INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 19, No. 11, pp.

1753-1762 NOVEMBER 2018 / 1753

REVIEW PAPER DOI: 10.1007/s12541-018-0203-z

ISSN 2234-7593 (Print) / 2005-4602 (Online)

A Review of Recent Advances in Design Optimization of

Gearbox

Zhen Qin1, Yu-Ting Wu1, and Sung-Ki Lyu1,#

1 School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, ReCAPT, 501, Gyeongsang National Univeristy, Jinju-daero, Jinju-si, Gyeongsangnam-do, 52828, Republic of Korea
# Corresponding Author / E-mail: sklyu@gnu.ac.kr, TEL: +82-55-772-1632
ORCID: 0000-0001-9803-0272

KEYWORDS: Gearbox, Design optimization, Macro geometry, Micro geometry, NVH, Strength

Gearboxes find extensive use in a wide variety of fields. Over the years, a great deal of research has been devoted to prevention of
gear failures and gear noise. Devising an optimal design is often considered as the most important stage in the development of a new
gearbox. Similar to the varying requirements of different applications, the directions and method of gearbox design optimization are
also varied. Usually, gear geometry optimization has a great influence on the strength and transmission error which is the excitation
factor that affects the noise level. The main objective of this article is to summarize common optimization methods that have been
recently studied by scholars. Moreover, a review of recent patents status quo, both domestic and overseas, is carried out.

Manuscript received: July 14, 2018 / Revised: August 29, 2018 / Accepted: September 10, 2018 (Invited Paper)

NOMENCLATURE KHα = Transverse load factor (contact stress)

KHβ = Face load factor (contact stress)
b = Face width, mm KV = Dynamic factor
d1 = Reference diameter of pinion, mm Kγ = Mesh load factor
u = Gear ratio
ZB,D = Single pair tooth contact factor
YB = Rim thickness factor
ZE = Elasticity factor, N/mm2
YDT = Deep tooth factor
ZH = Zone factor
YF = Tooth form factor
ZL = Lubricant factor
YNT = Life factor (root stress)
ZNT = Life factor (contact stress)
YRrelT = Relative surface factor
ZR = Roughness factor
YS = Stress correction factor
ZV = Velocity factor
YST = Stress correction factor (reference test gear)
YX = Size factor (root stress) ZW =Work hardening factor
Yβ = Helix angle factor (root stress) ZX = Size effect factor (contact stress)
YδrelT = Relative notch sensitivity factor Zβ = Helix angle factor (contact stress)
F = Load on arbitrary position of tooth flank, N Zε = Contact ratio factor
Ft = Nominal transverse tangential load at reference cylinder per σF = Tooth root stress, MPa
mesh, N σFG = Tooth root stress limit, MPa
SH = Safety factor for surface durability σFilm = Nominal stress number (bending), MPa
SR = Safety factor for bending strength σF0 = Nominal tooth root stress, MPa
KA = Application factor σH = Contact stress, MPa
KFα = Transverse load factor (root stress) σHG = Pitting stress limit, MPa
KFβ = Face load factor (root stress) σHlim = Allowable stress number (contact), MPa

© KSPE and Springer 2018

 1754 / NOVEMBER 2018 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 19, No. 11

σH0 = Nominal contact stress, MPa

T.E. = Transmission Error
DM = Direct Method
ETM = Elapsed Time Method
PPTE = Peak to Peak Transmission Error

