Module: 2

Environmental aspects of energy:

Trade-off between energy and environment:
Environment means surroundings. Air, soil and water are the main constituents of the e
nvironment. Nature has originally provided them to human beings in a clean form. But,
with the passage of time, their quality is continuously degrading due to various man-m
ade reasons.
During any energy conversion processes, some energy is expelled by the energy c
onversion system into the surroundings in the form of heat. Also, some pollutants are p
roduced as a by-product of this process. Both of these cause certain degradation of the
environment.
Hence, while supplying increased energy demand, efforts should be made to adop
t measures to minimize the degradation of the environment.Thus the present trend is t
o have a trade-off between the two.
To create public awareness about environmental conservation, 5th June is observ
ed as the ‘World Environment Day’.

Ecology:
Ecology deals with the relationship between living organisms (man, animals, plants and
vegetations) and the environment. Normally, nature has self-cleansing capability and it
recycles (renews) its resources through various processes, thus maintaining a state of e
quilibrium. Eg.: water cycle, nitrogen cycle, carbon cycle etc.
But when human interference exceeds the limits, then the ecological balance is disturb
ed.

Greenhouse Effect:
Greenhouse is an enclosure having transparent glass panes or sheets. It behaves differe
ntly for incoming visible (short wave) radiation and the outgoing infrared (long wave) ra
diation. It appears transparent for incoming solar radiation, allowing entry of sunlight a
nd becomes largely opaque for reflected infrared radiation from earth surface, preventi
ng the exit of heat.Thus it maintains a warmer environment inside for the growth of pla
nts in places having very cold climates.
Carbon dioxide gas (CO2) envelope present around the globe in the atmosphere be
haves similar to a glass plane and forms a big global greenhouse. This prevents the esca
pe of heat from earth, which leads to global warming. This phenomenon is called the gr
eenhouse effect.
Apart from CO2, other gases behaving similarly are methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofl
uorocarbons (HFCs), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), ozone and water vapour. These gases
are called Greenhouse gases (GHGs).

Global Warming:
CO2 is required in the atmosphere for growth of vegetation. Due to the presence of CO
2, the earth maintains an average surface temperature of 15°C which is suitable for life.
 In absence of this layer, the earth would be a frozen planet of about -18°C (the temper
ature of outer atmosphere). But, any further increase of CO2 concentration from prese
nt level will upset the temperature balance and would cause further warming of the glo
be, which may have disastrous consequences. Global warming is the continuing rise in t
he average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere and ocean surface due to greenhou
se effect.
Global warming is being caused mainly due to ever-increasing emission of CO2 because
of burning of fossil fuels for energy in the industry.

Consequences of global warming:

The effects of global warming are:
1. Average global temperature has increased by about 0.8°C over the past 100 yea
rs, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
2. One of the most important effects of global warming is the melting of polar ice c
aps. It is projected that, within a matter of years, the Arctic Sea will be complete
ly ice-free during summer months.
3. Rise of sea level is another effect of global warming. There are two major proces
ses by which global warming directly affects the sea level.
First is the thermal expansion of sea water due to temperature rise. Seco
ndly, as ice melts, the ocean level rises. Melting of polar ice caps of the Arctic an
d Antarctic region along with glaciers of Greenland, North America, South Ameri
ca are expected to raise sea levels significantly.
4. As CO2 levels increase, the ocean absorbs some of the gas, increasing the acidit
y of the seawater.Many marine organisms have shells of calcium carbonate (eg:
corals, oysters). Their shells dissolve in the acid solution. If the current ocean aci
dification trend continues, then the coral reefs will become rare.
5. Effect of global warming on human health is also expected to be serious. The A
merican Medical Association has reported an increase in mosquito-borne diseas
es like malaria and dengue fever, as well as rise in cases of chronic conditions lik
e asthma, most likely occurring as a direct result of global warming.

Pollution:
1. Indoor pollution: Indoor pollution is caused due to use of conventional chulhas
in rural areas.
2. Outdoor pollution: Outdoor pollution is mainly caused due to use of fossil fuels.
Emissions from fossil fuel based plants degrade the environment and cause vari
ous other problems. Coal and oil are more polluting than gas.
Remedy:
1. Use of fossil fuels should be slowly curtailed and focus should be shifted towards
renewable energy sources.
2. Less polluted technologies should be employed for fossil fuels, i.e.: use of gasified
coal, which is less polluted should be used instead of solid coal in power plants.
 3. Clean alternative fuels such as hydrogen should be used, which is the cleanest fue
l.
4. Electric or battery operated vehicles should be used.

