. Histogram
 A histogram is a bar graph-like representation of data that buckets a range

of outcomes into columns along the x-axis.
22
 The y-axis represents the number count or percentage of occurrences in
the data for each column and can be used to visualize data distributions.
(https://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/histogram.asp)
3. Frequency Polygon
 is a graph constructed by using lines to join the midpoints of each interval,
or bin. The heights of the points represent the frequencies. A frequency
polygon can be created from the histogram or by calculating the midpoints
of the bins from the frequency distribution table. The midpoint of a bin is
calculated by adding the upper and lower boundary values of the bin and
dividing the sum by 2. (https://www.ck12.org/statistics/frequency-
polygons/lesson/Frequency-Polygons-BSC-
PST/#:~:text=A%20frequency%20polygon%20is%20a,from%20the%20freq
uency%20distribution%20table.)
4. Pie chart
 A Pie Chart (or Pie Graph) is a special chart that uses "pie slices" to show
relative sizes of data.
 The chart is divided into sectors, where each sector shows the relative
size of each value. (https://www.mathsisfun.com/definitions/pie-chart-pie-
graph.html )
23
WORKSHEET 6
Name: ________________________________ Course/year: __________
Summarize all your learnings and discoveries

Know Wonder Learned Subject Information Remember
What already What I still What I What I still Why is this Something I
I know? Want to learned? want to learn information want to
know? about the topic? (topic) important remember.
to me?
24
Statistics is a branch mathematics that deals with the
collection, organization or presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of data. Its fundamental purpose is to describe
and draw inferences about the numerical properties of a
population.
Descriptive Statistics is a statistical procedure concerned
with describing the characteristics and properties of a group
of persons, places or things; it is based on easily verifiable
facts. It organizes the presentation, description, and
interpretation of data gathered.
Inferential Statistics is a statistical procedure used to draw inferences for the population
on the basis of the information obtained from the sample.
Population – refers to a large collection of objects, places or things.
Parameter – is any numerical value which describes a population.
Sample – is a small portion or part of a population; a representative of the population in
a research study.
Sampling is the process of selecting the elements of a sample from the
population being studied. The methods of sampling include simple random
sampling, systematic random sampling, and stratified random sampling.
Statistic – is any numerical value which describes a sample
Data - are facts, or a set of information gathered or under study.
Qualitative Data – are variables that can be placed into distinct categories,
characteristic or attributes.
Quantitative Data – are numerical and can be ordered or ranked.
Discrete Data – assume exact value and can be obtained through
counting.
Continuous Data – assume infinite values within an interval and obtained
through measurement.
Constant – is a characteristic or property of a population or sample which makes the
members similar to each other.
Variable – is a characteristic or property of a population or sample which makes the
members different from each other.
Dependent Variable – A variable that is affected by another variable.
25
Independent Variable – a variable which affects the dependent variable.
Nominal level of measurement classifies data into mutually exclusive categories in
which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data. Nominal numbers are just labels.
Ordinal level of measurement classifies data into categories that can be ranked;
however, precise differences between the ranks do not exist.
Interval level of measurement ranks data, and precise differences between units of
measure do exist; however, there is no meaningful zero.
Ratio level of measurement possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement,
and there exists a true zero. in addition, true ratios exist when the same variable is
measured on two different members of the population.
Table is used to present a data in a systematic and organized manner to make its
reading and interpretation simple and easy.
Frequency Distribution is a distribution of the total number of measures or frequencies

over arbitrarily defined categories or classes. The number of measures falling under a
class is called class frequency.
REFERENCES:
I. Books
Bluman, Allan G (2012). Elementary Statistics: a step by step approach. (8 th Ed) New York:
McGraw-Hill,
Blay, Basilia e. (2007). Elementary Statistics. Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, Inc.,
Calmorin, Laurentina P.,Pledad Ma. Lauremelch (2008). Nursing Biostatistics with Computer.
Manila: Rex Bookstore,
Baltazar, E.C, Ragasa, C, Evangelista, J.(2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. C & E.
Publishing:Quezon City Philippines.
Concepcio, Benjamin P. et.al. Business Statistics with Computer Applications. Sta. Monica
Printing Corp.: Manila, Philippines.
Calano, Roel B., et.al. (2009). Biostatistics. (1 st ed) Educational Publishing House: Ermita,
Manila, Philippines
26
Rubric for problem set/solving
0 1 2 3 4
The students did not The student The student The student is able The student is able
make any attempt to attempted to solve attempted to solve to completely to completely
solve any of the 50% of the problems all the problems in solve 50% of the solve 75% of the
problems in the in the problem set or the problem set or problems in the problems in the
problem set or prove displayed logical displayed logical problem set or problem set or
any of the reasoning 50% of the reasoning 75% of completed 75% of completed all the
statements in the time in attempting to the time in the proof/s in the proof/s in the quiz.
quiz. prove the attempting to quiz
statement/s in the prove the
quiz. statement/s in the
quiz.
27

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MODULE 1

What is all about this module?

As you go over the discussion and exercises, you will appreciate

Jon Corpuz and examples and enjoy learning.

09453991773 This module was designed for you to:

What interval contains the highest frequency?

Statistics is a branch mathematics that deals with the collection,

Normal Distribution z-test t-test p-value chi-square test

The origin of descriptive statistics

11. Which division of statistics is based on facts?

Data - are facts, or a set of

Qualitative Data – are variables that

Discrete Data – assume exact value

Researchers are Constant – is a characteristic or property of a population or sample which

Example 1: Consider the scores obtained by 10 students in a 50-items

Student No. Score

For convenience, variables will be used to present the data.

Let x = score obtained by each student

is read as “the sum of 10 observations x1 to x10”.

1. What will x represent in the information given?

3. ∑ 𝑥𝑖 is the expression for the summation.

4. The lower limit is 1 and the upper limit is 4.

the sum of the squares of the five observations is represented as:

1. the sum of the first four multiples of 2

3. ∑(−3) = (−3) + (−3) + (−3) + (−3) + (−3) + (−3) = 6(-3) = -18

Observe that in example 4, the summation of a constant c is the product of

Express the following sums in summation notation:

6. x1+ x2+ x3 + …..+x20

Use summation to find the following:

11. the sum of the positive odd integers less than 20

2. Use proportional allocation, how many from each group should be

Strata Number of Percent Number of

Stratified Random Sampling

2. Table 2 indicates the number of employees at San Miguel Corp.

Another type of tabular presentation is the frequency table also known as a

Example 2: The scores of 45 students on a 20-point Science quiz are as follows:

Prepare a frequency table for the set of data.

Score Tallies Frequency

Expense Item Amount (in Pesos)

a) How much is the total budget of the school for CY 2019?

A frequency distribution is a distribution of the total number of measures or

The frequency distribution below shows the scores obtained by 300

 A histogram is a bar graph-like representation of data that buckets a range

Summarize all your learnings and discoveries

Frequency Distribution is a distribution of the total number of measures or frequencies

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