1. Introduction

Gearboxes are used in a wide variety of applications such as

automobiles, aircrafts, wind turbines, industrial machinery etc. as a
means of transferring power from a generator to a user which has
significantly different torque and speed characteristics. It is not possible Fig. 1 Number of patent and application status of major countries
to transmit the power with only a single gear. A gearbox consists of a
number of components working together as a system. Bearings are
used for supporting shafts to provide steady power transmission to
gears. Oil is employed to facilitate gear meshing as well as to reduce
gear abrasion and heat generation in gear teeth.1-11 Gearbox housing
provides support to the shafts and bearings, and also prevents the oil
from being dispersed. With the improvements in precision machining
technology, the requirements from gearboxes, such as high strength,
low noise and vibration, and high durability, have also increased. Still,
gear failure and gear noise are the most common issues in many fields.
A great amount of research has been devoted to meet the needs of
gearbox users to ensure the safe transmission of high power under a
lower level of noise.12-30
For gear strength, J.G. Kim has carried out a comparative analysis
of the load distribution on the gear tooth flank and the shearing on
planetary gear train in the case of models with and without a slewing
bearing.31 Effects on strength of gears by changing the tooth micro Fig. 2 Patent registration status of gear technology by year
geometry using RomaxDESIGNER have been reported by S.Y. Noh
and M.H. Jeon.32, 33 As the tooth geometry modification values change,
the load on the tooth surface shows diverse distributions. G.X. Ni et al. modification. The aim of this study is to summarize recent advances in
presented a novel parabolic modification to improve the mesh the approaches to optimize the strength and noise performance by using
behaviors of crossed beveloid gear transmission.34 Y.R. Wu also carried geometry modification. In this work, the analysis of examples from the
out a series of analyses for a crowned helical gear pair with twist-free papers is conducted, and patent analysis of gear technology is also
tooth flanks generated by an external gear honing machine by utilizing presented in the following part.
KISSsoft.35 K.H. Lee et al. have reported an optimal design based on
macro geometry method considering the volume.36 K.H. Lee et al. have
reported the numerical values of strength based on changes of hypoid 2. Patents Analysis of Gear Technology
gear macro geometry parameter.37
Regarding the gear noise, Q. Zhang et al. proposed a hypothesis that We have also reviewed the status quo of patents related to gear
transmission error (T.E.) is the most important factor affecting gear technology. This patent trend investigation is in an attempt to observe
noise and vibration, then proved the facticity of the hypothesis through the distribution of the gear technology and application status in major
gear tooth micro geometry modification method and a sequence of countries of the world.
analyses.38 A. Palermo et al. carried out a study on different gear pairs The technologies were quantitatively analyzed based on the
to compare the transmission error (T.E.) measuring methods, the Direct registration date of patents filed up to 2013. The famous patent
Method (DM) and the Elapsed Time Method (ETM).1 information search platform WIPON was utilized, and the keywords
As mentioned earlier, in recent years, scholars have utilized were set to “gear” and “gearbox”.
different methods to optimize the performance of gearboxes, and Fig. 1 is a schematic representation of the number of patents
geometry modification is the most popular among these methodologies. awarded and applications still under process in each major country.
Geometry modification is divided into two categories according to the China was identified as the country with the largest number of patents
modified objects: macro geometry modification and micro geometry awarded related to gear technology, and also has the largest number of
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 19, No. 11
Fig. 3 Configuration of planetary gear train
patent applications. Fig. 2 shows the patent registration trend of the
major countries by year. As can be seen, since 2013, intensive research
and development activities have steadily increased in China, whereas in
