Question no.

1
Explain the different types of photovoltaic devices, how does it work?
Answer:
There are different types of photovoltaic devices
1. crystalline silicon.
2. monocrystalline.
3. polycrystalline.
4. building integrated.

Crystalline silicon:
To separate electrical charges, crystalline silicon cells must have a
built-in electric field. Light shining on crystalline silicon may free
electrons within the crystal lattice, but for these electrons to do useful
work such as provide electricity to a light bulb ,they must be
separated and directed into an electrical circuit.
Although materials are electrically neutral, n-type silicon has excess
electrons and p-type silicon has excess holes. Sandwiching these
together creates a: p/n junction at their interface, thereby creating an
electric field.

Substituting a phosphorus atom (with five valence electrons) for a

silicon atom in a silicon crystal leaves an extra, unbounded electron
that is relatively free to move around the crystal. To create an electric
field within a crystalline silicon photovoltaic (PV) cell, two silicon
semiconductor layers are sandwiched together.
P-type (or positive) semiconductors have an abundance of positively
charged holes, and:
N-type (or negative) semiconductors have an abundance of negatively
charged electrons.
When n- and p-type silicon layers contact, excess electrons move
from the n-type side to the p-type side. The result is a build-up of:
positive charge along the n-type side of the interface and a build-up of
negative charge along the p-type side. Because of the flow of
electrons and holes, the two semiconductors behave like a battery,
creating an electric field at the surface where they meet what is called
the p/n junction. The electrical field causes the electrons to move from
the semiconductor toward the: negative surface, making them
available for the electrical circuit. At the same time, the holes move in
the opposite direction, toward the: positive surface, where they await
incoming electron
Creating P-Type and N-Type Semiconductors
In a crystalline silicon PV cell, p-type silicon must contact n-type
silicon to create the built-in electrical field. The process of doping,
which is used to create these materials, introduces an atom of another
element into silicon crystal to alter its electrical properties. The
dopant, which is the introduced element, has either: three or five
valence electrons—which is:one less or one more than silicon's four.
Phosphorus atoms, which have: five valence electrons, are used to
dope n-type silicon because phosphorus provides its fifth free
electron. A phosphorus atom occupies the same place in the crystal
lattice formerly occupied by the silicon atom it replaced. Four of its
valence electrons take over the bonding responsibilities of the four
silicon valence electrons that they replaced. But the fifth valence
electron remains free, having no bonding responsibilities. When
phosphorus atoms are substituted for silicon in a crystal, many free
electrons become available. The most common method of doping is to
coat a layer of silicon material with phosphorus and then heat the
surface. This allows the phosphorus atoms to diffuse into the silicon.
The temperature is then reduced so the rate of diffusion drops to zero.
Other methods of introducing phosphorus into silicon include:
gaseous diffusion, a liquid dopant spray-on process, and a technique
in which phosphorus ions are precisely driven into the surface of the
silicon.
But the: n-type silicon cannot form an electric field by itself. It also
needs: p-type silicon. Boron, which has only three valence electrons,
is used for doping: p-type silicon. Boron is introduced during silicon
processing when the silicon is purified for use in photovoltaic devices.
When a boron atom takes a position in the crystal lattice formerly
occupied by a silicon atom, a bond will be missing an electron. In
other words, there is an extra positively charged hole.
P-Layer Design
In a PV cell, photons are absorbed in the: p-layer. It is therefore
important that this layer be "tuned" to the properties of incoming
photons so it can absorb as many as possible and, thus, free up as
many electrons as possible. The design of the p-layer must also keep
the electrons from meeting up with holes and recombining with them
before they can escape from the PV cell. To accomplish these goals,
p-layers are designed to free electrons as close to the junction as
possible, so that the electric field can help send the free electrons
through the conduction layer (the n-layer) and out into the electrical
circuit. By optimizing these characteristics, the PV cell's conversion
efficiency (how much light energy is converted into electrical energy)
is improved.
Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Cells
Crystalline silicon cells are made of silicon atoms connected to one
another to form a: crystal lattice. This lattice comprises the solid
material that forms the photovoltaic (PV) cell's semiconductors.
Atomic Structure
All matter is composed of atoms, which are made up of positively
charged protons, negatively charged electrons, and neutral neutrons.
Protons and neutrons, which are about the same size, are in the close-
packed, central nucleus of the atom. The much lighter electrons orbit
the nucleus. Although atoms are built of oppositely charged particles,
their overall charge is neutral because they contain an equal number
of positive protons and negative electrons, whose charges offset each
other.
As depicted in this simplified diagram, silicon has: 14 electrons. The
four electrons that orbit the nucleus in the outermost “valence" energy
level are given to, accepted from, or shared with other atoms.