Pollutants and their harmful effects:

A) Particulate matter:
Presence of particulate matter
1. Reduces sunlight
2. Reduces visibility
3. A level above 100µg/m3 results in respiratory problems.
4. A level above 300 µg/m3 results in bronchitis.
The annual average permissible limit is 75 µg/m 3 .
B) Carbon dioxide (CO2):
Carbon dioxide is ordinarily not considered as a toxic gas. But, increased concen
tration of CO2 adversely affects the global climate.excess CO2 emission in the atmosph
ere causes global warming due to greenhouse effect.

C) Carbon Monoxide (CO):

Carbon monoxide is formed due to incomplete burning of carbon in inadequate ai
r. It seriously impairs the oxygen-dependent tissues in the body,particularly brain, heart
and skeletal muscles. CO concentration of 100 ppm causes headache, 500 ppm causes c
ollapse and 1000 ppm is fatal.

D) Sulphur oxides (SOx):

Sox refers to all sulphur oxides, the two major ones being Sulphur dioxide and su
lphur trioxide .
Harmful effects:
● Cause respiratory diseases like asthma, irritation of eyes and respiratory tract.
● Cause acid rain, which is harmful to agricultural crops, forest, vegetation, soils e
tc.
● Causes corrosion of metals, building stones.
The safe limit is 80 µg/m3 (annual average).

E) Nitrogen oxides(NOx):
Nox is a generic term for nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). T
hey are produced from the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen gases in air during c
ombustion at high temperature.
Harmful effects:
1. Causes respiratory and cardiovascular illness.
2. Deprives the body tissues of oxygen.
3. Forms acid in lungs, hence more toxic than CO.
The safe limit is 100µg/m3.
 Green power:
The term ‘green power’ is used to describe sources of energy which are considered en
vironment-friendly, non-polluting and can provide remedy to the effects of certain pol
lutants and global warming.This is the renewable energy obtained from sun, wind, wa
ter, biomass and wastes etc.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

One of the international responses to global environmental problems is the United Natio
ns Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This is an international environ
mental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Develop
ment (UNCED), informally known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro from 3rd to
14th June,1992.Objective of the treaty was to stabilize the greenhouse gas concentratio
ns in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interferenc
e with the climate system.
The UNFCCC was adopted on 9th May,1992.It entered into force on 21st March, 1994.

Energy-Environment-Economy:
There is an interaction among economic development, stable energy supplies and globa
l environmental conservation. In the next few decades, fossil fuels will continue to be t
he principal sources of energy, driving economic development. The source of fossil fuel
s is stable and their extraction is affordable.Attempts to restrict the use of fossil fuels fo
r environmental reasons are likely to have a negative impact on economic developmen
t and overall availability of energy. Thus, the 3 ‘E’s- environment, energy and economic
development are closely interrelated.
Herman Daly, a famous ecological economist laid down three conditions of sustainabilit
y:
1. Consumption rate of renewable resources is not higher than its recovery rate.
2. Consumption rate of non-renewable resources is not higher than the rate of incr
ease in renewable resource supply.
3. The emission of pollutants is within the absorption capacity of the environment.
But, these conditions are nowadays getting violated due to deforestation, depletion of f
ossil fuels and increase in concentration of CO2 in the air.

Availability of resources and future trend:

A. Conventional sources:
1. Fossil fuels:
Fossil fuels include coal, oil and gas, which have been a major source of energy since t
he start of the industrial era. Fossil fuels are formed from old biological life that once ex
isted on the surface of the earth. It is formed in several parts of the earth at varying de
pths during millions of years by slow decomposition and chemical action of buried orga
nic matter under favourable pressure, heat and bacterial marine environment.
Coal: Coal is a dominant contributor to energy supply in many countries as it is widely
distributed and easily affordable. But, the future of coal depends on the advancement
of clean coal technologies to mitigate environmental risk factors, CO2 emissions etc.
Oil: Oil is mainly used in the transportation and petrochemical sector. Apart from the c
onventional oil resources, other possible future unconventional oil resources are ‘oil sh
ale’ and ‘tar sands’.