Germany, scholars’ enthusiasm for gear research has declined as
compared to five years ago.
3. Method of Design Optimization
In comparison to traditionally used methodologies, geometry
modification is more effective in improving the strength of gear teeth
and minimizing the noise of gear trains. Macro geometry mainly
consists of number of teeth, module, gear tooth width, pressure angle,
helical angle, modification coefficient, gear material etc. It is only
feasible at the initial design stage of the gearbox. As the name implies,
modification of micro-geometry entails modification of micro-profile
of the gear teeth in the axial direction and the tooth surface direction
by intentional removal of material from the gear teeth flanks, hence the
profile ceases to be a full involute. This method allows for the
compensation of tooth deflections under load.
There are various kinds of gearboxes, such as planetary gearbox,
bevel gearbox, beveloid gearbox, worm gearbox etc. In the next
section, some previous studies on the design optimization of planetary
gearboxes by geometry modification method are presented.
3.1 Design formulas review
Most powertrain gearboxes consist of several planetary gear trains,
making them light and compact, and having low noise, while giving
high performance.6,31-33,39-42 The planetary gear train is composed of a
sun gear, planet gears, a ring gear, and a carrier, as shown in Fig. 3.
Generally, gear trains should have sufficient load capacity to operate
successfully in a specific application area.43 The International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) has established international
standards for quantitative evaluation of the load capacities of most
types of gears. The calculation equations specified in the standards for
helical gears can be found in Method B in ISO 6336.44
Equations of surface strength are as follows:
The safety factor for the surface durability:
σHG
SH = --------
- (1)
σH
NOVEMBER 2018 / 1755
The contact stress:
σH = ZB, D σH0 KA Kγ KV KHβ KHα (2)
The nominal contact stress:
F u+1
σH0 = ZH ZE Zε Zβ -------t- ---------- (3)
d1 b u
The limit of pitting stress:
σHG = σHlim ZNT ZL ZR ZV ZW ZX (4)
Equations of tooth bending strength are as follows:
The safety factor for the tooth bending strength:
σFG
SF = --------
- (5)
σF
The tooth root stress:
σF = σF0 KA Kγ KV KFβ KFα (6)
The nominal tooth root stress:
Ft
σF0 = ---------
-Y Y Y Y Y (7)
bmm F S β B DT
The limit of tooth root stress:
σFG = σFlim YST YNT YδrelT YRrelT YX (8)
The dynamic factor takes into account additional forces caused by
natural frequencies (resonance) in the tooth meshing. Load sharing factor,
Kγ represents the distribution of power transmitted through parallel
multi-paths in the system, which has multiple power paths. When the
power is transmitted through the multi-paths, the total load is not
shared uniformly over the many different paths, and the load deviation
can be represented by the load sharing factor. The load distribution
coefficient takes into consideration the uneven load distribution across
multiple planets or idler gears. The face load factors KHβ, KFβ, KBβ take
into consideration the influence of an uneven load distribution over the
face width on the contact stress, tooth root stress and scuffing stress.
In a number of applications, noise is also considered as an important
index for performance evaluation of a gearbox. Noise, in actuality, is a
byproduct of vibration, which may be transmitted through both structure
borne and airborne channels. Excitation sources of noise can be classified
into two categories: the external and internal excitation sources. External
excitation sources are input or output torque irregularities that can lead
to contact loss, impacts and the related broadband noise known as gear
rattle. Internal excitation is mostly due to gear meshing.45-50
Transmission error (T.E.) is the most important factor affecting gear
noise and vibration. Generally, T.E. can be expressed as an angular
deviation, or a linear deviation which is measured at the pitch point and
calculated at successive positions of the pinion during gear meshing
cycle.38,51,52 An optimum gear micro-modification that can be applied
to minimize the transmission error of loaded torques was found in
many gear studies. Fig. 4 shows the schematic of T.E. definition. The
 1756 / NOVEMBER 2018 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 19, No. 11