Monocrystalline:

Solar cells made of monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si), also called

single-crystalline silicon (single-crystal-Si), and are quite easily
recognizable by an external even coloring and uniform look,
indicating high-purity silicon, as you can see on the picture below:
Monocrystalline solar cells are made out of silicon ingots, which are
cylindrical in shape. To optimize performance and lower costs of a
single monocrystalline solar cell, four sides are cut out of the
cylindrical ingots to make silicon wafers, which is what gives
monocrystalline solar panels their characteristic look.
A good way to separate mono- and polycrystalline solar panels is that
polycrystalline solar cells look perfectly rectangular with no rounded
edges.
Polycrystalline silicon:
The first solar panels based on polycrystalline silicon, which also is
known as polysilicon (p-Si) and multi-crystalline silicon (mc-
Si), were introduced to the market in 1981. Raw silicon is melted and
poured into a square mold, which is cooled and cut into perfectly
square wafers.
Type of polycrystalline
String ribbon:
String Ribbon solar panels are also made out of polycrystalline
silicon. String Ribbon is the name of a manufacturing technology that
produces a form of polycrystalline silicon. Temperature-resistant
wires are pulled through molten silicon, which results in very thin
silicon ribbons. Solar panels made with this technology looks similar
to traditional polycrystalline solar panels.
Evergreen Solar was the main manufacturer of solar panels using the
String Ribbon technology.
Thin film solar cells:
Depositing one or several thin layers of photovoltaic material onto a
substrate is the basic gist of how thin-film solar cells are
manufactured. They are also known as thin-film ph .Thin film
photovoltaic cells are made from materials that absorb sunlight very
strongly -- that's why they can be thin. While a crystalline silicon
solar cell is one-tenth to two-tenths of a millimetre thick, thin film
cells are about one-hundredth of a millimetre thick. That thinness
means it can be manufactured with relatively inexpensive roll-to-roll
fabrication techniques. It also means thin film solar materials are light
and flexible, so that the structures that hold them can be light and
sometimes even bendable.
Thin Film Manufacturing
Thin film solar cells can be made of noncrystalline silicon, cadmium
telluride or blends of cadmium-indium-gallium and sulphur or
selenium. All those materials can be deposited in thin layers on a
substrate. They're more or less sprayed on a glass panel or a sheet of
plastic. The solar film material is responsible for the absorption of
sunlight, while the substrate provides the mechanical structure and
strength of the solar cell.
The different types of thin-film solar cells can be categorized by
which photovoltaic material is deposited onto the substrate:
  Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
 Cadmium telluride (CdTe)
 Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS)
 Organic photovoltaic cells (OPC)
 
Depending on the technology, thin-film module prototypes have
reached efficiencies between 7–13% and production modules operate
at about 9%. Future module efficiencies are expected to climb close to
the about 10–16%.

 
Solar panels based on amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride and
copper indium gallium selenide are currently the only thin-film
technologies that are commercially available on the market:
Amorphous silicon:
Because the output of electrical power is low, solar cells based on
amorphous silicon have traditionally only been used for small-scale
applications such as in pocket calculators. However, recent
innovations have made them more attractive for some large-scale
applications too.
With a manufacturing technique called “stacking”, several layers of
amorphous silicon solar cells can be combined, which results in
higher efficiency rates (typically around 6-8%).Only 1% of the silicon
used in crystalline silicon solar cells is required in amorphous silicon
solar cells. On the other hand, stacking is expensive.
Cadmium telluride:
Cadmium telluride is the only thin-film solar panel technology that
has surpassed the cost-efficiency of crystalline silicon solar panels in
a significant portion of the market (multi-kilowatt systems).The
efficiency of solar panels based on cadmium telluride usually operates
in the range 9-11%.First Solar has installed over 5 gigawatts (GW) of
cadmium telluride thin-film solar panels worldwide.
Copper indium gallium selenide:
Compared to the other thin-film technologies above, CIGS solar cells
have showed the most potential in terms of efficiency. These solar
cells contain less amounts of the toxic material cadmium that is found
in CdTe solar cells. The efficiency rates for CIGS solar panels
typically operate in the range 10-12 %.Many thin-film solar cell types
are still early in the research and testing stages.
Portable Power:
When thin film is deposited on a flexible plastic substrate, it's
extremely light. This makes it a good option for such things as solar
panels for pop-up tents or an electrical supplement for a recreational
vehicle. It can also be produced in roll-up or foldable formats that can
be stuffed in a backpack. When you're ready to charge your portable
devices, you can pull out the flexible panel and give yourself a few
hours of electrical power far from any infrastructure.
Building-integrating photovoltaic:
Building integrated photovoltaic can be facades, roofs, windows,
walls and many other things that are combined with photovoltaic
material. Building-integrated photovoltaic, or BIPV, are materials
made to meet ordinary building needs, but with the bonus of
providing solar power as well. For example, roofing tiles or windows
can be built with solar power capabilities. Thin film flexibility and
weight offers an advantage over crystalline BIPV approaches.
Although the efficiency of BIPV components is not as high as that of
dedicated solar panels, because they provide double duty as building
components and an energy source, they can be a cost-effective option.
Question no.2
Define and explain the absorption co-efficient of photo-voltaic
members?
Answer:
Definition:
A measure of the rate of decrease in the intensity of electromagnetic
radiation (as light) as it passes through a given substance.
Explanation:
The absorption coefficient determines how far into a material light of
a particular wavelength can penetrate before it is absorbed. In a
material with a low absorption coefficient, light is only poorly
absorbed, and if the material is thin enough, it will appear transparent
to that wavelength. The absorption coefficient depends on the
material and also on the wavelength of light which is being absorbed.
Semiconductor materials have a sharp edge in their absorption
coefficient, since light which has energy below the band gap does not
have sufficient energy to excite an electron into the conduction band
from the valence band. Consequently this light is not absorbed. The
absorption coefficient for several semiconductor materials is shown
below.

