SEMINAR 1
glossaries to Latin works, laws, charters, letters,
Theme 1: The Subject of Diachronic Studies in Germanistic
1. History of English in the systemic conception of English
1.1 The aims and the purpose of the study of the subject
The purpose of this course is a systematic study of the language’s development from
the earliest times to the present day. One more aim of this course is to gain a wider
philological outlook. The history of the English language shows the place of English in
the linguistic world; prove an interdisciplinary connection of History of the English
language with other disciplines, and of course, to pass an exam in History of the
English language
1.2 Connection of the subject with other disciplines
History of the English language is connected with other disciplines. It is based on the
history of England, studying the development of the language in connection with the
concrete conditions in which the English people lived in the several periods of their
history. It is also connected with disciplines studying present-day English, viz.,
theoretical phonetics, theoretical grammar, and лексіколоджі lexicology. It shows
phonetic, grammatical, and lexical phenomena as they developed, and states the
origin of the present-day system.
2. Sources of the language history
The earliest extant written texts in English are dated the 7th c.; the earliest records in
other Germanic languages go back to the 3rd or 4th c. A.D. Anno Domini Certain
information about the early stages of English and Germanic history is to be found in
the works of ancient historians and geographers, especially Roman
Old English Prose
King Alfred's translations of бідз Bede's еклізіастікал Ecclesiastical History of the
English People (completed around 731 AD)
Pope Gregory the Great's кура Cura пастораліс Pastoralis
Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy
ероусіосіс Orosius' history
Parts of the Old Testament, some of the самз Psalms and the госпелз Gospels
еполоніус Apollonius of тая Tyre
Alexander's Letter to Aristotle
Wonders of the East
The Anglo-Saxon кронікал Chronicle
religious prose writing from Abbot алфрік Ælfric and Bishop вульфстан Wulfstan
1) The British Museum manuscript of беовулф Beowulf and джюдіс Judith which is
part of the 17th -century (Robert) Cotton manuscript collection, and which is referred
to as MS вітеліус Vitellius A 15. It also contains several проуз prose texts.
2) The бодлеан Bodleian manuscript, called ( джуніус 11 )Junius XI after Franz Junius,
who gave the manuscript to Oxford University in the 17th c. This manuscript includes
дженисис Genesis, ексодис Exodus, Daniel, and крайст Christ and сейтан Satan.
3) The ексіта Exeter Book or Codex Exoniensis at Exeter Cathedral, which contains a
large collection of Anglo-Saxon poetry dating approximately from 970 to 990; there are
also two later editions. The main text contains 123 pages with the originals of Phoenix,
Julian, The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Widsith, Deor, Wulf and Eadwacer, The Wife’s
Lament and The Husband’s Message. It also contains a number of maxims, Maxim I,
and The Cotton Gnomes (Maxims II).
4) The вечелі Vercelli Book, Codex веселес Vercellis, from the cathedral library of
вечелі Vercelli, Italy. This manuscript contains The Dream of the руд Rood, Elene, The
Fates of the Apostles, and Address of the Soul to the Body. In it are also found a
number of prose homilies and the Life of гатлак Guthlac.
3. General notes on the language study
3.1 The definition of the language
language is a semiotic system (знакова система) It is a system of communication units
and rules of their functioning.
Language is a social phenomenon. It originated in the society, serves the society, is one
of the most important features of the society and cannot exist without the society.
3.2 The function of the language
It should be mentioned that there is no ікзект exact number of the language functions.
But mainly, the functions of language are divided into nominal and functional. Among
the functional functions, communicative, cultural, and so on. Yu. Stepanov, in his turn,
singles out three functions of the language: nominative (semantics level), syntactic
(syntactics level), and pragmatic (pragmatics level) (Why do we use phrasal verbs?).
3.3 The structure of the language
the main, commonly accepted levels are: the phonemic level (phoneme), the Branch West Indo-European
morphemic (morpheme), the lexemic level (lexeme), the sememic level (sememe), the
Group Germanic group
syntaxemic level (syntaxeme), the textemic level (texteme), and the discoursemic level