NOTE:
Oil shale is an organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen (a solid m
ixture of organic chemical compounds) from which liquid hydrocarbons can be produce
d, called shale oil.
Applications of oil shale:
Industry can use oil shale as a fuel for thermal power-plants, burning it (like coal) to dri
ve steam turbines; some of these plants employ the resulting heat for district heating o
f homes and businesses. In addition to its use as a fuel, oil shale may also serve in the p
roduction of specialty carbon fibers, adsorbent carbons, carbon black, phenols, resins, g
lues, tanning agents, mastic, road bitumen, cement, bricks, construction and decorative
blocks, soil-additives, fertilizers, rock-wool insulation, glass, and pharmaceutical produc
ts.

Tar sands (also known as oil sands) are a mixture of mostly sand, clay, water, and a thic
k, molasses-like substance called bitumen. Bitumen is made of hydrocarbons—the sam
e molecules in liquid oil—and is used to produce gasoline and other petroleum product
s.

Gas: It is the cleanest of all fossil-based fuels. Natural gas is available in plenty and is us
ed in most efficient power generation technologies, with conversion efficiency of 60%.
There are four main categories of unconventional natural gas, namely shale, coalbe
d methane, gas from tight sandstones( called tight gas) and least known methane hydra
tes.
● Shale gas:
Shale gas is the natural gas trapped within shale formations. Shales are fine-grained se
dimentary rocks that can be rich sources of petroleum and natural gas.
● Coalbed methane (or colliery gas or coal seam gas):
It is present in some coal seams. It can be found in absorbed form within the coal matri
x or unabsorbed in gaseous pockets. This gas generally lacks hydrogen sulphide but has
a potentially higher level of carbon dioxide than natural gas.
● Tight gas:
Tight gas refers to natural gas deposits which are difficult to access from a geological vi
ewpoint. It is contained in rocks with very low permeability in deep formation, deeper t
han 4500 m.
● Methane hydrates:
It is a solid compound in which a large amount of methane is trapped within a crystal s
tructure of water, forming a solid similar to ice.

2. Hydro resources:
Among all resources, hydropower is the most advanced and flexible source of power. H
ydropower installations and plants are long-lasting, due to continuous steady operation
s without high temperature or other stresses. So it produces electricity at low cost with
consequent economic benefits.

3. Nuclear resources:
U , U233(isotopes of uranium) and Pu239(plutonium) are used as nuclear fuels in nuclear
235

reactors and are known as fissile materials. Out of these, only U 235 occurs in nature.
Uranium reserves in the world are small and its recovery is expensive. Major available s
ources of uranium are in Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan and to a lesser extent in the US
A. Nuclear power is a low-emission technology.

B. Non-conventional sources:
a) Solar energy:
Solar energy can be a major source of power and can be harnessed by using thermal an
d photovoltaic conversion systems. Maximum solar radiation received on the surface of
the earth normal to it, on any bright sunny day at noon is approximately 1kN/m 2 at sea
level.
b) Wind energy:
Power available in the winds over the earth surface is estimated to be 1.6 X 10^7 MW,
which is more than the present energy requirement of the world. Wind power is the m
ost economical of all renewable resources, and is the fastest growing energy source.
c) Biomass energy:
Energy resources available from animals and vegetation are called biomass energy reso
urces. Even today, biomass is the only source of fuel for domestic use in many developi
ng countries.
Principal biomass resources are:
● Trees (wood, leaves and forest industry waste),
● Cultivated plants grown for energy
● Algae and other vegetation from ocean and lake
● Urban waste (MSW and industrial wastes)
● Rural waste (agricultural and animal waste, crop residue etc.)
Biomass material may be transformed by chemical or biological processes to other usa
ble intermediate biofuels such as biogas (methane), producer gas, ethanol, biodiesel et
c.
d) Geothermal energy:
Geothermal energy is derived from the huge amount of stored thermal energy in the in
terior of the earth. But its economic recovery on the surface of the earth is not feasible
everywhere. Most of the countries utilising their geothermal resources use it directly, a
nd only a few of them use it for electricity generation.

e) Ocean tidal energy:

 Tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts energy of tides into electricity or ot
her useful forms of power. Tidal power has the potential for future electricity generatio
n. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. But, till now it is in th
e development stage.

Superconductor-based energy storage:

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) stores energy in the magnetic field created
by the flow of direct current in a superconducting coil, which has been cryogenically cooled to
a temperature below its superconducting critical temperature.
A typical SMES system includes three parts: superconducting coil, power conditioning s
ystem and cryogenically cooled refrigerator. Once the superconducting coil is charged, the cur
rent will not decay and magnetic energy can be stored indefinitely.
The stored energy can be released back to the network by discharging the coil. The power con
ditioning system uses an inverter or rectifier to transform alternating current to direct current
or convert direct current abc to AC power. The inverter/rectifier accounts for about 2-3% ener
gy loss in each direction. SMES loses the least amount of electricity in the energy storage proc
ess compared to other methods of storing energy. SMES systems are highly efficient, and the
round-trip efficiency is greater than 95%.
Due to the energy requirements of refrigeration and high cost of superconducting wire,
SMES is currently used for short duration energy storage, hence they improve power quality.