Fig. 4 The schematic of T.E. definition

Fig. 5 Conditions for number of teeth

calculating equation can be derived as follows.

The concept of non-factorizing was mentioned in the ANSI/AGMA
TE = θ 2 rb2 – θ1 rb1 (9) 6123 standard: A non-factorizing planetary gear train is one in which
the number of teeth on either the sun gear or ring gear is not evenly
Where θ is the angle of gear rotation, rb is the base radius and z is divisible by the number of planets. Assuming deflection or other small
the number of gear teeth. Subscripts 1 and 2 represent the driving and errors in tooth action, a non-factorizing system is theoretically smoother
driven gears respectively. and quieter than one that factorizes for torsional vibrations. It is
commonly used when taking the noise reduction into account. The
3.2 Macro geometry design condition of non-factorizing can be simplified as follows:
For planetary gear trains, different inputs and fixed objects can
Zr Z
determine different gear ratios. In other words, according to the ----- ≠ integer OR -----s ≠ integer (14)
N N
characteristics of the requirements, different types of planetary gear
trains can be chosen under a specified package. A comparative Hunting ratio is also a parameter that needs to be considered so that
evaluation of weight and volume based on different types of planetary it may correct small imperfections and produce a polishing action
gear trains and gear ratios was carried out by K.H. Lee.53 In the during the running-in period by increasing the number of different teeth
conclusion of this study, comparing with conventional type, differential with which a given tooth makes contact. The condition required by
types of planetary gear trains were found to provide a larger gear ratio. Hunting is that number of teeth on any two meshing gears should have
Therefore, the characteristics of different types of gear trains need to be no common factors higher than one.54
taken into account in the initial design stage. Gear modification coefficient is another affective way of improving
T.H. Chong presented a macro geometry design of planetary gear strength in a limited package. An analysis was conducted on the
gearbox.40 The method for defining the number of gear teeth was derived variation of strength characteristics depending on addendum modification
by the geometric method. Fig. 5 shows the schematic of number of gear coefficient by K.H. Lee et al.55 They analyzed the effects of the addendum
teeth definition, the conditions that determine the number of teeth are modification coefficient on bending strength and pitting resistance
given by the following equations: respectively. The results indicated that modification coefficient has a
Number of teeth in planet gear significant effect on bending strength, whereas, pitting resistance is
immune to the modification coefficient.
Zr – Zs
Zp = -------------
- (10)
2
3.3 Micro geometry design
Constraint for equally spaced planets The stresses induced in gear micro geometry are very complex in
nature. In previous studies, the load distribution and shearing were
Zr + Z s
-------------- = integer (11) calculated manually using equations provided in various standards.
N
These studies obtained load distribution and shearing results that did not
Constraint for interference between planetary gears accurately consider the characteristics of the bearing, shaft, carrier, and
housing, which are other components of the gearbox in addition to the
mn ( Zp + 2 ) < L (12) gear because it may require a long calculation time.40,44,56 Recently, with
the improvements in computer technology, more and more scholars have
Center distance of planetary gears started using mature commercial software to solve such problems.31-33,38
RomaxDESIGNER and KISSsoft are advanced CAE software used for
π-
L = mn ( Zp + Zs ) sin --- (13) the design and analysis of mechanical and electromechanical
N
transmissions in the automotive, aerospace, wind, marine and rail sector.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 19, No. 11
Fig. 6 Model of a gearbox established by RomaxDESIGNER
By combining FEM (Finite Element Method) with the various commonly
used gear standards, it has become easier for users to evaluate
performance of a gearbox.35,57-63 In this section, some examples of
micro geometry modification using gear analysis software are presented.
S.Y. Noh carried out a load distribution analysis and profile
modification on the planetary gear for a drive reducer.32 According to
the parameter which is obtained from macro geometry, the basic
modeling can be established utilizing RomaxDESIGNER, Fig. 6
graphically shows the basic modeling of a proposed planetary gearbox.
It is worth emphasizing that the component constraints such as rigid
connection, clearance bearing, concept clutch, etc. should be given
accurately during the modeling stage. The location of concept clutch
defines the transmission of power. A basic system analysis was
implemented after defining the power load, duty cycle and load case.
Through the static analysis, gear mesh misalignment was confirmed.
When FβX became smaller, the load distribution of the gear mesh
became more even. The sign convention used was as follows: when FβX
was positive (+), the gear mesh occurred on the left side of the face
width, and when it was negative (-), it occurred on the right side.64
To review the gear strength, the perfect parameter information of the
detailed gear model such as modification coefficient etc. is needed.
Romax has an independent micro geometry analysis module which can
easily evaluate the characteristics of each gear in the system. Fig. 7
shows the analysis result for load distribution on the contact surface of