The absorption coefficient, α, in a variety of semiconductor materials

at 300K as a function of the vacuum wavelength of light.
The above graph shows that even for those photons which have
energy above the band gap, the absorption coefficient is not constant,
but still depends strongly on wavelength.  The probability of
absorbing a photon depends on the likelihood of having a photon and
an electron interact in such a way as to move from one energy band to
another. For photons which have energy very close to that of the band
gap, the absorption is relatively low since only those electrons directly
at the valence band edge can interact with the photon to cause
absorption. As the photon energy increases, not just the electrons
already having energy close to that of the band gap can interact with
the photon.Therefore, a larger number of electrons can interact with
the photon and result in the photon being absorbed.
The absorption coefficient, α, is related to the extinction coefficient, k,
by the following formula:

Where λ is the wavelength. If λ is in nm, multiply by 107 to get the

absorption coefficient in the units of per cm.
Question no.3
Explain the criteria for the best material of a photovoltaic device?
Answer:
The number of properties is required for candidate PV material and
device structure.
The most essential ones concerned photonics and electrical
conditions.

 Strong light absorption over a large spectral range. This property

implies that a tunable band gap is desirable.

 The peak of absorption should be at 1.4-1.5 ev for optimal

efficiency.

 Good carrier collection properties for both minority and

majority carriers, a low carrier recombination loss (in the bulk at
grain boundaries and at the front and back surfaces) and a large
luminance yield.

 Low cost, so that thin film structures are favorable.

 Stability as function of both time and illumination conditions

(stable metal contacts, resistance to corrosion).

 High abundance of the source materials (for large scale

production).

 Environment friendly technology.