Advantages over other energy storage methods:

1. Most important advantage is that the time delay during charge & discharge is quite s
hort.
2. Power is available almost instantaneously and very high power output can be provid
ed for a brief period of time.
3. Other energy storage methods such as pumped hydro or compressed air have a subs
tantial time delay associated with energy conversion of stored mechanical energy ba
ck into electricity. Thus, if demand is immediate, SMES is a viable option.
4. Another advantage is that the loss of power is less than other storage methods beca
use electric currents encounter almost no resistance.
 Coal Gasification:
Coal gasification is the process of producing syngas—a mixture consisting primarily of
carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2), natural gas (CH4), and w
ater vapour (H2O)—from coal and water, air and/or oxygen.

Historically, coal was gasified to produce coal gas, also known as "town gas". Coal gas i
s combustible and was used for heating and municipal lighting, before the advent of larg
e-scale production of natural gas from oil wells.

In current practice, large-scale coal gasification installations are primarily for electricity
generation, or for production of chemical feedstocks. The hydrogen obtained from coal g
asification can be used for various purposes such as making ammonia, powering a hydro
gen economy, or upgrading fossil fuels.

Alternatively, coal-derived syngas can be converted into transportation fuels such as gas
oline and diesel through additional treatment, or into methanol which itself can be used a
s transportation fuel or fuel additive, or which can be converted into gasoline.

Natural gas from coal gasification can be cooled until it liquifies for use as a fuel in the t
ransport sector.

History of coal gasification:

In the past, coal was converted to make coal gas, which was piped to customers to burn f
or illumination, heating, and cooking. High prices of oil and natural gas are leading to in
creased interest in "BTU Conversion" technologies such as gasification, methanation an
d liquefaction.

Process:
During gasification, the coal is blown through with oxygen and steam (water vapor) whil
e also being heated (and in some cases pressurized). If the coal is heated by external heat
sources the process is called "allothermal", while "autothermal" process assumes heating
of the coal via exothermal chemical reactions occurring inside the gasifier itself. It is ess
ential that the oxidizer supplied is insufficient for complete oxidizing (combustion) of th
e fuel. During the reactions mentioned, oxygen and water molecules oxidize the coal and
produce a gaseous mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), water vapo
ur (H2O), and molecular hydrogen (H2). (Some by-products like tar, phenols, etc. are als
o possible end products, depending on the specific gasification technology utilized.) Thi
s process has been conducted in-situ within natural coal seams (referred to as undergrou
nd coal gasification) and in coal refineries. The desired end product is usually syngas (i.
e., a combination of H2 + CO), but the produced coal gas may also be further refined to
produce additional quantities of H2.

The reaction involved is as follows:

 3C (i.e., coal) + O2 + H2O → H2 + 3CO

If the refiner wants to produce alkanes (i.e., hydrocarbons present in natural gas, gasolin
e, and diesel fuel), the coal gas is collected at this state and routed to a Fischer-Tropsch r
eactor. If, however, hydrogen is the desired end-product, the coal gas (primarily the CO
product) undergoes the water gas shift reaction where more hydrogen is produced by ad
ditional reaction with water vapor:

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2

Although other technologies for coal gasification currently exist, all employ, in general,
the same chemical processes. For low-grade coals (i.e., "brown coals") which contain sig
nificant amounts of water, there are technologies in which no steam is required during th
e reaction, with coal (carbon) and oxygen being the only reactants. As well, some coal g
asification technologies do not require high pressures. Some utilize pulverized coal as fu
el while others work with relatively large fractions of coal. Gasification technologies als
o vary in the way the blowing is supplied.

a) Direct blowing: “Direct blowing" assumes the coal and the oxidizer being supp
lied towards each other from the opposite sides of the reactor channel.
b) "Reversed blowing" (as compared to the previous type described which was inv
ented first) assumes the coal and the oxidizer being supplied from the same side
of the reactor.