the proposed original gear model in S.Y. Noh’s paper. It can be observed
that the load is non-uniformly distributed on gear tooth flank and
concentrated at the end of one side. This is an extremely common
phenomenon in gear design and leads to reduced gear life resulting in
premature failure of the gear.31-33,39,65-67 Thus, this situation should be
avoided in practical applications. Over the years, scholars have used
different approaches to obtain a desirable solution to this
problem.36,37,40,55,56 In the papers by S.Y. Noh and M.H. Jeon, micro
geometry modification analysis through RomaxDESIGNER was used
to solve these problems. Fig. 9 schematically illustrates the typical
methods of gear modification.
In the process of finding the optimal modification value, sufficient
sampling data should be used in the analysis to ensure high reliability
NOVEMBER 2018 / 1757
Fig. 7 Gear load distribution of the proposed model
Fig. 8 Gear load distribution of the proposed model after tooth
modification
of the result. The load distribution of the proposed gear after optimal
micro geometry modification can be seen in Fig. 8, the contact pattern
of the gears was shifted to the center of the tooth surface, and the
maximum load was minimized to 388 N/mm from 486 N/m, which
shows that the load distribution became even.
Gear tooth micro-modification method can also be used for the
reduction of gear noise and vibration. Profile direction modification can
reduce tooth tip collision and reduce dynamic vibration. These
modifications can be utilized to compensate for the tooth deflections
under load. As already mentioned in Fig. 9, for gear lead modification,
lead crowning or end relief can be used to make up for manufacturing
lead errors, deflections and shaft misalignments. The purpose of this
modification is to get a unique load along the tooth face width.
However, this method is not appropriate for narrow faced gears, where
it is unnecessary to compensate for lead errors and misalignment. On
the other hand, for the profile modification, tip relief is always applied
to decrease tooth corner contact and dynamic excitation of gear set. It
can be used to compensate for the tooth bending stress and, in some
part, for the manufacturing errors, reducing the noise level which is a
direct result of the PPTE (Peak to Peak Transmission Error).38,68
Y.R. Wu and V.T. Tran presented a paper on a novel micro geometry
modification of the helical gear pair. The transmission and load
characteristics analysis was conducted by using KISSsoft software. As
can be seen in Fig. 10, the modification of work gear surfaces is
graphically shown in the result of KISSsoft modification analysis. In
addition, the transmission characteristics of a proposed meshing gear
pair that comprises of a crowned pinion (Gear A) and a standard helical
 1758 / NOVEMBER 2018
Fig. 9 The schematic of typical gear modifications
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 19, No. 11
Fig. 10 Modification tooth flanks of work gear: (a) twisted tooth
flank; (b) twist-free tooth flank
gear (Gear B), are also analyzed. The transmission errors and their
accelerations and amplitude spectrum are shown in Fig. 11. Significant
improvements in performance, in terms of vibration and noise, can be
seen in the conclusions.35
4. Discussion
There has been remarkable progress in gearbox research in recent
years. Although the current state of gearbox technology is quite mature,
there still are engineering challenges to be solved, especially in the
applications which need a higher strength with low noise condition.
A patent trend investigation and discussion on the distribution of
gear technology and application status in the world was also presented
in this article. China has the largest number of patents and applications
showing that a great deal of research effort has been devoted to gear
technology in China.
Commonly used equations for calculating gear strength and T.E.
were summarized in this review. Through the study of macro geometry,
some important but easily overlooked parameters in gearbox basic
design process were mentioned. The effect of gear tooth micro
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRECISION ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING Vol. 19, No. 11 NOVEMBER 2018 / 1759

Fig. 11 Transmission errors, transmission error accelerations and amplitude spectrum of the transmission error: (a1-a3) twisted tooth flank; (b1-
b3) twist-free tooth flank

geometry modification was verified and evaluated as discussed in the ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

micro geometry study.
Faced with different issues in gearbox design optimization, more This study was supported by Basic Science Research Program
and more scholars are resorting to the professional gearbox analysis through the NRF of Korea (NRF) funded by the MEST (NRF-2016R1
software to solve the problems. It is worth noting that analysis is a D1A1A09920105) & Romax Designer of Romax Technology.
means to reduce the price and time of gearbox design, but it cannot
give mature consideration to all aspects of a problem. This implies that
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Zhen Qin
M.Sc. candidate in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Gyeongsang
National University. His research interest is
Mechanical System Design.
E-mail: musicboy163@naver.com
Yu-Ting Wu
Ph.D. candidate in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Gyeongsang
National University. Her research interest is
Mechanical System Design.
E-mail: didawyt@163.com
Sung-Ki Lyu
Professor in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Gyeongsang National Univer-
sity. His research interest is Mechanical Sys-
tem Design.
E-mail: sklyu@gnu.ac.kr