Question no.4
Explain the photo- conductivity and photo- generation rate in photo-
voltaic devices?
Answer:
Photoconductivity:
 Is an optical and electrical phenomenon in which a material becomes
more electrically conductive due to the absorption of electromagnetic
radiation such as visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared light,
or gamma radiation.
When light is absorbed by a material such as a semiconductor, the
number of free electrons and free holes increases and raises its
electrical conductivity. To cause excitation, the light that strikes the
semiconductor must have enough energy to raise electrons across
the band gap, or to excite the impurities within the band gap. When
a biasvoltage and a resistor are used in series with the semiconductor,
a voltage drop across the load resistors can be measured when the
change in electrical conductivity of the material varies the current
through the circuit load.
Classic examples of photoconductive materials include:
 the conductive polymer polyvinylcarbazole, used extensively
in photocopying (xerography);
 Lead sulfide, used in infrared detection applications.
 Selenium, employed in early television. and xerography
Question no.5
Write down the commercial/practical application of photovoltaic
devices?
Answer:
Photovoltaic systems:
A photovoltaic system or solar PV system is a power system designed
to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of
an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to
absorb and directly convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to
change the electric current from DC to AC, as well as mounting,
cabling and other electrical accessories. PV systems range from
small, roof-top mounted or building-integrated systems with
capacities from a few to several tens of kilowatts, to large utility- of
hundreds of megawatts. Nowadays, most PV systems are grid-
connected, while stand-alone systems only account for a small portion
of the scale power stations market.
 Rooftop and building integrated systems
 Rooftop PV on half-timbered house
Photovoltaic arrays are often associated with buildings: either
integrated into them, mounted on them or mounted nearby on the
ground. Rooftop PV systems are most often retrofitted into existing
buildings, usually mounted on top of the existing roof structure or on
the existing walls. Alternatively, an array can be located separately
from the building but connected by cable to supply power for the
building. Building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) are increasingly
incorporated into the roof or walls of new domestic and industrial
buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power. Roof
tiles with integrated PV cells are sometimes used as well. Provided
there is an open gap in which air can circulate, rooftop mounted solar
panels can provide a passive cooling effect on buildings during the
day and also keep accumulated heat in at night. Typically, residential
rooftop systems have small capacities of around 5–10 kW, while
commercial rooftop systems often amount to several hundreds of
kilowatts. Although rooftop systems are much smaller than ground-
mounted utility-scale power plants, they account for most of the
worldwide installed capacity.
 Concentrator photovoltaic
Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) is a photovoltaic technology that
contrary to conventional flat-plate PV systems uses lenses and curved
mirrors to focus sunlight onto small, but highly efficient, multi-
junction (MJ) solar cells. In addition, CPV systems often use solar
trackers and sometimes a cooling system to further increase their
efficiency. Ongoing research and development is rapidly improving
their competitiveness in the utility-scale segment and in areas of high
solar insolation.
 Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector
Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector (PVT) are systems that
convert solar radiation into thermal and electrical energy. These
systems combine a solar PV cell, which converts sunlight into
electricity, with a solar thermal collector, which captures the
remaining energy and removes waste heat from the PV module. The
capture of both electricity and heat allow these devices to have
higher energy and thus be more overall energy efficient than solar PV
or solar thermal alone.
 Power stations

Satellite image
. Many solar farms around the world are integrated with agriculture
and some use innovative solar tracking systems that follow the sun's
daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than
conventional fixed-mounted systems. There are no fuel costs or
emissions during operation of the power stations.
 Rural electrification
Developing countries where many villages are often more than five
kilometres away from grid power are increasingly using photovoltaic.
In remote locations in India a rural lighting program has been
providing solar powered LED lighting to replace kerosene lamps. The
solar powered lamps were sold at about the cost of a few months'
supply of kerosene.  However, solar rural electrification projects have
been difficult to sustain due to unfavourable economics, lack of
technical support, and a legacy of ulterior motives of north-to-south
technology transfer.
 Standalone systems

A solar traffic light

PV was used frequently to power calculators and novelty devices.
Improvements in integrated circuits and low power liquid crystal
displays make it possible to power such devices for several years
between battery changes, making PV use less common. In contrast,
solar powered remote fixed devices have seen increasing use recently
in locations where significant connection cost makes grid power
prohibitively expensive. Such applications include solar lamps, water
pumps, parking meters, emergency telephones, trash
compactors, temporary traffic signs, charging stations, and remote
guard posts and signals.
In transport
 Solar Impulse , solar aircraft
PV has traditionally been used for electric power in space. PV is
rarely used to provide motive power in transport applications, but is
being used increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and cars.
Some automobiles are fitted with solar-powered air conditioning to
limit interior temperatures on hot days. A self-contained solar
vehicle would have limited power and utility, but a solar-charged
electric vehicle allows use of solar power for transportation. Solar-
powered cars, boats and airplanes have been demonstrated, with the
most practical and likely of these being solar cars.
Telecommunication and signaling
Solar PV power is ideally suited for telecommunication applications
such as local telephone exchange, radio and TV broadcasting,
microwave and other forms of electronic communication links. This is
because, in most telecommunication application, storage batteries are
already in use and the electrical system is basically DC. In hilly and
mountainous terrain, radio and TV signals may not reach as they get
blocked or reflected back due to undulating terrain. At these
locations, low power transmitters (LPT) are installed to receive and
retransmit the signal for local population.
 Spacecraft applications
Solar panels on spacecraft supply power to run the sensors, active
heating and cooling, and telemetry, or they power is used for
spacecraft propulsion—electric propulsion, sometimes called solar-
electric propulsion. Spacecraft operating in the inner solar system
usually rely on the use of solar panels to derive electricity from
sunlight. Solar PV cells on spacecraft was one of the earliest
applications of photovoltaics. Since then, solar power systems have
been used on a wide variety of missions. The largest solar power
system flown in space is the electrical system of the International
Space Station. To increase the power generated per kilogram, typical
spacecraft solar panels use high-cost, high-efficiency, and close-
packed rectangular multi-junction solar cells made of gallium
arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor materials.