Underground coal gasification

Underground coal gasification (UCG) is an industrial gasification process, which is carri

ed out in non-mined coal seams. It involves injection of a gaseous oxidizing agent, usual
ly oxygen or air, and bringing the resulting product gas to the surface through productio
n wells drilled from the surface. The product gas can be used as a chemical feedstock or
as fuel for power generation. The technique can be applied to resources that are otherwis
e not economical to extract. It also offers an alternative to conventional coal mining met
hods. Compared to traditional coal mining and gasification, UCG has less environmental
and social impact, though environmental concerns exist, including the potential for aquif
er contamination.

By-products of coal gasification:

The by-products of coal gas manufacture included coke, coal tar, sulfur and ammonia; al
l useful products. Dyes, medicines, including sulfa drugs, saccharin and many organic co
mpounds are therefore derived from coal gas.

Coke is used as a smokeless fuel and for the manufacture of water gas and producer gas.
Coal tar is subjected to fractional distillation to recover various products, including

● tar, for road surfacing

● benzole, a motor fuel
● creosote, a wood preservative
 ● phenol, used in the manufacture of plastics
● cresols, disinfectants

Sulfur is used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid and ammonia is used in the manufactur
e of fertilisers.

Environmental impact of modern coal gasification

Coal gasification processes require controls and pollution prevention measures to mitigat
e pollutant emissions.Pollutants or emissions of concern in the context of coal gasificatio
n include primarily:

● Ash and slag

Non-slagging gasifiers produce dry ash similar to that produced by conventional coal co
mbustion, which can be an environmental liability if the ash (typically containing heavy
metals) is leachable or caustic, and if the ash must be stored in ash ponds. Slagging gasif
iers, which are utilized at many of the major coal gasification applications worldwide, ha
ve considerable advantage in that ash components are fused into a glassy slag, capturing
trace heavy metals in the non-leachable glassy matrix, rendering the material non-toxic.
This non-hazardous slag has multiple beneficial uses such as aggregate in concrete, aggr
egate in asphalt for road construction, grit in abrasive blasting, roofing granules, etc.[12]

● Carbon dioxide (CO2)

CO2 is of paramount importance in global climate change.

● Mercury
● Arsenic
● Particulate matter (PM)

Ash is formed in gasification from inorganic impurities in the coal. Some of these impur
ities react to form microscopic solids which can be suspended in the syngas produced by
gasification.

● Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Typically coal contains anywhere from 0.2 to 5 percent sulfur by dry weight, which con
verts to H2S and COS in the gasifiers due to the high temperatures and low oxygen level
s. These "acid gases" are removed from the syngas produced by the gasifiers by acid gas
removal equipment prior to the syngas being burned in the gas turbine to produce electri
city, or prior to its use in fuels synthesis.

● Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

(NOx) refers to nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Coal usually contains bet
ween 0.5 and 3 percent nitrogen on a dry weight basis, most of which converts to harmle
ss nitrogen gas. Small levels of ammonia and hydrogen cyanide are produced, and must
be removed during the syngas cooling process. In the case of power generation, NOx als
o can be formed downstream by the combustion of syngas in turbines.

Biomass Energy:

Biomass is plant or animal material used as fuel to produce electricity or heat. Examples
are wood, energy crops and waste from forests, yards, or farms. Since biomass technicall
y can be used as a fuel directly (e.g. wood logs), some people use the terms biomass and
biofuel interchangeably. More often than not, however, the word biomass simply denote
s the biological raw material the fuel is made of, or some form of thermally/chemically a
ltered solid end product, like torrefied pellets or briquettes (A briquette, also spelled briq
uet is a compressed block of coal dust or other combustible biomass material (e.g. charc
oal, sawdust, wood chips, peat, or paper) used for fuel and kindling to start a fire. The ter
m derives from the French word brique, meaning brick).

Wood and wood residues are the largest biomass energy source today. Wood can be use
d as a fuel directly or processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. Other plants can
also be used as fuel, for instance corn, switchgrass, miscanthus and bamboo.The main w
aste energy feedstocks are wood waste, agricultural waste, municipal solid waste, manuf
acturing waste, and landfill gas. Sewage sludge is another source of biomass. There is on
going research involving algae or algae-derived biomass.

Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into three major categori
es:
● First-generation biofuels are derived from food sources, such as sugarcane and c
orn starch. Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, a
n alcohol fuel which serves as an additive to gasoline, or in a fuel cell to produce
electricity.
● Second-generation biofuels utilize non-food-based biomass sources such as pere
nnial energy crops (low input crops), and agricultural/municipal waste. Proponen
ts argue that there is huge potential for second generation biofuels.
● Third-generation biofuels refer to those derived from microalgae.