(discourse). Sub-group West Germanic
3.4 The language classification principles Language English
Within the field of linguistics, three different approaches to language classification are 3.5 Synchrony and diachrony in the language study
used.
Genetic (genealogical) classification categorizes languages according to their descent. A language can be considered from different angles. In studying Modern English we
Languages that developed historically from the same енсеста ancestor language are regard the language as fixed in time and describe each linguistic level – phonetics,
grouped together and are said to be genetically related. (напр англ і нім) This grammar or lexis – synchronically, taking no account of the origin of present-day
ancestor may be attested (that is, texts written in this language have been discovered features or their tendencies to change.
or preserved, as in the case of Latin), or it may be a reconstructed protolanguage for The synchronic approach can be contrasted to the diachronic. When considered
which no original tests exist (as is the case for Indo-European). diachronically, every linguistic fact is interpreted as a stage or step in the neverending
Although genetically related languages often share structural characteristics, they do evolution of language. In practice, however, the contrast between diachronic and
not necessarily bear a close structural resemblance. (german and eng – article in both). synchronic study is not so marked as in theory: we commonly resort to history to
For example, Latvian and English are genetically related (both are descended from explain current phenomena in Mod E. Likewise in describing the evolution of language
Indo-European), but their morphological structure is quite different. Of course, Latvian we can present it as a series of synchronic cross-sections, e.g. the English language of
and English are very distantly related, and languages that are more closely related the age of Shakespeare (16th – 17th c.) or the age of Chaucer (14th c.).
typically manifest greater similarity. Tree –дерево, water - вода Synchronic linguistics is the study of language at any given point in time while
linguistic typology (typological classification), it classifies languages according to their diachronic linguistics is the study of language through different periods in history.(exm.
structural characteristics, without regard for genetic relationships. Thus, typologists - old eng, middle eng)
might group together languages with similar sound patterns or, alternatively, those 4. The comparative-historical method
with similar grammatical structures.
The comparative-historical method is widely used to study the history of the language.
For this reason, another approach to language classification is useful. Known as It helps to reconstruct language phenomena of the past, which are not recorded in the
linguistic typology (typological classification), it classifies languages according to their earliest extant written texts.
structural characteristics, without regard for genetic relationships. Thus, typologists If two or more languages contain words with the same root, it is possible to assume
might group together languages with similar sound patterns or, alternatively, those that these words are of the same origin. Thus, at the beginning of the 19th century it
with similar grammatical structures. was proved that there was a remarkable likeness between certain languages now
Finally, areal (geographical) classification identifies characteristics shared by called IndoEuropean. These languages have much in common both in the vocabulary,
languages that are in geographical contact. Languages in contact often borrow words, phonetic, and grammatical structure.
sounds, morphemes, and even syntactic patterns from one another. As a result, For example,
нейборін neighboring languages can come to resemble each other, even though they English brother
may not be genetically related. Thus, according to the genetic classification, the English German Bruder
language can be described like this: Latin frater
Ukrainian брат
Family Indo-European
4.1 The stages of the comparative-historical method
Dr. Yuriy O. Zhluktenko distinguishes the following stages of the comparative-historical 5. This method cannot be used to study languages with amorphous structure or
method: isolating languages, that is, languages, which have no affixes, case or number
1. Comparison of sounds and morphemes in the related languages. It is supposed that conjugation, etc.
these units are of the same origin. 6. This method does not apply data of other sciences.

2. Determination of natural correspondences between the compared elements. 5. The Germanic group of languages

3. Determination of approximate chronological correlations between the compared 5.1 Old Germanic languages
phenomena.
The vast Indo-European family of languages, to which most of the languages spoken in
4. Reconstruction of the archaic form, so-called “archetype”. At this stage, the Europe belong, consists of several branches, of which the Germanic languages are one.
phonetic peculiarities of the language development and the possible effect of analogy Nowadays Germanic languages are spoken in many countries: German (in Germany,
are taken into account. Austria, and partly in Switzerland), Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, and Icelandic,
English.
4.2 The principles of the comparative-historical method
In ancient times the territory of Germanic languages was much limited. Thus, in the 1st
are as follows: 1. The compared language units should be genetically related.
c. AD Germanic languages were only spoken in Germany and in territories adjacent to
2. The compared units should be meaningful. It means that a comparison is made not
it, and also in Scandinavia.
between separate sounds, but between meaningful words or morphemes, which
Germanic languages are classified into three groups: (1) East Germanic, (2) North
contain these sounds. Брат each of mean person
Germanic, (3) West Germanic.
3. One should ascertain that the sound similarity in the compared words is not
5.1.1 East Germanic languages
accidental, but regular.
East Germanic languages have been dead for many centuries. Of the old East Germanic
4. It should be proved that the sound correspondences, which we trace as regular,
languages, only one is well known, namely, Gothic. There is also Vandalic, бегендіан
could be really caused by the development of one archaic sound.
Burgundian, all of them are dead
5. Semantic correspondence. Even if the sound correspondences are natural, the
5.1.2 North Germanic languages
semantic correspondences between the compared words or morphemes should be
analyzed. North-Germanic subgroup (Old-Norse, Old-Scandinavian). Later it became норвіджен
Norwegian, дейніш Danish and свідеш Swedish. There was айслендік Icelandic and
4.3 The drawbacks of the комператів comparative-historical method
фероіс Faroese. The linguists say that Faroese was the language of вайкінг Vikings.
1. It is impossible to пресайслі precisely date the phenomenon reconstructed with the
5.1.3 West Germanic languages
help of the comparative-historical method.
2. This method cannot completely reconstruct the language under study. West-Germanic subgroup: two more branches low-german and high-german come
from this. modern high-german and (їдиш )Yiddish. and from low german - (фрізіан)
3. This method can be used only to analyze those phenomena, which are similar in the
Frisian, English, modern low German, Dutch
compared languages, but it is not good for different phenomena.
5.2 Modern Germanic languages North Germanic languages West
4. This method makes it possible to explain only the results of the language
Germanic languages
дайведженс divergence, but it does not explain the results of the language
конведженс convergence. Theme 3: Periods in the History of the English Language
1. Henry Sweet and his division of the English language • the Ancient English Period dated between the first centuries AD and the 7th –
8th c. This is the period of the languages of the Old English tribes;
Each of the periods is marked by a set of specific features of phonology, grammar, and
• the Old English Period dated between the 7th and 11th c. This is the period of
vocabulary, and may be also defined in these terms. Henry Sweet classified them as
the language of the establishing English nationality. The end of this period is
the Period of Full Endings, which means that any vowel may be found in an unstressed
marked by the Norman Conquest of England;
ending (e.g. OE sunu), the Period of Levelled Endings, which means that vowels of
• the Middle English Period dated from the beginning of the 12th c. to the 15th
unstressed endings were leveled under a neutral vowel [ə] represented in spelling by
c. This is the period of the language of the established English nationality
the letter e (e.g. OE sunu – ME sune), and the period of Lost Endings (e.g. NE sun).
transforming gradually into the nation. The end of this period is marked by the
2. Historical periodization as offered by B. Khaimovich Wars of Roses (1455-1485);
• the New English Period dated from the end of the 15th c. to present. It is
According to B. Khaimovich, the history of the English language is divided into three subdivided into two periods: a) the Early New English Period – the period of
periods: Old English, Middle English, and New English. As landmarks separating the establishing standards of the national language; and b) the Late New English Period
three periods, he uses very important events, which had a great influence on the – the period of the established standards of the national language.
history of English:
5. The periods of the development of English as offered by A. Markman
● The Anglo-Saxon invasion of the 5th century is taken as the beginning of the and E. Steinberg
Old English period.
● The Norman Conquest of the 11th century is regarded as the beginning of the The American linguists A. Markman and E. Steinberg also admit that it is not
Middle English period. possible to precisely divide the history of the English language into periods. In their
● The introduction of printing in the 15th century is the beginning of the New periodization they use the dates of written documents. As it is impossible to
English period. determine the exact date of the earliest Old English texts, the beginning of the Old
English is recognized as 450 AD, when the Germanic tribes landed on the island.
3. T. Rastorguyeva’s periodization of the English language. According to T. The year of the last chapter of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 1154, is regarded as the
Rastorguyeva, the history of English is divided into the seven periods: end of the Old English Period. The end of the Middle English Period coincides with
i. Early OE (also: Pre-written OE) c. 450 – c. 700 the death of the famous writer Thomas Malory – 1471, which is also the time of the
ii. OE (also: Written OE) c. 700 – 1066 introduction of printing in England and Caxton’s activities. The Early New English
iii. Early ME 1066 – c. 1350 Period (1500 – 1700) is the period of England’s two prominent poets – William
iv. ME (also: Classical ME) c. 1350 – 1475 Shakespeare and John Milton. The year of 1700, which is the year of John Dryden’s
v. Early NE 1476 – c. 1660 death, is recognized as the end of the Early New English Period.
vi. Normalization Period c. 1660 – c. 1800
i. (also: Age of Correctness,
ii. Neo-Classical period)
vii. Late NE, or Mod E c. 1800 . . . . . .
i. (including Present-day English) since 1945 . . . .

4. V. Arakin’s division of the history of English

Arakin’s periodization is a traditional one because it is based on the extra

linguistic, which means that periodization connotes the character of the society
speaking the language. So, he divided the history of English into the following
periods: