Handbook on

Electronics 8c
C ommunication
Engineering

Contains urll illustrated formulae

& key theory concepts

-------------- F o r----------------

! IES,GATE,PSUs
' & OTHER COMPETITIVE EXAMS
I

h-.
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A Handbook on Electronics & Communication E n g in e e rin g

C o p y rig h t © 2012, by MADE EASY Publications.
A ll rig h ts are reserved. No p art o f this p u b lic a tio n m ay be re p ro d u ce d , stored in Or

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o f th e above m en tion ed publisher o f th is book.

First Edition: 2012

Reprint: 2012

ISBN 9 7 8 - 9 1 - B 1 0 6 9 - 2 1. - 4

Typeset at; MADE EASY Publications, New Delhi-110016

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After a long experience of teaching in Electroics Engineering over the period of

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can provide the crux of Electronics Engineering in a concise form to the student
to brush up the formulae and important concepts required for IES. GATE, PSUs
and other competitive examinations. This handbook contains all the formulae
and important theoretical aspects of Electronics Engineering. It provides much
needed revision aid and study guidance before examinations.

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Founder & Director. MADE EASY Group
 CONTENTS

Unlt-I: Electronic Devices & Circuits....... ........... ............................7 30

Unlt-ll: Analog Electronics .................... 3180

Unit-Ill: Signals & Systems___________ „ _______ _____ ____ 81 114

Unit-IV: Communication Systems-------- -------------------- ------.~1 15-167

Unit-V: Network Theory.......... . .................... — --------- —— 169-201

Unit-VI: Control Systems . .......... .203-234

Unit-VII: Electromagnetic Theory .. .............. 235-268

U nitV Ill: Digital Electronics— ---- -------------------------- --------- 269-322

Unit-IX: Microprocessors & Computer O rganization........ ....... 323-363

Unrt-X: Electrical M aterials... . — ........... - ...... ....... ....... 365-383

Unit-XI: Measurement & Instrum entation.................................385-423

Unit-XII: Microwave Engineering........................... ........... 425-468

QQQO
J
 A Handbook on
Electronics Engineering

01
Electronic Devices & Circuits
CONTENTS

1. Energy Band and Charge Carriers in S C .........................................8-14

2. Excess Carriers in S C ................................................................... 15-17

3. Junction Diode............................................................................... 18-21

4. SC Devices...................................................................................... 22-25

5. Bipolar Junction Transistor and FieldEffect Transistor................ 26-30

 1 Energy band and Charge Carriers in SC

• Difference between the lower energy level conduction band Ec and upper I
energy level valence band Ev is called energy band gap.
• In metals the band either overlap on partially filled.
• In insulator energy band gap is very high.
• In semiconductor band gap is relatively small.
• An empty state in valence band is referred as hole.
• A perfect semiconductor crystal with no impurities or lattice defects is
called intrinsic semiconductor.
• When a semiconductor is doped such that equilibrium concentration n0
and p 0 are different from intrinsic carrier concentration np the material is
said to be extrinsic.
Fermi Level
• Fermi level is energy state having probability 1/2 of being occupied of
an electron if there is no forbidden band exists.
• Energy of fastest moving electron at OK is called fermi energy level.
• Fermi dirac function f(E) gives the probability that an available energy
state E will be occupied by an electron at absolute temperatureT, under
conditions of thermal equilibrium

where, EF -> fermi energy level

1 + exp[(E - EF ) /k T ] K -> Boltzmann’s constant
T -> absolute temp, in Kelvin
• The fermi dirac distribution function
is given as

— [1 - f(E)] gives the probability

th a t e n e rg y state E w ill be
occu p ie d by a hole.
V ------ ------- - ------------ ■ J

• C o n c e n tr a tio n of e le c tro n in
conduction band is given by
n n = Nc e - g c - e ^

where, n0 -> concentration e s in conduction band

Ef -> fermi energy level
Eq -> energy level of lowest conduction level
k Boltzm ann’s constant
T -> absolute temperature
—> effective density of states in conduction band
MADE EASY A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [9]

Effective d e n sity of states N c is given by

where, rry, —> is the effective mass of electrons
Nc = 2 [ a tn y k T l 3 '2
h2 h Plank’s con stan t

C on centration of holes in valence band is given by

p0 =N v e ' <E^ E" )/kT

where, p 0 -> concentration of holes
N v -> e ffective density of states in valence ba nd
Ef -> ferm i energy level
E v -> hig h e st energy level of valence band
Effective d e n sity of sates in valence band is given by
3/2
2 m rip k T
Nv = 2 L h2 where, mp is the effective mass of holes

Mass Action Law

• It states that at therm al equilibrium p ro d u ct of con centratio n of free
ele ctron s an d holes is equal to the square of intrinsic con centratio n at
that te m peratu re i.e.

2
n oPo - n i where, n 0 -> concentration of electron in conduction band
p 0 -» concentration of holes in valence band
n ^ intrinsic concentration at given tem perature
• Intrinsic co n ce n tra tio n is given by

n, = 7 N A e - E’ /2kT where, Eg band gap

• n, can also be give n as

n2 = A o T3 e ' 1* * 1’ where, A o -> is a constant

C oncentration of e le ctron in co n ductio n ba nd can also be given as

where, Ei -> intrinsic level lies near the middle of
n0 = n i e ^ ’ /kT
bandgap
C oncentration of holes in valence band can also be given as

p0 = nje(Ei Ep)/kT

Intrinsic concentration d e p e n d s on tem perature. As tem perature

increases the intrinsic con centratio n increases as T3 / 2 .
 CLOJ ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS MADE EASY
Space Charge Neutrality
• It the material is to remain electrostatically noulrnl, the num ol punitive
charges must balance the sum ol negative cliurgori l.o

P q * K i » n0 + N rt where, N( | ' -> concentri itlon ol donor ntom;.

N „-» concentration ol acceptor atom',
Po-> concentration ol holos
n„-> concentration of electrons
Mobility of Charge Carriers
• It is drift velocity per unit electric field.
• It defines how fust the charge travels from one place to other and Is
given by
where, v d -> drift velocity
P E E -> electric field

e~ mobility 3800 cm ’7 V soc I30 0cm 2/V sec

hole mobility 1800 cm-'/V sec 500 cm ? /V soc

Electron’s mobility is always greater than holo mobility in a given

material. Hence electron can travel faster so contribute more
current for same electric field than hole as explained by quantum
mechanical physics.
• Mobility of charge carriers decreases with temperature and varies as
where, m is a constant
m = 1.66 for e and 2.33 for hole for Ge
m = 2.5 for e~ and 2.7 for hole for Si
• Mobility also varies with electric field applied as

• At smaller electric field

mobility is constant.
• A t ve ry h ig h e le c tric fie ld
p ro d u c t of m o b ility and
e le c tr ic fie ld b e c o m e s
c o n s ta n t a n d is e q u a l to
s a tu ra tio n v a lu e of d rift
velocity.
I - ■ ■■ — ■ - -

Effect of Scattering of Mobility

• T h e re are tw o ty p e s of
s c a tte rin g m echanism that
influence electron and hole
m obility are lattice scattering and impurity scattering.
MADE ea s y a h a n d b o o k ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [11 ]
• The variation of mobility in accordance with scattering is as

• Overall mobility is given by

1_ 1 t 1 t 1 where, |i -> overall mobility

p. p 1 g2 p,3 p 1t p 2 , p 3 —»mobility corresponding to
different scattering mechanism
Energy Gap (Eg )
• Energy gap depends on temperature and interatomic spacing.
• Variation of energy gap with temperature is as

~~ £gO ” PoT eV

where, Eg0 -> energy gap at OK, p0 -> material constant,

Po = 2.2 x 10-4 eV/k for Ge = 3.6 x 10"4 eV/k for Si
E -> energy gap at temperature T(K)

• E ^ - 0 .7 8 5 eV(Ge), 1.21 eV(Si) • Eg300 -O .72eV(G e), 1.1 eVCSi)^

• Eg0 — xxx (GaAs) • Eg 300 — 1.47 eV (GaAs)

Hall Effect
• It states that if a specimen (metal or sem iconductor) carrying a current
I is placed in transverse magnetic field B an electric field is induced in
a direction perpendicular to both I and B.
• Value of hall voltage is given by
VH = Ed where, E -> electric field induced
d -» separation between upper and lower surface
or
of specim en or height of specim en
vH = — W -> width of specim en
pW
B -> applied m agnetic field
I -> current flowing in specimen
p-> charge density
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

1 R
- is called Hall coefficient RH i.e. n H p

V
VH can also be given as Vh - Rr ~ h—w
By hall experiment, mobility is given by

8
a Rn
where, p -> mobility of charge carriers
H = 7 ~ H
OK a —»conductivity of material

. Hall effect is utilized in determining whether a given material is '

•
S metal, n-type SC or p-type SC.
• For metal, value of VH is lesser compare to SC.
Hall voltage is +ve for metal or n-type SC.
• Hall voltage is -ve for p-type SC.
• Hall voltage is zero for intrinsic SC.
• It can be used in finding mobility of charge carries, concentration of
charge carriers, and type of semiconductor.
• It is utilized in Hall effect multiplier.

• In metal, RH increases with temperature.

• In pure SC. RH decreases with temperature.
• In extrinsic SC, RH increases with temperature.

C o n d u c tiv ity (cr)

a - q.np n + qp p p

where, n —>concentration e~s in conduction band

p -> concentration of holes in valence band
p.n —> mobility of e~s
Pp -> mobility of holes
• Conductivity of pure SC is given by
a = qn,[u + g ] where, nt intrinsic concentration
n p

• Conductivity of extrinsic SC is given by

g s q N d |in j f or n-type where, Nd -> donor concentration
o = qNa p p lf or p-type Na -> acceptor concentration
MADE EASY A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [13]

• C onductivity of extrinsic SC decrease with increase in

temperature above normal temperalure.
• Conductivity of extrinsic SC initially increases when, temperature
rises from 0 K.
• Conductivity increases with increase in doping temperature,
• Conductivity of extrinsic SC at OK is zero.
• At curie tem perature con du ctivity becom es equal to intrinsic
conductivity.

Fermi Level in Intrinsic and Extrinsic SC

• Fermi level EF in intrinsic SC is given by

2 2 \ NV
where, Eq -> lowest energy level of conduction band
Ey -> highest energy level of valence band
Nq -> density of states in conduction band
Ny density of states in valence band
k -> Boltzmann’s constant

• If N v = Nc then fermi level lies in the middle of energy gap.

• At 0 K Fermi level lies in the middle of energy gap.
• Fermi level in pure SC depends on temperature.
• As temperature increases fermi level moves away from the middle
of bandgap.

• Fermi level in n-type SC is given by

where, Nc -> density of states in conduction
EF = Ec -kTln band
Nq -> donor concentration

In n-type SC fermi level depends on both temperature and donar

concentration.
• At OK fermilevel coincides with Ec .
• As temperature increases fermi level moves towards the middle of
bandgap.
• As donar concentration increases fermi level moves towards the Ec .
• At NP = N n , Ep coincides with EP and this is the saturation value of EF ,
Ef can’t be greater than this value.
• Normally fermi level lies close to Ec .
 B C E C T R O N tC O B ^S ^tR C U IT S . . ------------

Form! level In p-lypa s c i s tJ '^ ’' \ ’d e nsity of slates in valence band

w h S ra ' v _i concentration of acceptors
N

--- ----------- 77 , p at nK coincides with Ey.

In p-type SC fermi eve band.
InSC
. in p-type p-type
L SC fermi
.eve! levelaway
moves lies from
ciosuvalence band as temperature

increases.
• in l n M a i r is valance band as NA increase^
n.ivnn^Cfprmileve moves lowarasvdiciH^
in p-type buiermiievem Further increase in N
and attains a saturation value of Ev at n a A
a o t!s

will not change EF .

Shill in the position of fermi level with respect to intrinsic fermi level in

n-type SC is given by

Ishift = kTInf

Shift in position of fermi level in p-type SC with respect intrinsic fermi

level is given by

Shift = kT ln — = k T ln —
n, n.
x In a material at equilibrium there is no discontinuity in fermi level.
A More generally we can say that fermi level at equilibrium must
be constant throughout the material i.e.

^ =0
dx
2 Excess Carriers in SC

• Let us assume that excess electron and hole concentration is created

in a p-type SC at t = 0 and initial concentration of excess electrons and
holes is An and Ap, then concentration of excess electrons at any other
time t is given by
where, i n -> recombination life time or minority carrier
5(t) = A ne‘ t / t n
life time.
An -> concentration at t = 0
Tn = ( a r Po) 1 where, a r -» c o n s ta n t of p ro p o rtio n a lity for
recombination
p 0 —>concentration of holes
• A more general expression for carrier life time is given by
1 this expression is valid for n-type or p-type material
a r (n0 + p 0 ) if the injection level is low.

Steady State Carrier Generation (Quasi Fermi Level)

• If we optically generate excess charge carriers in a SC by falling light
on it then optical generation rate is given by
8n where, 5n -> equilibrium access concentration electrons
9op - “
tn 1
n « r (n0 +P 0 )
8n = 8p
Sp excess hole concentration
9op optical generation rate
• When excess carrier are generated then there exist different fermi levels
Fn and Fp for electron and hole called quasi fermi level.
• Carrier concentration (resulting) is given by

n = n-,e<Fn“ ^ /kT where, E, -> intrinsic fermi level

Fn -> fermi level for e~s
F
p = n ie ^ - P )/kT
Fk -> fermi level for holes
n net concentration of e \
p net concentration of holes

Diffusion Process
• Diffusion is the natural result of the random motion of the individual
molecules.
• Diffusion happens due to concentration gradient.
• Diffusion current density is given by
 ^ ^ E asy
-7 -7 - t ] where, J „(d iff)-> diffu sion c u rre n t density r t
W to e le ctro n s
J n (d iff) = q D n
j (d iff) d iffu sio n c u rre n t density
p to h o le s
. d p (x )
J p (d iff) = - q D p
dx I D e le ctro n d iffu s io n coefficient
Dp -> hole diffusion c o e fficie n t
n(x) -> profile of e~s with re sp e c t to x
p(x) -> profile of holes with re s p e c t to x
O ve ra ll cu rre n t density is given by
where,
4>(x) = qg„ E(x)n(x) + qD n j( x ) -> ove rall c u rre n t density
J n (x) - > current density due to e-
Jp (x) = q M p p(x)E(x)-qD p ^ j (x) -> c u rre n t d e n s ity due to
holes
J(x) = Jn (x)+J p (x) E(x) - » e le c tric fie ld ap p lie d

Einstein Relation
• T h is g iv e s the relation betw een d iffu sio n c o e ffic ie n t, m o b ility and
te m p e ra tu re and given as

D[ L = Dp = kT
where, “ = VT therm al vo lta g e
fin Up q M

Continuity Equation
• T h is e q u a tio n is given by

33p _ 1 3J P 3p where, 5p, 3n excess ca rrie r concentration

Tn , Tp -> carrier life tim e for e _s and holes
3t q 3x tp
re sp e ctive ly
38n _ 1 3J n 3n
3t q 3x Tn

* A n o th e r fo rm o f this equation is given by

Diffusion Length
• D iffu s io n le n g th fo r ele ctron s is given by
where, L n - » diffusion length for e le c tro n
Lp — Tn
Dn -> diffusion c o e ffic ie n t fo r e le c tro n
Tn -> ca rrie r life tim e for e le c tro n
• D iffu s io n le n g th fo r holes is given by
w here, Lp -> diffusion len gth fo r h o le s
Dp -> holes d iffu sio n c o e ffic ie n t
Tp -> ca rrie r life tim e fo r h o le s
 A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [1 7]

If excess carrier concentration An and Ap are introduced at x = 0 in

n-type material then at any other x excess carrier concentration will be
5p(x) = A pe -X /L p where, Ap - » excess holes concentration at x = 0
8p(x) -> excess holes concentration at any x
Lp -> diffusion length for hole

Field Intensity in a Uniform SC

• Field intensity in a uniform SC is
constant through out the material
• When doping is suddenly introduced
into SC the c o n d u c tiv ity firs t
decreases, then in crea ses with
doping.
>x
Direct Bandgap SC
• Most of falling e~s will be directly releasing the energy in the form of
light and hence called d ire ct bandgapSC.
• During e_s falling from conduction band to valence band the energy of
e~ changes (both K.E. and P.E.).
• Momentum of e~s will remain same.
• Direction of e~s will remain same.
• Carrier life time is comparatively less.

Indirect Bandgap M aterial

• Most of falling e~s will be directly releasing the energy in form of heat.
• Momentum of e ' s will change.
• Direction of e~s will change.
• Larger carrier life time.
— —----------------------------------------------- - -
• Direct bandgap materials having higher carrier life time are used
|EE:':| for fabrication of Laser.
• When minority carriers are injected into extrinsic SC they flow
inside SC due to diffusion in absence of electric field.
k___________________________________________________ __________________________________________ _____________________________________________________
 Junction Dio^

Contact Potential or Built-in Potential (Vo )

where.
, KT. [N ,N Vfl contact potential
0 — In
n?
q_________ k - » Boltzmann's constant ( 1 38 x
-4 electron charge (1 6 x 10 19 coulomb)
-> temperature in Kelvin of p-n junction
N # - » concentration of acceptors (/cm 3 ) on p-side
N d —>concentration of donors (/cm 3 ) on n-side
n -4 intrinsic concentration (/cm 3 ) at given temperature

Ratio of Concentration of Holes or Electrons on the Two Sides of p-n junction

n
where,
Pp __
__ n OMq /KT
= q p —>concentration of holes (/cm 3 ) on p-side
Pn rip pn -> concentration of holes (/cm 3 ) on n-side
nr. —>concentration of electrons (/cm 3 ) on n-side
n -> concentration of electrons (/cm 3 ) on p-side
Vo -4 contact potential
q —>electron charge ( 1.6 x 10“ 19 coulomb)
k -> Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-2 3 J/k)
T -> temperature of p-n junction diode in Kelvin

In case of unbiased p-n junction diode electric field is maximum

3 at the junction and decreases on the two sides of junction and

zero outside the space charge region.
-- -

Maximum electric field is given by

. _ _ _ y

where, q-» electron charge (1.6 x 10’ 19

Eq —” Njj X n g — N a XpQ
coulomb)
€ ___ t
Nd -> c o n c e n tra tio n of donors
(/cm 3 ) on n-side
-> width of depletion region on n-side
N a -> concentration of acceptors (/cm 3 ) on p-side
-4 width of depletion region on p-side
e —> permittivity of material from which diode is m ade
-v e sign is due to the fact hat this electric field is from n to p.
Contact potential in the terms of maximum electric field is given by
where, Vo -4 contact potential
Eq -> maximum electric field at junction
W -4 Width of depletion region
MADE EASY A HANDBOOK ON ftU C T N O N iaiN W M M IN O (1VJ

9
Width of d ep letion m gion In nnblnnofl c u iid illo n h given 0 /

• ci
i/2 whom,

______
' i N,i1
W = <= r poiinllivIf/'/f nml'ifinl T ,ud for
( _N.Nd )
(-p!
fr/tinnllonp njunctiondicdn
l/Z V„ > conlncl pohjiilinl
2 « Vo ( ' 1 I 1
w = '1 ’ nluclf'jn chiirgu ( 1 0 / 10
1N„ r i„ )
g coulomb)
te-'l *"■
N ;t —>con cen tration of accop to ro (/cm *) on p fill Io
N d -> con cen tration of d o n ors (/c m 1) on n sid e

< • If we re v e rse b ia s the d io d e by voltage V flie ri in form ulae of

d ep letion width V o Is re p la ce d by |V 0 V |,
• It is c le a r that d ep le tio n width in cre a se s with re se rve and
d e c re a s e s with forward biased,

Depletion width
concentration >concentration of donors
®~T—
W ® or a c c e p to rs on n - s ld e or p - s id c
v c o n c o n tra tio n
respectively
x noKl ~ x pO ^a where, x tlG >width of depletion region on n cide
width of depletion region on p -sid e
Nd -> concentration of donors on reside
N a -> concentration of accep to rs on p-side

also x n0 + Xpo = W

Forward current
I, = |Q [ e -q W kT n ,] where, l ( -> forward current
l0 -> reverse saturation current
V -» forward b ia s e d voltage
k -> B oltzm a n n 's constant (1,38 x 10 a J/k)
T-> tem perature in Kelvin
q -> electron c h a rg e (1.6 x 10 19 coulom b)
Another form of this form ulae is
lf _ |o [ e vd /nvT _ 1] where, l0 -> reverse saturation or leakage current
-------------------------- Vd -> forward b ia se d voltage
t ] -> recom bination factor (m aterial constant)
=1 for G e
=2 for Si
V T -> therm al vo lta g e

vT= kT
q = 0 .0 2 5 9 V at room tem perature
 [2 0 ]___________ ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS------------------

• |( —> is majority carrier current

• |( -> is diffusion current
• l0 -> drift current_______________ ________________
• Dynamic or incremental resistance of diode
where i] —> recombination factor
t ]V t _ dV
= 1 for Ge
T - - ~dr
= 2 for Si
l -> forward current, VT _> thermal voltage
f

Static resistance

I/ V O 7 S I Static resistance is always g re a te r than A .C . or dynamic

resistance.

• In any type of p-n junction

B v or VB r o c ^ — r— where, Bv or VBr - » Breakdown voltage

__________ do ping
Reverse saturation current (l0 ) doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature.
I = l x 2( t 2-Ti )/ io
*0(T2) 0(T1) x
where, l0(T2) -» reverse saturation current at tem perature T 2
l0(T1) -> reverse saturation current at tem perature T 1
here, T2 > T 1

• l0 — o n | y depends on tem perature and is m inority carrier

A c u r r e n t .
• lf (forward diode current) is independent of tem perature.
• Forward voltage across diode decrease with the tem perature.
• For 1°C rise in temperature it decreases by 2.5 mV

dV
— = - 2.5 mV/°C
dT

• Junction capacitance (Cp

Ag] where, A -> area of cross-section of diode
C i W
width of depletion region
G -> permitivity of material
 W Y A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [21]
• I h»|iln|h in Inyni iiiu p n junction behave as a parallel plate capacitance
pm I cfipnnllillH.ti In glvtui by
-11/2
dQ A
C|.
<KV„ V) 2 (Vo - V) Na + N.
whom, V >lu nppllod volhigu, A i area of cross-section, - » other has
IIOlllll IIHHUlllIIJU

O’: * <v„ v)l/?

«•.<**« • C| Ih voltage variable capacitance.
• Iri ctiBOol mvortio hlnti transition capacitance C, is same as junction
capacitance.
• In revere© binnod diode transition capacitance.
CT « V "
whoro, V • >applied reserve voltage
n -> Is a constant and its value is

n« - lor stop graded diode (p + n or p-n*)

® for linear graded diode (p* n + )

□

= — for diffused p-n junction diode

Diffusion Capacitance or Storage Capacitance (CD )

• CD > C r always
- ---- 1 • - - - i where, t mean life time of minority carriers on
Cp 06 y d o p in g either side or time constant of diode
g -> dynamic conductance of diode

9= nW

so

Diffusion capacitance of diode when it is operated with sinusoidal signal

(% ') is C d ' = 2 T -9 at low frequency

At high frequency
■ to -> angular frequency
t - » time constant of diode
g -> dynamic conductance of diode
 Photo Conductors
• When — ’ tai s o r sem cond^cicxs its conductivity increases and th,,,
property s cased photo conductive effect This is also called p6 0 (o
resistive effect
• The minimum prxxon energy reQu red tor intrinsic excitation (from VB iq
C0) is energy gap E_.
• Extras.c excitation (from donor level to CB or from acceptor level to
C 3) requres esse' energy thar. energy gap.
• Photo conductive equation is given by -3 1 ^
I-------------- where, h -> plank's constant - b - '
Eg = hv = — 1
c _> speed of light in free space
---------------- — x _> wavelength of light incident on SC
• Wave lengtn of grit ncideni can be given as

um

LED (Light Emitting Diode)

• It //orks on the principle of Electro-luminescence
• It is fabricated using d>rect Pano gap material.
• It v/iH emit light when property excited.
• It emitts light due to a targe number of recombinations at junction.
Colour of light depends on concentration of dopant.
It is always operated under forward biased.
With a ■sr-.va'c current of 20 mA LED gives out the maximum intensity
of light
In reverse biased it works hke a norma' diode.

*07 • Power dissipation in LED is of the order of mW.

jz'i-.~j • Response time is in u sec
Operating life is 100.000 + hrs.
Cutin voltage is 1 3 V
It is used in remote control as a display device and in designing of
optocouplers
PJADE EASY A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [23]
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
• Operating principle in dynamic scattering of light.
• Power dissipation is of the order of pW.
• Response time is in msec.
• Operating life is 50,000 + hrs.
• It is used as display device.
9 Material used is liquid crystal material.

LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)

• Also called photo resistor or light ▲
activated resistor (LAR).' I ni / K h /l ■> ..

Principle of operation is photo

resistive effect.
Range of resistance is 5 Q to 0.75
MQ.
Dark resistance of LDR is 0.75 MQ.
It is used in optocouplers.
intensity of lig h t----- ►
Materials used for fabrication are
LDR characteristics
CdS, Se.

Photo Diode
• Principle of operation is photo conductive effect.
• Photo sensitive material used are CdS, Se, ZnS.
• It is also called light operated switch.
• Ge-photo diode respond to visible light while Si-photo diode respond to
infrared light.
• Photo sensitive coating is provided at junction only.
• Compare to normal diode photo diode has larger depletion width
obtained from lower level of doping.
• It is always operated under reverse biased condition.
• Compare to normal diode it is 10 times faster, 100 times higher sensitive
but power handelIing capacity is low.
• Magnitude of photo current increases with increase in intensity of light
falling at junction.
• Current in photo diode is given by
where, ls -> short circuit current of photodiode
l = ls + l0 [1 e v/t,VT l0 ~> reverse saturation current
V -> voltage applied
VT -> thermal voltage
Photo current flows from n to p.
Photo current is a minority carrier current.
It does not provide gain.
 [24] ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS_________ ^ADEEas y
• Photo current is a diffusion current.
• It is used in remote control sensor, in designing of optocouplers anp
read audio track recorded on motion picture film.
• When photo diode is forward biased it behaves as a normal diode ano
effect of light on current is zero.

Avalanche Photo Diode (APD)

• Basically a photo diode along with Avalanche effect.
• APD can handle large amount of power compare to PD (Photo diode).
• Its response time is smaller than PD.
• APD is widely used in fiber optic communication because of its high
sensitivity.

Photo Transistors
• Its principle of operation is photo conductive effect.
• Coating of photo conductive material is done at collector base junction.
• It is basically a light operated switch.
• n-p-n photo transistor is faster than p-n-p photo transistor.

Soler Cell
• Its principle of operation is photo voltaic effect.
• Terminal of voltage of solar cell can’t exceed the barrier potential of
diode that’s why an array solar cells is used to achieve higher voltage.
• We can measure terminal voltage of solar cell using voltmeter.
• Popularly used solar cells are Se cells, Ni-cd cells, PbS cell.
• Ni-Cd cells are rechargable cells used in satellites.
• It is used in automatic traffic signal lightening.
• Generally operated under open circuit condition.
• It can be operated in forward biased condition and has cutin voltage
equal to zero.

Opto Couplers
• These are optically coupled but electrically isolated.
• Optocouplers are faster than conventional devices.
• Widely used in industrial application where very good de isolation better
than transformers is required.

Tunnel Diode
• It is fastest switch.
• Its response time is of the order of psec.
• It is a p + n + diode having doping level of 1 ; 103
• W orked on the principle of tunneling effect
 -------^ Ij^ N P g Q Q KON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [||j

• It has very narrow depletion layer 100 A to 200 A

• It is used as linear device as well as negative resistance device
t Best material is GaAs having highest swing
• It is used in designing microwave oscillators, as a relaxation oscillator,
in designing of pulse and switching circuits, and as parametric amplifier

PIN D'<>d e
, It is p* - 1- n* diode.
• if I is replaced by p-type then called p n n diode and if I is replaces I by
n-type then called p y n diode.
• in PIN diode light doped intrinsic SC is sand witched between highly
doped p and n.
• it has low response time because of high resistivity of l-region
• it is two terminal, three layer, having single junction device.
• It is always operated under reverse biased condition
• When whole I - region is covered by depletion layer then it is called
swept out condition.
• |n PIN diode if whole I region is not swept out (hen signal loss will occur
• it is used in handling microwave power, as microwave mixer, as a
duplexer, in designing of transmit receive switch in designing of anti
transmit-receive switch.

Laser
• It stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
• It is source of coherent light.
• It is fabricated with direct band gap material having larger carrier life
time.
• Emission in laser is both spontaneous and stimulated.
• Population inversion occurs in laser.
• Lasers are highly directional.

■■■■
 Field Effect Transistor

r S - »> » > » s « b — ...

device
• ii s a current controtted device (CCD).
• Its im pedance is low and o/p im pedance is ng .
» X c sv dev co due to presence of minority carriers.
» stability is lesser because of leakage curre nt or reverse
s t a t i o n ain ent.
► D op np in emitter is highest and in base it is lowest.
• Area of cokeetor is highest and that of base is lowest.
• Transistor action take place in base region.
If both the ■unction (JE and JC) are in forward biased then transistor is
<n saturation region.
U JE s forward biased and JC is reverse biased then transistor is i r ,
a c tiv e region
?JE s reverse biased JC is forward biased then transistor is in reverse
active region
If JE and JC both are reverse biased then it is in cutoff region.
If .n saturation region collector junction (JC) voltage is greater than emittef
junction (JE) voltage then it is said to be reverse saturation region
Transistor can work as an amplifier in active region and can work as a
switch operated in saturation and cutoff regions.
A transistor represented by two diode connected b a ck to ba ck cannct
wor k as transistor as there is no bonding between base and collector
a n d also the base-transit-time is large.
In transistor all the major currents are diffusion currents.
Base current is also called recombination current.
Ic o is a drift current
For proper transistor action width of base must be less than the diffusion
length.
C o lle c to r current in transistor is given by

!V~=~ PJb + (P * W c o ] ^ ' s equation is valid in active region.

((-> current gain of common emitter.
MAP1 E A S Y - A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [27]

t Power dissipation in a transistor is given by

where, lc -> collector current
CE
-> collector to emitter voltage

< • Power dissipation in saturation and cutoff region is almost zero.

_J • Power dissipation is maximum in active region.
————— " — —— _ J

Emitter cutoff current lC B 0 is given by

Joao = 'co but actually it is slightly greater than lc o .

Base cutoff current l C E 0 is given by

'c eq = (P + ^)'c bo lc o reverse saturation current across reverse

biased collector junction.

'cEO > 'cBQ > 'CO

Current gain of common base a is given by

a= p -> current gain of common collector

t . . R a
p in terms of a is given as P = 3—
I " La■

Current gain of common collector y is given by Y = P + 1 = ^ 7 ^

• p for de analysis is greater than p for ac analysis i.e.

NOH
Pdc > Pac O r h FE > h le‘

Emitter injunction efficiency yE is given by

y lE P
— ■ for p-n-p transistor
= where, iE p -re m itte r current
*Ep + *En
due to holes
y - ‘En
Y e - •-------- ■ for n-p-n transistor i ^ - > em itter current
’Ep + ’En due to electrons
Base transport factor B is given by

B =k B= ^
for p-n-p transistor for n-p-n transistor
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS
UR]
and B is given as
• Current gain ix In terms of yE
< io 1 and in ideal conditions it i& -•
~ » | Valuu of r, and B Is very closa toj j s ___________________
^..rront is only due to diffusion.
• In a diffusion transistor a s due t0 b o th diffusion and drift
• In a drift transistor base current is aue
phenomenon. L „nrriorc k noid
• Recombination agent used to trap charge
necomoinduoii tiyL , l 0 increase in reverse biased
• Increase In depletion region widtt c
across collector base junction is calle ar Y
• Duo lo early effect olleclive base width decreases.
• Due to early effect u increases by little amount but (J increases by a

• large amount base width offers a spread resistance at high frequencies.

The effective
• Emitter junction breakdown voltage is smaller than the collector junction

• breakdown voltage.
Emitter junction breakdown is due to zener effect while collector junction
breakdown is due to Avalanche effect.

FET
• It is a voltage controlled device
• It is a high input impedance device.
• It is a majority carrier device.
• It is less noisy than BJT.
• It is thermally stable.
• It is smaller in size compare to BJT.
• Leakage currents are zero.
• It is unipolar device.
• FET is a symmetrical device where drain and source can be interchanged
while BJT is asymmetrical device.
• In JFET channel is wedge shaped.
• Process of varying channel width by variation of VDS is called channel

width modulation.
In n-channel JFET channel width is narrow near drain.
MOSFET is a voltage controlled capacitor (VCC).
Input impedance of MOSFET is greater than JFET.
MOSFET is basically a capacitor.
• Internal power consumption in MOSFET is very low.
ma d e ea s y a h a n d bo o k o n el ec t r o n ic s en g in eer in g [29]

• MOSEFTs are less noisy than FET.

• MOSFETS are faster than JFETs.

NOU 1 BJT is faster than FET devices but its power consumption is large
J compare to FET devices.
\ _________

• Iri saturation region current through FET is given by

/ V A2 w h e r e <l ss
D
s a t uration current at V
GS = 0
bs = fess P y S Vp -> pinch - off voltage
________ _____ F ' 1■d _ —i Q^ti iratinn m irrpnt At anv
s -------------------------------------- } -us-
-- —------------------- -------------------
lDS varies parabolically with respect to VGS .
I ----
• Amplification factor |i is given by
H = rd . g m where, rd - > drain resistance
gm - » transconductance
• Transconductance g m is given by
1
i

--- 1
___ i

2Iqss
gm = - OR Sm - |yp - >/Id S Id SS
i

• General equation for gate to source voltage is

bs
Vgs - Vp
bss _

• In case of n-channel Mosfet

If VGS > Vfh -> transistor is ON

If VGS < Vjh transistor is OFF

where V-^ -> threshold voltage
If transistor is ON then it will be either in saturation or in triode (linear)
region.

If Vps (Vg S ~ ^Th) -> saturation region

If Vps < ( V GS ~~V Th) -> triode region

In saturation region current is given by
where, |i —>mobility of charge carriers
Ids = ^ - ^ ( V G S - V T h )
Co x -» ca pa citan ce form ed by
metal and SC
W width, L —> length
(30)_________ EyCTRONICDEyiCES&OR®------- ^ U a$v
• In triode region current l0 is given by

lD = (VGS - VTll)VDs " J v ds

where. Vn q -> drain to source voltage

DO
In p-channel MOSFET

transistor is on

Vsg < Vfp transistor is off

where VTp threshold voltage

If transistor is on then

If Vsd - (Vsg + Vrp ) -> saturation region

If VS D < (V SG + VT p ) -> triode (active) region

In saturation region current lDS is given by

Id s = E ^ W (V sg + Vt p )2

• In triode region, current lD is given by

HOT** In triode region FET works as voltage variable resistor (WR)-

In saturation region it is used as amplifier.

W e t i o n MOSFET channel is diffused and current flows even if VGS

lb ct<l O-
• It operates
For VG S lessin twot hmode
than r e s deolptinn
h o l d ^ it wn u e n h a n c e m e n t

V G S greater than threshold voltaqe it w / i ? d e p le tio n m o d e a (\

GS v o l l a 9 e it works in e n h a n c e m e n t m ode
irameters and n-m odel............................................. 48-51

A Handbook on
Electronics Engineering

02
Dlifier Circuit with Bipolar Transistor...................................... 45-47

Analog Electronics
CONTENTS
:tion D io d e ............................................................................... 32-38
)iar Junction Transistor........................................................... 39-41
isistor Biasing Circuits............................................................ 42-44
 Junction DiOt)(

Contact Z c c n t ^ t potential

v » kT 1 Boltzmann's const. (1.38 x T O -’ JX,

Vo- q nr Electron charge (1.6 x l ( r ' 9 Couicny,

Temperatute in Kelvin of p-n junction

♦ Concentration of acceptors (/cm ) on p -s id e .
.1
+ Concentration of donors (/cm-') on n-stde
Intrinsic concentration (/cm 3 ) at given tem perature.
Ratio of concentration of holes or electrons on the tw o sides of p.-

junction
3
where, pp -> Concentration of holes (/cm ) or
Pp _ n n _ pQVo/kT p-side
3
Pn Pn -♦C oncentration of holes (/cm )or

n-side
nn -♦ Concentration of electrons (/cm 3 ) on n-side
n -> Concentration of electrons (/cm 3 ) on p-side
Vq -> Contact potential
q -> Electron charge (1.6 x 10 ' 19 coulom b)
k -> Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10~23 J/K)
T - > Termperature of p-n junction diode in Kelvin.
In case of unbiased p-n junction diode electric field is m axim um at th?
junction and decreases on the two sides of ju n ctio n a n d zero outsd?
the space charge region.
Maximum electric field is given by

o -4 -N ^ ^ N .X p o where, q - > E le c tr o n charge

(1.6 x 10’ 1 9 colom b)
C o n c e n tr a tio n
d o n o rs (/c m 3 ) on
*no “ * Width of depletion region on
n-side
N a -> Concentration of accentors
e Pem.nv.ty Of material from ^ X a d e '

- v e sign is due to the fact that thi e S m a d e ‘

C o n ta ct potential in the terms nf S 6 C t r 'C f i e l d ' S f r o m n t 0 P ’

S o f maximum e le c tric fie ld is given W
 MADE EASY a HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [33]

Vo = 4 E<
>W where, Vo -> Contact potential
Eo -> Maximum electric field at Junction
W Width of deplection region.
Width of depletion region in unbiased condition is given by

1/2 where,
'2 e V 0 X + N /'
w= E -> Permitivity of material used for
q l NaNd J form ation p-n junction diode
-1 /2 Vo -> Contact potential
w=
2 e Vo —+ 11 q -> Electron charge (1.6 x 10-1 9
q X 1 nJ coulomb)
Na -> C oncentration of acceptors
(/cm 3 ) on p-side
Nd -> Concentration of donors (/cm 3 )
on n-side

N O lO • If we reverse biased the diode by voltage V then in formulae of

depletion width Vo is replaced by (Vo + V).
• It is clear that depletion width increases with reverse and
decreases with forward biased.
• Ideal zener diode has zero resistance (dynamic resistance).
Ripple factor (y)

Vv 2
rms value of A.C. com ponent rms _ -j
V d2c ’
DC value

rm svalue _ Vrm s
Form factor (F) DC value Vd c

peak value
Crest factor (C) rms value

• Ripple factor for half wave rectifier is |y = 1-21

Average value of current and voltage of half wave rectifier

where, ld c -> average value of current
-> ideal case Vdc -» average value of voltage
I -> maximum value of current
m
, _Vm ideal case Vm -> maximum value of voltage
dc~ V
 A NALOG ELECTRONICS
[34]
, _ Mu, p _> load resistance,
m RL l
where,

• In practical case

Wh er e ' m r s +r ,+ r l
R_ -> Coil resistance
5
Rf -> Diode forward resistance
Rl -> Load resistance.

V
v , - — where, V’m = Ft
*d c _
H

• RMS value of current and voltage

— m ideal case for half wave rectifier

rms — 2

V
v rms
=
2 ideal case for half wave rectifier

Form factor (F) for half wave rectifier F = 1.58

• Crest factor (C) for half wave rectifier |C = 2

• Efficiency q for half wave rectifier

_ O/P de power
11 A . C . i/p power
rms

* ^ a x *m u m e f f i c i e n cy (when Rs = R( = o) ideal case

* '* " ’* " n = = 4 0 -6 %

• Peak inverse voltage for half wave rectifier PIV = V

• Transformer utilization factor (TUF) for half wave rectifier

^ Q / P frequency = i/p frequency fo^ ^ w a v e rectifier.
 HADE EASY a HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING £35

Conduction angle for half wave rectifier

9 = 7t for ideal case

e = i t - 2 sin’ 1 for practical case

__________
Vy = cut-in voltage of diode
Vm = maximum voltage
Ripple frequency (f r ) for half wave rectifier
fr = f , f -> input frequency

Full Wave R ectifier (Centre Tap)

• Average value of current and voltage for full wave rectifier.

| _£!m 2V
*dc ~ _ . ideal case v dc _ . ideal case
it ________ 7t

RMS value of current and voltage for full wave rectifier

*rm s ~ ’ ’d e a * c a s e v rms --
V . . I
< ideal case

For practical case lm is replaced by l' m .

where, and Vm = lm R|_

• R ipple factor (y) = 0.48 for full wave recrifier.

• Form factor (F) = 1.11 for full wave rectifier.
• Crest factor (C) = ^ 2 for ful wave rectifier.

O D
Efficiency t ] = - y ■=— — ------- for ful wave rectifier centre tap.
71 i + R f + RL
Q
r| is maximum when Rs = Rf = 0 -> ideal case and r|max = — = 81

Peak inverse voltage for full wave rectifier (centre tap) is [PI V = 2Vm

Transformer utilization factor (TUF)

TUF = 0.693 for full wave centre tap.
 ANALOG ELECTRONICS ma °Ma$v
1361

I';
Torhill w f lV 0 mGlillur (b rid g e -y i-/
„ „ , H.? ,l l I IH | lnro p ln co d b y / H r
| i i p | i;< H y

i t PIV • Vfll for bridge IVP°

TUI « 0.812 lor bridge typo.
Conduction angle
0 » 2n Ideal case
e = 2 n - 4 s in '1 ^
1%
0 - 2 n - 4 s ln ry1 - _________*rn
_____________ v m
Vy -> cut in voltage of diode.
for centre tap.

Filter Circuit
• To minimize the ripple in o/p, filter circuits are used.
• Half wave rectifier with capacitor filter (C) —>Peak to peak ripple voltage

where, Lac = o/p de current.

r _ f.C Rl
V^ -> o/p average voltage
f -> input frequency
C-> capacitor in o/p circuit used for filtering

PIV = 2Vm With filter.

2fC ’

Full Wave Rectifier w ith Capacitor Filter R ipple V o lta g e (V )

Ripple Voltage (Vr ) r

v = *dc I - ^ dc v
r ’ dc RL ave rage value of current.
2fC
1-^ Input frequency
R ~*Load resistance
L
C C a Pacitor used in O/P circuit for filtering

Vd c = Vm —- dc
j
4fC
PIV = 2Vmm
Ripple factor for half
capacitive filter
IADE EASY A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (37]
Maximum current through diode (surge current)

bm ax T 'de '□ m a x ~ n - r ‘ 'de

*c

halfwave rectifier for full wave rectifier.

T -> Time period of input wave
Tc —> Conduction time of diode per cycle.
Exact solutions for half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier with C-filter

2Vp
bavg ” Il 1 + Vr
where, I. = — =
J L Rl Rl
Vp -> peak value of voltage
2V P Vr -» Ripple voltage (peak to peak)
U m ax 'L 1 + 2n
Vr = lL/fC

For full wave

. i Vm VP
K
bavg II 1 + n 2V ] where, I, =
r
L Rl r l
Vp -> peak value of voltage
■
Vr -» ripple voltage (peak to peak)
U m ax — 'L 1 + 27C %
2V r
v' - -L
2fC
Conduction angle for both half wave and full wave rectifier is

2V f where, Vr = -^7 for half wave

0 = coTc = TU
VP
vr -777 for full wave.
2f.C
Ripple factor for L-filter is given by
1
Y
Y = 372 x
wL for half wave
C

where, X,
\|
xoc
4-

X, 2o)L for full wave

V2 X c
Ripple factor for LC filter 3 XL
1
X C1 =
2o) C i c 2coC
1__
X C2
where, 2 co C j x L = 2 u )L
XL - 2 m L
For hall w ave rectifier For half v\ave rectifier
 ANALOGlLECTgONlCS----------------
(38]

L c f ii^ ip p i^ ^
Ripple Factor for x-fifter or CLC Filter is

^-Xc 21c 2

1
1 X ci "
X ri = — 2coC1
1
wnere. Y _ 1 XC 2 -
X C2 - 7J7 2<dC2
XL = coL XL = 2ft)L
For haff Aave rectifier For half wave rectifier

Ripple Factor of CRC Filter

: • In above formulae for CLC filter XL is replaced by R.

A Z? • In a clamper circuit load resistance R is chosen according
to the formulae
R = ^R|Rr for better O/P.
where Rf -> Forward resistance of diode.
Rr -» Reverse biased resistance of diode.

Clamping Circuit Theorem

• It states that for any i/p waveform the ratio of area under o/p voltage

curve in forward direction to that in reverse direction is equal to ratio •

i.e. Af _ Rf where, Af Area in forward direction

Ar R Area in reverse direction
Forward resistance of diode
R Load resistance or o/p resistance.
 Bipolar Junction Transistor

Bipolar ju nctio n transistor is a c u rre n t

controlled cu rre n t source.

B » Vc b + Vb E - VcE

NO H
a = ~ , curre nt gain in case of
Ie
common base amplifier.

p = -p, Current gain in case of common

Ib
emitter amplifier.

where, lc -> Collector current, lB - » Base current, lE -> Emitter current.

•c T P'p + (P + 1) *CO

{valid for active region of operation}

ly - alg + lCB0 where, lc o = lC B 0

lC B 0 -> Leakage current or reverse saturation
current with emitter open.

I lC B 0 is slightly greater than reverse saturation current.

 [40]_______________ ANALOG ELECTRONICS______________ MADEj : ^

Region o f Operation ______________

Region Collector Emitter

Junction Junction
1. Cut off Reverse Reverse
2. Active Reverse Forward
Biased Biased
3. Saturation Forward Forward
Region Biased Biased
4. Reverse Forward Reverse
I Active Biased Biased
Equivalent circuit of bipolar junction
transistor is

^ be - V be + Ir r b
where, V'BE -> Internal voltage r8
>8
VBE -> Net voltage between 0 o ------- MWAV
base and emitter
BE

DC LOAD LINES

w -v cc
Rc
DC load line is the locus of all possible
o p e ra tin g point at which BJT remains in
active region.

If b a s e curre nt lB < — then transistor

o p e ra te in active region.
 ADE EASY A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [41]

'c sat
If | > — then it operates in saturation region.

Collector current lc = V cc ^ CE for above figure.

Rc

at saturation, |VC e = v c es ■

VCE = Vc c at cutoff when lc = 0

Maximum value of current

l - Vcc
Cmax p [Taking VCE = 0 at saturation]

This is the ideal case.

Power dissipated in a transistor is

----------— s.
x , • Power dissipation is maximum in active region and minimum
AA* in cutoff region and saturation region.
* * * " '* ' ’ l C EO = ( P + 1 ) l CBO

where, lC E0 -> Collector to emitter current when base is open circuited.

ICBO -» Collector to base current with emitter open.
 3. Transistor

• Biasing is about stabilizing Ip and VCE so as to ensure

that transistor remains in active region for entire range
of input signal.

Base Register Biasing

Emitter Feedback Bias

• Collector current lc

I = Vcc ~ V CE
c ~ Re + R c

(assuming p to be large)

Collector-Feedback Bias (self bias)

j ~ V CC ~ V CE
lc — r T~
[Assuming p to be large or lB ~ 0]

[Exact value]
T v cc

Voltage Divider Vias [universal bias]

• Widely used in linear circuits and is as
Equivalent circuit will be -> (thevenine
equivalent)
 A HANDBO O K ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [43]
v cc
where, Vth = J | ^ - V cc
Rc
c R lh = R 1 II R 2

I - ^CC ~ VpE
Vttl,
*h C “ r c +r e

[Assuming p to be large]
Re

Stabilization
• . Stabilization is about making the Q-point independent of changes in
temperature and changes in transistor parameters.
• *co> v be a n c * P changes simultaneously then net change in lc

Alc = A _ Alco + A - x AVBE + AP

aico avBE ap be

, di
where —c = S Current stability factor.
dlco

aic = S' -> Voltage stability factor

dVBE
3I
= SB or S" -> Amplification stability factor.
dB P

• Out of three stability factor S is most significant reason being,

it S is within tolerable limit then other S' and S" are guaranteed
to remain within tolerable limit.
Sldeal “ 1

Practically S should be less than 20.

For voltage divider bias circuit, current stability factor

s (P +1)(Rt h +R e )

• Re must be large for lesser value of S, but it also decreases the gain.
[ 4 4 ! anal og el ect r onic5 maoe Easv

Alternate Evaluation ol S

Condition for effective stabilization

(P +1) (Re + Rth ) rpo r v 0 |ta g e divider circuit]

Rih + (P + DRe
R ih
(P+ D r e
P
1+ hR
e /
then
For base register biasing
S = (p + 1) very large -4 highly unstable.
Thermal resistance (8)

~ ‘A
(°C/watt or °K/watt)
Pd
where T( -» Junction temperature (collector junction)
Ta -» Ambient temperature in Kelvin.
PD -> Power dissipated across collector junction
A transistor will be thermally stable if

3PC
3Tj 3Tj 6 Rate at which heat is released.

dPD
dTj Ra t e a * which heat is dissipated.

For thermal stability >7

0 CE
 4. Amplifier Circuit with Bipolar Transistor

AC Emitter Resistance
__ aVT _ V r a where, a -■? Current gain
fe . fa fa Om
V f —> Thermal voltage
lc Collector current
lE -> Emitter current
- * Transconductanceof transistor.
• AC Beta

Pac = 7 T Normally
Z lig

• Common Emitter Amplifier

Vnirt
out
= - LR,,
c c

Voltage gain = Av =
Vjn re \ P /

Input impedance Z jn = R1 jR2KP+1)r e

Input impedance seen from base Z,n(base) - (P + 1)r e

Output impedance = Rc
• Input impedance Z|n = Rj II Rg + (P + ^)(r e + ^dd

• Input impedance at base Axbase) g P(r e * ^ e) |

Output impedance

if Re□ = 0
thenZ 0 = r0

With Rs * 0, voltage gain

Darlington Amplifier

Input impedance of second stage

ZirKZ) = Pa Re ] p2 -> Current gain of Q

MADEEASY------^HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [47

. Input im pedance of first stage

Zj^i) ~ P lP g ^E P, -» Current gain of first transistor Q 1

• AC thevenine im pedance at input |Z in = R s HR, ||R ?

• Output im pedance of first stage

Zout(1) ” r ®1 + where, -> Emitter resistance of Q 1

r th —*
* II ^ 2
• Output im pedance of second stage

r01 +
7 - rr 4-
R
Pl
Axjt(2) “ e 2 + — p------ re2 -> Emitter resistance of Q 2 (A.C.)

Common Base Amplifier

• Input impedance
Ah ~ ro -> Emitter resistance

AA v =
Rc
/
• Voltage gain A v ,
•e

• Output im pdance Z o u t = R c

. Input im pedance of com m on collector amplifier is highest

S among CE, CC and CB.

• O utput im pedance of common collector am plifier is lowest
among CE, CC and CB.
* Darlington pair is used where high input im pedance is required.
• Darlington pair offers very high current gain. Also called current booster
or current multiplier.
* Voltage gain of CB is highest and current gain of CC is highest.
* CE has m oderate voltage gain, current gain and highest power gain.
 h-parameters and n-m o^

wtiere, h_, h , h, and h .

configuration. 00 a re ^'Parameters for common
 --------A H A N D B O O K o n ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [49]

For common collector equivalent circuit will be

B hjC i,

Common collector h-parameters in terms of common emitter h-parameters

hjc = ^ie
oc 1 'oe

hfc ~ 0 ■*" ^ f e ) hrc = 1

Common base h-parameters in terms of common emitter-h-parameters

• Formulae for current gain, voltage gain, input im pedance, output

impedance for above equivalent circuit is given by

hf
Z in = Rs + h j + A [h r Rl
1 + h 0 RL

A
Av s ’ Vin
Ri - hj + A| hr R|
 ANALOGJELECTRpNICS
[50]

A v= 7 Rl
A |^
where

R
A
Overall current gain s

hr hl
Yo = h0 - R .
Output admittances

under the assumption RL - » 00

and Vin = 0
7C M o d el or High Frequency Model

i /
• typical value of rbb , 100Q
• typical value rb ,e r = 1 kQ
n
• typical value of rce ro = 80 kQ
• typical value of rb ,c rR = 4MQ
• typical value of CMr c n = 3pf
• typical value of C Cn = 100 pf.
• typical value of gm 50 mS.

where Cc -» Collector junction barrier capacitance.

Cg -> Diffusion capacitance between b' and E.

R e la tio n b e tw e e n h -p a ra m e te r a n d P aram eters o f n -m o d e l

^ie - rbb- + rK
 Frequency at which short circuit current gain becomes unity is

fr = ip “ 1 Or, T = 'p "fe

hfe
Or fT = — —
2 k rb .e (Ce + Cc ) 2 * (C ,+ C c )
• Current gain with resistive load at the O/P is

where L = --------------------------------------
2 k rb -Q[C e + Cc (1 + gm R|_)]

• Unity gain frequency fT is highest and fH is lowest among fH , fB

 Feedback Amplify

Diagram of a Feedback Amplifier

' MADE EASY----- A HANDBOOK O N E jjgT R QN|C S ENGINEERING [53]
1 feedback Topology
1. Voltage Series

(i) p is dimensionless.
(ii) Voltage series feedback stabilizes the voltage gain.
2. Current Series

(i) Unit of p is ohm.

(ii) It stabilizes trans-conductance gain of the amplifier.
3. Voltage Shunt

(i) P has unit mho.

(ii) It stabilizes the trans-resistance gain of the amplifier.
,M1 ---------
4 Current Shunt

(i) P has no unit

( h ) It stabilizes the current gam of the am plifier

Gain with feedback

A, = for - ve feedback
where, A —> Gam without feeccao
A
1 for +ve feedback
1 -A fJ p -> Feedback factor

Loop gain or return ratio loop gain = - A0

Difference between m ty and loop gain is called re tu rn d iffe re n ce (Di

D » (1 + A3)

D is also called desensitivity

Tne amount of feedback introduced into amplifier is often express*:
dB and is given by

N(Feedback in dB) = 20 log

1+ A 3

* N -> -ve for -ve feedback ' -------------------

_______ -_____ _________ a c K - N +ve tfor +ve feedbac*
in case of -ve feedback, a d v a n t a ^ ^

dA
— change without feedback.

dA,
% ch ange with feedback

dA,
>11 2S
dA/A
■w w m w km o

Af 1+ Ap , e ....
MADEEASY------- A h a n d bo o k o n el ec t r o n ic s en g in eer in g
, Reduction in noise

Nq —>Noise without feedback

°' 1 + AP
Nof -> Noise with feedback
Lower cutoff frequency

W l + Ap, f /f -» Lower 3-dB frequency with feedback

* Lower 3-dB frequency without feedback
Upper cutoff frequency |f hf = ^(1 + Aft) |
where f hf —> Lipper 3-dB frequency with feedback.
Upper 3-dB frequency without feedback.

Bandwidth increases with -ve feedback.

For different feedback configurations effect on input and output

impedance

feedback i/P o/p gain Ri

1. Voltage series Voltage Voltage ?
2. Current series Voltage Current T T
3. Voltage shunt Current Voltage X
4. Current shunt Current Current A, 1 ? ■

Mmt
• Voltage series feedback, is the best arrangement in terms of
R( and Ro .
• Current shunt is the worst for the same.
 7. Transistor Application in M u ltivib rato r

ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

?VgC

oE,

• Time period of 0/P wave form generated is T = 0.69 [R1C 1 + R2 C2]

O/P frequency f = — = -— ------

T (R1C1 + R2 C2 )

• Resolution time for bistable multivibrator is

t s -» Smallest allowable interval between trigger.
So maximum frequency of operation

[Practical value]

Bistable Multivibrator with Commutating Capacitor

1
_ _________ *. = _ !_
ma * where, R = R, || R2
2C R 1R2 2CR
and-t = CR

^transistor" 0 6 b ®t W een base and g ro u n d of eacfl

f max maximum frequency of operation

MADE EASY A HANDBO O K ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [57]

• in case of monostable multivibrator, width of pulse generated is given

by
T = 0.69 RC
C -> Capacitance between collector of one transistor and base of
other transistor.
R Resistance between Vc c and base of one transistor.

• Astable multivibrator is nothing but square wave generator.

• Monostable multivibrator is used for missing pulse detection,
in PWM, PPM.
• Bistable multivibrator is nothing but a flip flop.
 OPAMP and OPAMP based Citr...
— — U|t|

Ideal Properties of an OPAMP

= 6o, R( = co, rq - o, Bandwidth = «>, Slew rate = oo, CMRR
where, A ^ -> Open loop gain of OPAMP
R, -> Input im pedance of OPAMP

R o -> Output im pedance of OPAMP

where. A d -> Differential gain of OPAMP i.e . (y
Ad.
CM RR = V2 -> Input at - v e term inal
A c

V 1* V2
A -> Com m on m ode gain =
c
2
(usually very sm all)

• CMRR = °o, ideally

• Practically CMRR is very high.

Properties of OP-AMP
Ideal value Practical value
Voltage gain oo 106
i/p resistance oo 10 6 Q o r 1 MQ
0 /P resistance 0 1 0 Q to 100 Q
B.W, 10 6 H z o r 1 MHz
CMRR
10 6 o r 1 2 0 d B
Slew rate «
80V /p sec.
Inverting Amplifier

V ~ Rr
 MAgEEASY------ A H AN DBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Non-inverting Am plifier D
* Fl*

then, V0 = nR± [V 2 - V 1] = gR - ( V 2 - V 1)

! tk ' l-> ^2 ^4
• In this case when = -±
Ri R3
A c ~ 0 —>Common mode gain and CMRR = oo

NONLINEAR O P -A M P CIRCUITS

integrator
c
----------- 1 -----------
R
Vo = - 5^ f v l d t+ v 0 (°+ )
v,o— W A
Hu w
+ Vo
 anal ogel ect r onics
(601
Differentiator

Log Amplifier

VT -* Thermal voltage
l0 -> Reverse saturation current of diode

Antilog Amplifier

Vo = - l o R a n tilo g ^ i-

l0 -> Reverse saturation current of diode

i] -> Recombination factor
VT -> Thermal voltage

Grounded Load

Ri__ ?3 then

If Vs is applied at point A and

B is grounded and

^3 then
^lADEEASY-------A HANDBOOKpN ELECTRONICS ENGIMgfRIMCt

Square Wave Generator or Astable M ultivibrator

R
• Time period of O/P waveform generated is
[T « 2R C ln 3

(For R, « R? )

^ e re B = R ^

Monostable M ultivibrator
• Width of pulse generated at 0/P is c
41
T = R C Inl 1 + 5 * |
I

then T = RC In 2

Triangular Wave Generator

Vs -> Control the slope

VA -> Control the amplitude
of output.
for Vs = 0 —> Symmetrical
triangular wave is obtained.

2R 2 R 3 C V S81
where,
 ANALOG ELECTRONIC made
[62]

Bias Currents and Voltage

Vo * 0 -> Called O/P offset voltage.

Balanced condition.

i/p bias current (lB )

Input offset current li0 = Obi ~ b z )

• Input offset voltage is the voltage which must be applied between inpj
terminals to balance amplifier (Vo = 0).
• For input Vm sin cot
SR where, SR -» Slew rate
m ax ~ 27rAC L Vm fmax -» Maximum frequency of operate
AqL -» Closed loop gain of OP-AMP.
• In case of monostabie multivibrator using 555 timer
width of pulse generated is T = RCIn3

555 in Astable Multivibrator Mode

^AnFjA S Y a H ANDBO O K ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [63]

, Time period of O/P wave generated is

1.45
(Ra +2R b )C

duty cycle = = r-a + Rb

I na ’

• Duty cycle > 50%

v Ton > Toff -> Duty cycle > 50%
• By placing a diode parallel to RB and making RA + Rf = RB —>
we have square wave of 50% duty cycle at the output.
 POWER Amplifi

AC Load Line
♦ CE amplifier
where
I Q uie scen t
collector current
v c eq Qu ie s c e n t
c o lle c to r - e m it t e r
voltage
• AC load res4stance
seen by collector

rc - Rc II R}_

Vc eq
AC saturation current ’c(sat) 'co +
rc

AC cutoff voltage VcE(cut) = ^CEO + ^COr c

A C output com pliance is the maximum u n c lip p e d peak to peak AC

voltage that an amplifier can produce.

AC output compliance of a CE amplifier | PP = m in.(2l C Q rc , 2VqeqL

Emitter Follower

AC saturation current

AC cutoff voltage

AC output compliance of an emitter follower

 M A p e jM X --------A H A N D BO O K O N ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [65]

c0 Amplifier

• AC load resistance of CB amplifier | ip ■ R( . Jj Rc |

, AC load lino and ac output compliance of CB amplifier aro same as that
of CE amplifier.

Class A Operation
• Transistor operates in active region at all times.
• Unloaded gain of CE amplifier

where, r0 —> emitter resistance (A.C.)

Loaded voltage gain A v = ro where, rw-> AC load resistance

• Current gain of the transistor

where A ( -> Current gain
A| = - k where, A ( - * Current gain
L -> AC collector current
’b
ib -> AC base current

In most of the circuits you can use the approximation

A ,a P
• Power gain A p = Av Aj

• Load power
V,2 Von where, PL -> AC load power
> - 2k_ = 2 pp
L Rl 8Rl VL - > RMS load voltage
Vpp - » Peak to peak load voltage
Rl - » Load resistance
• Transistor power dissipation PD Pd - VcEobo ~ 'c^c
Normally ic Vc -> is very small so we can neglect it.
where, PD -> power dissipation
V Quiescent collector - emitter voltage.
v tU
L n -> Quiescent collector current.
V/vJ

• Total DC power supplied to an amplifier Ps - ^cc *s

Maximum AC load power

where, PP = Maximum unclipped value Vpp

 If*J_________ -
• Stage efficiency

where, n - » Stage efficiency

Class 6 Operation
• Current fk>ws for half of
the cycle of input.
• Q -point is located at
cutoff on the de and ac
•oad tines.
. V -2 4 s .
’CEO ~ 2
• AC load pow er of a
class B push-pull amplifier

where, Vpp -> Peak-peak load voltage

Class C Operation

It ts a tuned amplifier.
Resonant frequency of tank circuit is q t
- given by
w h e re '- = Resonant frequency
L Inductance
AC load power for class C am pw ,^ a P a C 't a n C e

> pp Peak to peak load voltage

L - OD
R -> Load resistance.
 10. Junction Field Effect Transistors

, General equation for drain current -> for JFET is

2
1 _ ^GS
*D - bss in saturation region
L vP _

where -> M axim um value of current with VGS = 0

ln -> C urrent at other values of Vr c
Vp -> Pinch off voltage
Vqs -> G ate to source voltage.

• Drain resistance (r d ) is given by _ AVps

AIds 'at VG S

Range is from 100 kQ to 500 kQ

gm = - ^ 2 -
Trans con du ctan ce (gm ) is given by
AVg s 'at v D S

• For JFET range of g m is from 0.1 mS to 10 mS.

Amplification fa cto r (p) is given by P- - AVps

AVq s
•b
Range of p. is from 2.5 to 150.

— rd '
Relation between p., rd and g m is P 9m

formulae for Transconductance

• In saturation region

gm =

or
 anal o g el ect r o nic s M A d Lea$
168] 4

where. £U = ’ Vp . . . .
I . Maximum value of salutation current
where.
V _» pinch off voltage
V F -4 Gate to source voltage
08 _> Maximum value of transconductance

Small Signal Low Frequency Equivalent of JFET

High frequency and small signal equivalent circuit is

• Net i/p capacitance between gate and source is

where -> Capacitance betw^a

C - - Capacit a n c e ^ " 9 ^ and source I
•
\ - Voltage gain of A m p ife
N etO /P capacitance between d ^ d
I
I

O and source is <

6i
0 capacitance 1
Capacitance
source between !
 MADEEASY----- a h a n db o o k o n el ect r onics engineer ing tW |
C GD Capacitance between gate and drain
Av -* Voltage gain of amplifier.

Self Bias
• Ve s = - lD Rs
• Source resistance

'DSS

Vp -> Pinch off voltage

Voltage D ivider and Source Bias

[ 7 0 ] _____________ ANALOG ELECTRONICS

C u rre n t Source Bias

Rd

'0

s
Re

r£

In ohm ic region, in case of FET

where, r0 -> resistance (drain to source) when
Vr ~ = 0
rK -> Resistance at any between drain
and source.
Vp -> Pinch off volta ge
-> Gate to source voltage
 11 MOSFET

ENHANCEMENT t y p e m o s f e t _______________________________

For n-channel Enhancement Type MOSFET

• VGS must be greater than V, (threshold voltage) for MOSFET to be ON.
i.e. > Vt -> for ON
if ^ gs < -> Cutoff region
• F°r ^ g s > there a r e two region of operations
if v ds < (^ g s ~ Tr io c Je region of operation
if Vpg > (VG S - V t ) -> Saturation region
• Formulae for current in triode region -> (n-channel) is

| D = HnCffisWr(VGS_ V i ) VDS_ ^ V 2s

ji n Cox = k'n -» process transconductance

W
— = aspect ratio

rUc -> drain to source resistance in triode region

nD

We take ^ C °x — = kn
i

• Formulae for current in saturation region for (n-channel)

I _ MnCoxW
*ds - —
/y
— *V g s ”
w\2
V |'

where Pj.C q*W . = k

2L n

30 I Ids - Kn (Va s - V,)F

For P'£ hannel Enhancement Type MOSFET

" V SG > |V ,H ON
< |Vt| -> OFF (cutoff region)
 ANALOG IlKIRONK*
\ VVlIrtUO
« Vsd > Ml
\.v K >111'^0 1 ,^ 0 1 !
audit VS 1 > (V!!s^V,> ^ n a t i o n icHJlun
I euitvui In tiiO'lo i v j i o o loi p chut tripl

Fxvnuilae of current in salutation tuijion lot p channel

|iBS-Kn fVSu +VJ1,|

WlkMV k MiA \>\W

.'I

a ih i

• For depletion type MOSFET formulas remains same.

g m fbrMOSFETIs

gm .Ln9a SW(vQ S _ V |) in saturation region

9m * V^DS^n

55

where k,, and K„ are constants that depends on particular MOSFET.

 12. A m plifier Circuits Using FET and MOSFET

All the formulaes are sam e whether it is designed using FET or MOSFET.

Rs = 0

then Av = -g m R D where, A v -> voltage gain

• Input im pedance Z in = R 1||R2

• Output im pedance Z 0 (w ith load R D ) = RD II [rd + (|i + 1)RS ]

without load R D. z o = ( r d + (U + 1)RS )

• If rd - » oo then Z o = RD where, rd drain resistance
Common Drain A m p lifier

• Voltage gain

A.,=

,K A - 9m R s
then M v —j _ r

Output im pedance w ithout load Rs —> Z -

lf r
d ->°° then
 anal og el ect r onics MAte
L™1
• Output impedance with load Rs

Common Gate Amplifier

• Unloaded voltage gain

“ 9m^D

• Input impedance

• DC on-state resistance

Vq s where, rD S (0 N j -> DC resistance in saturation rega

r DS(ON) “ | v os DC drain source voltage
'D
lD -> DC drain current

• Common source amplifier is equivalent to CE amplifier of BJT

• Common drain amplifier is equivalent to common collector
amplifier of BJT.
• Common gate amplifier is equivalent to common base amplifier
of BJT.
13 Differential Amplifier

• Its circuit is as
V ou> = A <V 1 - V2 )
where = Voltage between
collectors
V,>

where r0 -* Emitter resistance

Noninverting input
voltage
Inverting input voltage

DC Analysis o f a D iffe re n tia l A m p lifier

• Emitter bias current

Input offset current ^ o ff) s ki *B2

Input bias current -4^

• Output offset voltage | Vc s Vcc - k ftc

AC Analysis o f a D iffe re n t A m p lifier

Noninverting input
• AC emitter current

where f r0 —>emitter resistance

 ANALOG ELECTRONICS
[7«1
-- ----------- V, q
Vout = 'c R e = 2 r „ c

AC output voltage is

^221= /
Voltage gain for noninverting input is V, 2r,

2. Inverting input /

AC emitter current is 'e 2r0

= -
• AC output voltage is Vout “ 'c^c 2re

Vout _ R c
• Voltage gain for inverting input is V2 2re

A
Rc
A = - £-
• Differential Voltage gain
2re

Input impedance rin = 2pre

Com m on M o de Voltage Gain

Vcc
A _ Vout _ Rc
M
= --5 c_
CM ~ v, -
Vjn(CM) re + 2Re 2Re

E » 'e
(CM)

CMRR = ——
_______ - A cm

where, A E ^ — common mode gain Re

-V
 Oscillator

gC phase Shift O scillator

Transistor
• Frequency ol oscillatton rs
 [ 7 8 ] _______________ANALOGJLKTBONICS----------

RC Phase Shift Oscillator using OP-AMP

• Feedback factor V1 ——WV

Frequency of oscillation

f = -----— — RH 2 29R, -> for oscillation

2nRCV6 ' ' 1

Wein Bridge Oscillator

• Frequency of oscillation R>

if = R4 - R
and c, = c 2 = c

then
2k R.C

• fl = - for oscillation • R2 > 2R 1 for oscillation

3

Colpitt's Oscillator
• Frequency of oscillation

and 9m R C q

If inplace of C 1( C2 there is L, and L

and inplace of L there is C then it
becomes Hartley Oscillator.
Frequency of oscillation for Hartley
Oscillator is
 A HANDBOOK o n el ec t r onic s engineer ing
[79]

gmR c > i i
and
_____ l 2
Clapp's Oscillator
• If in Colpitt s oscillator circuit inductor is replaced by a variable capacitor
(C3) then frequency of oscillation becomes

it happens if and

Crystal Oscillator
• It is electrical equivalent circuit is
• Series resonance frequency

• Parallel resonance frequency

where

Frequency of oscillation is chosen between fp and fs

Multistage Amplifier
• Upper cutoff frequency of overall configuration is

fH = fH V2 1Zn - 1 (For identical amplifiers in cascade)

where n number of amplifiers in cascade

fH -> upper cutoff frequency of one amplifier
• Lower cutoff frequency of overall configuration

where n _> number of identical amplifiers in cascade

Approximate BW of amplifier in cascade is ft.

l 801 anal o g el ect r onics __
• When amplIHsrs are non-ldentical the ___
When ii
+ - +4.
ii 1 ’»12 P
“ “—

2
• Rise time t’ « 1 M + rn

Linear Wave Shaping

• Pulse response of high pass R.C circuit

(V - V') is called tilt or sag.

V - V * 100%
% tin = 2L_JLx

• Sag or tilt will be obtained if R.C » Tp

• If input is a square wave of time period T then

% tilt = ^ x 1 0 0 W h e re ’ t = 2^C and

Low Pass RC Circuit

R
----------- W

Rise time

where fH - ---------
_2nR C
 A Handbook on
Electronics Engineering

Signals & Systems

CONTENTS

1. Introduction.........................................................................................82-89

2. Linear Time Invariant System s.........................................................90-93

3. Fourier Series......................................................................................94-97

4. Fourier Transform..............................................................................98-103

5. Laplace Transform..........................................................................104-108

6. z-transform..................................................................................... 109-113

7. Miscellaneous................................................................................. 114-114
 Introduce

• A signal is set of information or data.

STANDARD SIGNALS___________ —
Unit Step Function
For continuous time

u(t) =

For discrete-time

1 ; n>0
u[n] = -
0; n<0

»/
Unit step function in continuous-time dom ain is not continuous
and differentiable at t = 0

Mathematically u(0) = - ; average value

Unit step function represent a change in step size at t = 0.

Unit Impulse Function

For continuous time

f 8(t)

o
 A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [83]

In figure or 8(t) 1 with arrow represents the area of the impulse

Q~
-
J 8(t)dt = J 8(t)dt = 1
o~

~O'~ function is a continuous function and the area under

: "Y ' this function is equal to one.

Properties of the Impulse Function

90

J 8 ( t - t o )o (t) dt = 6(t o )

8 (a t-t> ) = — 8[ t —— a * 0
a \ aJ

8(ja>) = 8 (co) and 8(t) = 5 (-t)

Relationship between Unit Impulse and Unit Step Function

□ Sampling property of unit impulse function

| x(t)5 (t - t o ) = x(to ) 8(t - t j ]
For continuous time
r
SIGNALS & SYSTEMS
[841
for discnsts-time
i 8(n)

1; n » 0
6[nl« >n
0; n * 0

YhTdi^retedim e unit impulse is the first difference of the

discrete-time unit step.

□ Sampling property | x[n] 8[n - n0 ] x[n 0 ] 8[n— % ]

Relationship between Unit Impulse and Unit Step

Rectangular or Gate Function

[Aa : t *u T
- r 2
X(t) = •
0 ; otherwise

Unit Ramp Function

Ramp function represent a nkT ' --------------

----------------------- h a n 9 e in slope at t = 0
MADEJASY-------- A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 1851
Signum (or sgn) Function

sgn(t) = u(t) - u(-t)

= 2u(t)-1 o *

-1

sgn function is not defined at t = 0 and is chosen as 0 at t = 0.

Sine and Sine2 Function

• The sine and sine2 functions are defined in terms of an independent

variable X.

sin(nX)
smc(X) = — -— -
kX

• Sine (X) is equal to zero for X = ±n (n * 0), n an integer.

Sine Integral Function

• Sine integral function is an odd function

v V5
Si(y) = . 1 y; = —
Si(Vv) —--------
(1)11 (3)3! - ----------
— h—(5)5! — + •••
(7)7!
() a

Si(a) = 0, Si(n) = 2.0123, Si(~) =

• Si function converges fast and only a few terms in above

equation are needed for a good approximation

Energy and Pow er Signals

□ Energy of the signal

Ex = J |x(t)|2 dt
—oo

□ Average power of a signal

8 6 ] _________SIGNALS & SYSTEMS------ -----------------------

TTT • The signal x(t) is aTTenergysignal if 0 < Ex

finite and Px = 0 s

• The signal x(t) is a power signal if 0 < Px < oo, i.e., p j s

and therefore Ex is infinite.
• If a signal does not satisfy one of these conditions, then it is neith6r
an energy signal nor a power signal.
• The power and energy signals are mutually exclusive.
• Scaling does not change the power content of the signal.
• While scaling change the energy content of signal energy of sianoi
f(at) will be

Ea = — where, E -> energy of f(t).

a

E= e + £ where, Eo -> energy in odd part of signal.

Ee -> energy in even part of signal.
• e~at u(t) is an example of energy signal.
• All periodic signals are power signals but vice-versa is not true.
• Ramp signal is neither energy nor power signal.
Periodic Signal
• A signal x(t) is periodic if there is a number T for all time such that
x(t + T) = x(tj~

• The smallest positive number T that satisfies above equation is called

the fundamental period.
For periodic signal x /t)

□ Average value of the signal Xavg - T j x t (t)dt

______ T

□ Average signal power p

x = y JT |xT |2 dt

Effective or rms value of the signal x

T|() and x T2(t) gee two periodic functions with periods L
a n d T2’ t h e n ~ Xt i^ + x t 2 (t) is periodic with period T lf

1 ~ mT2 or m
L '2 J n
MADEEASY____ A H ANDBO O K ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
[87]

where m and n are integers and is a rotational number.

• The period of x(t) is equal the least common multiple (LCM) of T 1

and T2 . The LCM of two integers m and n; is the smallest integer
divisible by both m and n.
Symmetries o f Periodic Function

Half-wave symmetry: A periodic function x(t) is half-wave symmetric if

XT (t) = - X T ^ t-|
where, T = Period of signal xT(t)

Quarter-wave symmetry
For even quarter-wave symmetry

x T ( - t) = x T (t)
x T (t) = - ;x T (t + T) = x T (t)

For odd quarter-wave symmetry

x T (-t) - —x T (t)
x T (t) = - x T (t) = - x (t + £ ) ;x T (t + T) = x T (t)
T

NO1«
• Shifting does not change period or frequency of the periodic
signal.
Scaling changes the frequency
e)Ut is always a periodic signal, but e W is not always periodic signal
1
2n
it is periodic if “ is rational.
(Do

Summation of periodic discrete time signals is always periodic.

Analog Signal
A signal is said to be analog signal it can take any value between - <*>to ~
f° r its amplitude.
* Analog signal can be defined in both continuous time domain and discrete
time domain.
 analog signal in
discrete time
domain

Digital Signal
A signal is said to be digital signal if it takes discrete values for its amplitude.
This discrete set can be finite or infinite.
• Digital signal is defined in both time domains in continuous as well as in
discrete time domain.

digital signal in
discrete time
domain

Some Useful Signal Operations

* — T) * signal is shifted towards rinht it t • •• cional
is delayed. 9 h lf T ls Positive. It means sig »

• f(t + T) —> signal is shifted towards left if T io ■ ■ siana '

is advanced. ' s negative, it means s g
f(at) -> scaling of signal. If |a | > , th o „ . .a^
if lai < 1 then extension of sinnai • • c o r T ) p re s s io n of sig n a 1
9 n a l ,n t,r r e domain.
 y
M flnEEAS A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [89]
, f p ) -> represents inversion of signal in time domain that is mirror image
about y-axis.

Even and Odd Function

• If f(t) = f(-t) then function is said to be even.
, If f(t) = - f (-t) then function is said to be odd.

•
Every function can be expressed as summation of even and
odd components.
• Even function x odd function = Odd function
• Odd function x odd function = Even function
• Even function x even function = Even function
___________________________ - — —---------------------------------------------- '
Systems
A system is characterized by its input, its outputs and rules of operation.
Linear and Non-linear Systems
Linear systems satisfies homogeneity and superposition principle while non
linear system does not satisfy one of them or both.

Linearity ensures the regeneration of input frequencies at output.

Time Invariant and Time Variant Systems

Output is shifted by same as input is shifted for time invariant system but
it is not the case for time variant systems.

Causal and Noncausal Systems

If output depends on present and past inputs then system is causal
otherwise non causal.
<<------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
m Practical design of non causal system is not possible. All practical
i B systems are causal in nature.______________________________

Dynamic and static system

If output depends only on present value of input then it is static (memory
less) system otherwise dynamic (with memory) system.
• If f(t) = f *(-1) signal is conjugate sym m etric sig n a l or even conjugate
signal.
• If f(t) = - f( - t)* signal is co n ju g a te a n tisym m e tric signal or o d d
conjugate signal.

* For even conjugate signal real part is even in nature and imaginary

.
a •
part is odd in nature.
For odd conjugate signal real part is odd in nature and imaginary
part is even in nature.
 , in e a rTimelnv a r i a n t S y^

♦INTRODUCTION___________________________
LTI systems are used to represent linear com b in ; __________
: atio ns o f t i m e ^ >

signals.
BASIC SYSTEM P R O P E R T I E S ________________________
System with Memory and Without Memory
• A system is said to be memoryless if its o u tp u t for each vaiue c<
independent variable at a given time is dependent o n ly on the inpu^

that same time.

Invertibility and Inverse Systems
• A system is said to be invertible if distinct inputs lead to distinct outputs

Causality
• A system is causal if the output at any time d e p e n d s only on valuesc
the input at the present time and in past.
• Such system are referred as non-anticipative as the system output does
not anticipate future values of input.
• All memoryless systems are causal, since output re sp o n d s only to the
current value of the input.
Time Invariance
• A system is time invariant if the behaviour and ch a ra cte ristic s of the
system are fixed over time.
• A system is time invariant if a time shift in input sig n a l results in &
identical time shift in the output signal.
Linearity
. A system that possess the property of superposition.
• The system will be linear if
Additive property
. The response to x,(t) + X 2 (t ) i s y i ( t ) + y

Scaling or homogeneity property

• The response to axJt) is a v .
=> ax (t) + bx m / Vl ’a e any c o m P | e x co n sta n t
=> a x ^ ij + ox o it) —>a\i zn .
MAM EAS’L — AHAgOgOO K W IE U C T B O M r.^ ---------------
CONVOLUTION ~
Z~The convolution integral or th* :---------
continuous-time linear time . :
to a unit impulse, ’ K ' 1-
Continuous-time LTI system
□ Convolution of two functions, x,(t) and x^t)

y(t) = x 1( t ) * x 2 (t) = j x jT )x 2 ( t- t) d T !

Some Important Result for Convolution

«•
J x^T) x 2 (t - r)d r = J x 2 (T) x,(t - t j d t .

Special Cases

0 (t)*8 (t)= fl <j>(T) S(t--c) d t = S(t)*6(t) = 0(t)

3(t) * 8(t) = J 3(t) 3(t - t)d r = 3 (t),

-----------------—________________ i
Properties of the Convolution Integral

Commutative property
| y(t) = x,(t) * x 2 (t) = x 2 ( t) * x,(t)

Distribution property
x,(t) * [x 2 (t) + x 3 (t)] = x ,(t)* x2 (t)+ x 1( t) * x 3 (t)

Associative property
*i(t) * (x 2 (t) * X3 (t)) = (x ^ t) * x 2 (t)) ♦ x3 (t)

Derivative of the convolution

^ ! > . ^ . x 2 (t ) = x 1(t ) A ( 7
at at_____ ________ Qi J
 Convolution of two delayed functions
If y(t) = x / t ) * x 2(t)

x ,(t -

Time scaling property

If y(t) = x /t) * x2 (t)

x1(at)*x 2 (at) = - - y(at) ; a * 0

Discrete-time LTI system

y[n]= X x1[k]x 2 [ n - k ] = x 1[n ]* x 2 [n]

Whereever Two Discrete Time Signals are Convolve

• Resultant of convolution will have a length which is equal to sum of
individual lengths L 1 and L2 of the signals being convolve minus one.

L = L1 + L2 - 1
• Resultant of the convolution will have extends w hich is equal to sum of
individual extends of the signal being convolved.
Sum of sample values of output is same as p ro d u ct of sum of sample
values of individual signals being convolved

~ ~ ~ --------- -------
X y [n ]= £ x [n ]x fh [n ]
/ f t ;'A “ °o

Whenever Two Continuous Time Sional

• Width of resultant signal will hn □ $ C o n v o ,v e d th e n
llq e
response that is W a ^s SUm ° f w idths of i/p and imp
made easy A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [9JJ

. Lower oxiond ol ror.ulttirit w......... . to ol low.,, oxfor.d,, of l/p

and impulse response, tluit Is |/ / t r /J
. similarly upper extend ol r w u l t ^ o r f (,,/p s |u n 8 |) will bo equal to

sum of upper extends of l/p and Impulse response ihai is lu . u, i u ,l

. Aieaol resultant function will bo product ol undo. ,npul and
under impulse response h(t) that is |A • A r A ? |

• Convolution ol two even signal results in even signal.

J * Convolution ol two odd signal results in a even signal.
______ C o n v o l u t i o n o f a n e v en and an odd signal results in odd signal.

• For a LTI system to be stable

in continuous time domain.

i M n ]|< »
in discrete time domain.
n»-«

where h(t) and h[n] are impulse response of the system.

To Check Linearity and Time Invariance of a System Given in Differential

Equation Form
• If in differential equation there are no product terms of input x(t) or o/p
y(t) are their derivative that is no terms like

x o, o x ( , ) y ( , ) ( dy I 2 dx dy ( dx \ 2 f d2 y dx 1
(')■ x <'>■ ' ( a ) ■ dF dt ■ I d t J • I t f d t J ........

then system is said to be linear.

• If coefficient of the differentials are constant, not the function of time
then this is time invariant system.

EIGEN f unc t io n
If the response of a given LTI system is same as the i/p function except
for a scalar multiple, then the function is called Eigen function.

*" 4| • e )«o« always forms an eigen function to any LTI system.

 INTRODUCTION_________ ___________ _____________
Dirichlet Condition
• The term "well-behaved” function, x(t) defined in the interval, (tQ> +
in terms of following Dirichlet-condition.
is given in
The function f(t) must be single value with given interval
1.
The function x(t) can have at most a finite n u m b e r o f discontiiuitiQo
2.
and a finite num ber o f m axim a a n d m in im a.
3. The function x(t) must be a b so lu te ly in te g ra b le on the interval

FOURIER SERIES_________________ ________________________

• Approximation of a given function by Fourier series gives a smooth
function even when the function being approxim ated has discontinuities.
Fourier Series Representation of Continuous-time
• By using Fourier series, a non-sinusoidal p e rio d ic fu n ctio n can be
expressed as an infinite sum of sinusoidal function
• Fourier series represents the information of the sig n a l f(t) as amplitude
and angles at different angular frequencies w hich are in te g e r multiples
of a fundamental angular frequency oj 0 .
• It is a time domain to time domain transformation.
Trigonometric Fourier Series
Any practical periodic function of frequency m can b e exp resse d as an
infinite sum of sine (or) cosine functions that are in te g ra l m u ltip le s of f t
0

f(t) = a0 + £ (an cos n©o t + b n sinn(o0 t)

________n=1__________ .
Where <o = Fundamental frequency
a o- a n , b n = Trigonometric Fourier series c o e ffic ie n t
---------------
MA0EEA5X------- AHANDBOOKON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [95]

c o s nto 0 t dt

polar form o f trigonom etric Fourier series

tx>

f(t) = do + L d n COS(n<oo t - 0 n )
n= 1 Where, d 0 = a 0 , d„ =

>nco 0
0
“o 2(D0 3w 0
Effect of Symmetry of Fourier co*efficients of Real Signals

S y m m e try E ven O dd H a lf - W a v e
C o n d itio n f(t)= f(-t) f(t) = - f ( - t ) f(t) = - f ( t ± T / 2 )
? 0 0
0; n even
? 0 = *
?; nodd

0; n even
0 ? = <
?; n odd

Exponential Fourier series

Where
 SIGNALS&SYSTEMS--------- ------------ — MAbf
-------^ E x p o n e n t ia l and Trigonometric Fourier Seri6 s
Relation between Exp _____ r- 777; n
7 ( c ^ + c 5 J a n d L5n

^-n
Symmetry
Real Real
Even
Imaginary Imaginary
Odd
0; n even 0; neven
Half wave 7■ n odd ?; nodd

. M a g r t U ^ p ^ m o ’ exponential Fourier series is e v ^ >

nature. . ir _ .
• Phase spectrum of exponential Fourier senes is odd in nature.
If we add some constant a to a periodic signal then only de term|
will change and other Fourier coefficients will remain same. :
„ 1
For rectangular pulse Cn « - •

For triangular pulse Cn

n
If a function is varying as parabolic variation in a periodic means

then Fourier series coefficient Cn « .

n
Parseval Power Relation for Periodic Signals

o + i' Z I C n l 2
- n= .
|p = i
n=
n*0

Fourier Series Representation of Discrete Time Periodic Signals

• If x[n] is a periodic signal with period N then

x[n] = £ ak eih “»n O ir

k»<N> where ton = —i
L° N

a k = U S
N n=<N>
x[n] e Hk<°on
m _2k
DiscretetimeFouriers
Es t t ,
e r i e s c o e f f i c j e n t p e r i (

that is |ak = a k±N

MADEJASY-------AHANDBOOKo n e l e c t r o n ic s e n g in e e r in g [971
properties of Discrete Time Fourier Series
□ Linearity [Ax[n] + By[n] ~» A a k + B ' t \ |

ak — Fourier series coefficient of x[n]

bk — Fourier series coefficient of y [n]

□ Time shifting |x[n - n0 ] —> a k e " ik(0°n °

□ Frequency shifting e iM (2 n /N ) n x [n ]-> a k M

□ Conjugation x * [n] -» a‘_k

□ Time Reversal x [-n ] -> a_k

□ Periodic Convolution V x[r] y[n - r] ->Na.K

K K
r = <N>

□ Multiplication x[n] y[n] —> \ a jb k _j

|e<N>

For real and even signal ak is real and even.

For real and odd signal ak is purely imaginary and odd.
For even part of x[n], Fourier series coefficient is Re [ak ].
For odd part of x[n], Fourier series coefficient is lm [ak ].

Parsevals Relation for Discrete Time Periodic Signals

z |x[n]|2 X |ak f
n=<N> k=<N>
 Fourier TransfO rt))

INTRODUCTION------------- ■ ^ T f ^ e n c y d o m a i n d e s c r i p t i o n ^ -

—
. Fourier transform provid o l F o u r ie r se rie s to n o n -p e ri o d i

,
domain signals and is

— -
signals
O .. O M T S CONDITIONS ---------------- _ _ _

— ,
For existence of Fourier transform

Fourier transform is defined for all stable signals

1.

Periodic signals, which are neither absolutely integrable nor square

2
mtegral over an infinite interval, can be considered to have Fourier
transform if impulse functions are permitted in the transform .
f(t) have a finite number of discontinuities and finite num ber of maxima
3
and minima within any finite interval.

□ Fourier transform

I.F.T [F(o»)] ' F(to)

□ Inverse fourier transform

FOURIER TRANSFORM PROPERTIES

Property X(f)-form X(<o)-form

Linearity

Time-scaling
- X I
Time-reversal
MADEEAIY-------^HAND B O (^O NE^ R ON I C S E N G | N E E R | N G jg j

—' Time-shift
x ( t - t p ) ________ e" |o”°X(co)
Frequency shift
x (t)e i“ ° t X(<o-(o 0 )
, ■ —

Differentiation in time ^ x (t) j2nfX(f)

— x(t) <-> jct)X(w)

Frequency Differentiation - j2 n tx ( t ) o lx ( f) -jtx (0 « -> ^ x (< o )

L df '
Convolution in time
x (t)* h (t) X(f)H(f) X(co)H(co)

Frequency convolution
X i(f)* X 2 (f) ^ ~ [X 1 (co)*X2 (co)]
MO* M O
(J +0.5X(0)S(i)
Integration £ ~ x ( t ) eft j2 ^ + « X (0 )S (« > )

Parseval's theorem x
E i x ( f ) f df ^ E i (“ )i 2 d w

X *(t)_________ X *(-j2nf) x * (-jeo)

Duality Property
f(t) « F(w)
F(t) 2 nf(-w )
Rt) « f( - f)

FOURIER TRANSFORM OF USEFUL SIGNALS ____________

F(f)form F (co) form______

Signal, x(t)
1 1
e*atu(t), a>0 a+j2nf a+jeo_______ _
1
1
ealu(-t),a > 0 a -j2 n f a-jco________
1 1 2
1
S(t) 2nA8(co)
A, Constant A8(f)
a t ~ ( coT)
ATsmcl — 1
A rect.(t/T) AT sinc(fT)
ReCt. (<o/2n) _
|J sinc(t) Rect.(t)
 SIGNALS & SYSTEMS-------------------------- ..M A D E *

2a
2a__
e -* ? + 4 1 S -— a 2 + to2
1
| Sgn(t) _________ jw______
jrrf ____
_ !—+ 0.58(f) — + nS(co)
u(t) jw ____
j2nf
1 8 ( f - Q + 8 (f + k )
t t [8 ( cd - too ) + 8(co + co0 )J
COS(t\)t 2
j [8 ( co - « o )~ 8 ( w + (o0 )j
sinoiot
2j
--<o 2 /4a
rc -x^/a
e~a r Va
Va
In
f e - “ u(t)
Id
(a + i2nf)n ’ 1 ________(a + jM)n +1______ _

.' ' , • Fourier transform of a real signal is always even conjugate in w e

' • Fourier transform of real and even signal is purely real and even
« • Fourier transfer of real and odd signal is purely imaginary ana|
odd
• Shifting m time domain only changes the phase spectrum of signal.
• Compression in time domain leads to extension in frequency doma"
and vice-versa.
• Time differentiation property is only valid if f(t) -> 0 as Itl «.
• 2
I F(w) I is energy spectral density of signal for energy signal.

Hilbert Transform of a Signal

f (t ) = f(t) * — where f(t) is hilbert transform of f(t).

_______ I t l
-» represent convolution
Hilbert transform is a wideband phase shifter offering a shift of

H[8(t)] -> 1
_____ Jtt

»|H(w)|------- »Y(t)

energy spectral density of o/p ||Y(co)|2 = |F(W )|2 ,|H(a>)|2

 --------f y ! O > B P . 0 K 0 N ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [101]

pltcreW tim e Fourier Transform

x[nI *s discrete) lim o signal and X(ei<”) is its Fourier transform then

X(eJu>) = £ x[n]e~>n x[n] = - t . f X(e'“ ) e'“ n d<o

n--« • 2k L

properties of Discrete tim e Fourier Transform

□ Linearity Jax^n] + b x 2 [n] <-> a X ,(e ic,)) + bX 2 (e j “ )

□ Time shifting x[n - n 0 ] e " 1<on°X (e Ja))

□ Frequency shifting e ia)°n x[n] <-» X [e j(<o-( °o ) ]

□ Conjugation and conjugate symmetry x * [n ] h X * (e - i t 0 )

* -> represent conjugate

□ Accumulation

□ Time reversal x [—n] <-> X(e ]<l))

Differentiation in frequency domain nx[n] <->

□
□ Convolution property
Y(e>°) <-> X(e iw ) H(e jw ) where y[n] = x[n] * h[n] (* -> convolution)

□ Parseval’s Relation

Discrete Fourier Transform (D.F.T.) ... .

• In D.T.F.T. frequency dom ain is continuous and periodic w i e

domain is discrete. , . .. i „ n r p t p in
• In DFT both tim e dom ain and frequency domain signal is Hdiscrete

S h i s a signal exist from 0 to N -1 then its discrete Fourier transform is

 /

|F[k] = N C k
where C„ is Fourier series coefficient of f[n ] assum ing it to be pe r io d <

with period N.
• For real f[n]
|F t k ] = F J
♦[N T k ] : [ F i d > f i b l + < ( V ........ + f [ N - 1 ] |

and if N is even then ]F[N / 2] = f(0) - U 1) + f ( 2 ) .......

Circular Convolution
N-1
f[n ]® N h[n] = X f[k]h[(n - k )] N
k=0 _______

® N represent circular convolution of order N.

h[(n - k)] N represent circular shift of order N to h[n].

Properties of DFT

Time reversal of sequence x [( - n ) ] N <-> X [ ( - k ) ] N

x [[-n ]]N = x [N -n ]

□ Circular time shift | x [ [ n - / ] ] N <-> X (k)e ~ J 2 ? lk //N

□ Circular frequency shift x[n] gi^n/n/N < X [[k —/]]

□
□ Circular Convolution N

□ Multiplication of two sequences

N x i M ® N X 2 [k]
^ ftO E EASY A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 1103]

parseval's Theorem

Km 7 7^ 7
S W n f= n £ M k f
where X(k) is discrete Fourier transform of x[ n L

i /x • Circular convolution can be find using linear corr/olutioc

Method is divide the result of linear convolution into two parts
JLm, such that first part has N samples and then add correspcrd^ng
part inorder and write as circular convolution. Here N is no. of
samples in each signal.
• Given two signals f[n] and h[n] each consisting of N-samples. if we
zero pad each of the signal with N-zeros and cam / out circular
convolution of order 2 N this will be equal to linear convolution of two
signals f[n] a n d h [n ].
 Laplace Transfo^
5.

IN T R O D U C T IO N---------- - T ^ q ? F o i7 r ie r transform is that f T c ^ T ?

. The main drawback of (c o n t,n u O L J ^
e r e a s L T. can be defined for h
defined oniy for stable ^ " ^ " y s t e m s . b O lh

(Fourier Transform) stable and u

LAPLACE TRANSFORM________________ __________________ —

□ Laplace transform of a general signal f(t)
Bilateral (or two sided) Laplace transform

Unilateral (or unisided) Laplace transform

F(s) = Jx(t)e~ st dt
o

Inverse Laplace Transform

• f(t) = ^ F ' F(s)es t ds

2k J °-j°
Relation between Laplace Transform and Fourier Transform
Where, s = o + jco
F(cr + j®) = J f(t)e - s t dt
for, a = 0, laplace transform turn
out to be fourier transform.

’ A necessary condition for convergence of L a p la c e transform is

’ nrTgaTve6 6 d e C a y in 9 ° r 9 r ° W in 9 depend 'ng on w hether a is positives-

Region of Convergence (ROC)

• The range of values for which the in | st
egral J f(t)e dt converges is
known as ROC.
 A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [105]

properties of ROC
r OC does not contain any poles.
ROC of F(s) contains of strips parallel to imaginary axis.
• If f(t) is of finite duration and is absolutely integrable than the ROC is
entire s-plane.

t If f(t) is a right sided and if the line Re(s) = a 0 is in the ROC then all
values of s for which Re(s) > o 0 will also be in ROC.
• If f(t) is left sided and if the line Re{s) = a 0 is in ROC then all values of
s for which Re{s} < o 0 will also be in ROC.
• If F(s) is rational and signal f(t) is right sided than the ROC is the region
in s-plane to the right of right most pole and if f(t) is left sided and ROC
is the region in s-plane to the left of left most pole.

For unilateral laplace transform ROC is not necessary to mention

because it is unique.
______________________________________________________________
s
Properties of Laplace Transform

Linearity
f t (t) — L2__> F ^s) with ROC = R 1

f 2(t) — LI__> F2(s ) with ROC = R2

af-i(t) + bf 2 (t) — L I ^ aFi(s) + bF2 (s) •R 0 C ~ R i n R 2

Time-shifting
f(t) LT. > F(s) with ROC = R

~ f(t-t 0 ) LT- >e~st°F(s) ; ROC = R

Shift in S-dom ain

f(t) — I-1 > F(s) with ROC = R

e s o tf(t)_ l t _ ^ F (s _ So ) ; ROC= R + Re{S0 }

Time-reversal

f(t) — L L _ > F(s)

F t ) — LT- ) F ( - s ) | ; ROC = - R
[106]
S IG N A I3 ^ Y ^
***%>
Differentiation in S-domain
f(t) —H —» F(s) ROC " R

I A f ^)|;ROc =r
tf(t) dsJJJ

Convolution in Time
If f(t ) _ _ F(s) with ROC = H1

a n d h (t) _ ! i - » H(s) with ROC = R2

>F(s)H(s) |;ROC = R, n R2
f(t)» h(t) —
• LT of impulse response is known as system or transfer function

Frequency Integration

Integration in time »—
S

Differentiation in time ;r -f(O — ^ - > s F ( s ) - f (0 )

Initial Value Theorem

Final Value Theorem

of L.T. “ l e s X X bS app^ W ^ ^ ' ° '

Final value theorem c ^ h * d s n o m i n a t o r - , e of
sF(s) lie in left half O f h , ? a p p l i e d only if all the po|eS
---------------— t n e o-piane. >
M A D E F Y ------- A H A N D B O O K ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [107]

L a p la ce T ransform s of Elem entary Functions

Transform
S ignal ROC |
pair Transform
1
1 8(t) 1 A lls
2 u(t) 2 R e (s)> 0
s
3 u (-t)
2 Re(s) < 0
s 1
f i 1
4 Re|s} < 0
7
5
*n—1
1
(n -1 )!^
i i/ _ t \} 1 Re|s) < 0
7
1
6 e - a t u(t) R e |s } > - a
s+ a
1
7 - e -£ rt iX -t) Re|s) < - a
s+ a
j i- i
1
8 (n -1 )!S Re{s) > - a
(s + a) n
J>-1
1
9 — - ----- e’ ^ iX -t) Re{s) < - a
(n -1 )! (s + a) n

10 6 (t-T ) e - sT A lls
s
11 [cosa> 0 t]u(t) 2 2 Re(s) > 0
S + (0 q
^0 Re(s) > 0
12 [sin © 0 t]u(t)
S^ + (D2
2 q

^e"®1 cos(D 0 t]u (t) s+ a

13 Re(s) > - a
(s + a 2 ) + ©o

14
[ e - a l sinw o t ] u(t) <o2
o o Refs) > - a
(s + a) + ©0

15 * ® “ d f sn A lls

1
16 u_n (t) = u(t) * • • • * u(t) - n Re|s| > 0
n times s —
U081______
c har ac t er izat io n ^ ! -------------
causality th e s y s le m function for a ca u sa l system is a r ,w

. ROC associated wi Qf

. For a system with s p l a n e to the right of

rightmost pole and i t ^ ' ^ J u |s e response h(t) = 0 for t > 0.

. A system is anticausal if its imp

Stability . «v jf t he ROC of its system function H(s)

. An LTI system is stable if and onty" tn
includes the jro-axis, [i.e; ne i f ( jn c t io n s H ( s ) sta b le if and only
is
. A causal system with ration y o f th e s . p |a n e _j.e . a || o f
if all of the poles of H(s) ne
poles have negative real parts.

............. ......
N O ia

laplace transform e x i s t . ____________

 z-transform

|HTROPUCT| O N _________ ___________________ ________________

. 2-trasnform is a discrete-tim e counterpart of Laplace transform.
. For a discrete-time LTI system with impulse response h[n], the response
y[n] Of the syste m to a c o m p le x e xp o n e n tia l in pu t of the form
zn is y[n] = z H(z) where H(z) is known as transfer function of the system.

t j gANSFORM_______________________________

□ z-transform of a general discrete time signal

x (z)= 7 , x [n ]z " n
n=—

• The range of values of ‘z ’ for which above equation is defined

gives ROC of z-transform .

REASON OF CONVERGENCE (ROC)____________________________

• ROC is the re g io n of ra n g e of values for w hich the summation

£ x [n ]z n converges.

Properties o f RO C
• The ROC of X(z) consists of a ring in the z-plane centered about the
origin.
• ROC does not contain any pole.
• If x|n] is of finite duration then ROC is entire z-plane except possibly

z = 0 and/or z —> 0 0 .
• If x[n] is a right sided sequence and if circle I z I - a is in the ROC the
all finite values of z for w hich I z I > a will also be in RO
’ If x[n] is a left sided sequence and if circle I z I - a1is Ithe ROC th
finite values of z for w hich l z l < a will also be in R
• If x[n] is two sided and if the circle I z I = a is in the ROC then the ROC
will consist of a ring in the z-plane that includes t e circ
(1 ,0 ) SIGNALS & SYSTEMS -------------

Properties of r transform

Linearity
X1 [n ]_ iL ^X .Q O .R O C -R i

v .| n ] _ - J —♦x»(z).ROC«Rz

' a x jl n j + b x jp i ^ R 0C = RmR 2

Time shift

x[n] —£1—> x(z), ROC = R

[4 n -n 0]-^ -> z -^ X (z ) ROC=R

Exponential multiplication or scaling in z-domain

x[n] — —>X(z) with ROC = R

anx[n] — X(z/a) ; ROC = la| R

Time reversal

x(n] —H —> X(z). then

x[-n] — X(z~1) ; ROC = 1/ R

Differential in z-domain

Convolution in Time

x[n] - ZT > X(z) with ROC = R,

h[n] — — H(Z) with ROC = R

2

L ^ nl*hlnl ROC = Rl f -iR2

Accum ulation

x[n] X(z), ROC = r

 EASY------ A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [111]

; ROC = R n |z |> 1

x U.Z.T -n
Unilaterial Z.T. (z )
n -0

Left-shift x [n + 1 ] ►zX (z)-zx(0)

—— > z“ 1X(z) + x(-1)

Right-shift
— > z" 2 X(z) + z ' 1x( - 1) + x( - 2)

First difference x[n] - x[n -1 ] = (1 - z ' 1)X(z)

Conjugation x * [n] = X * (z*)

Initial value theorem

• If x[n] = 0 for n < 0

x(0) = lim X(z)

Final value theorem

lim x(n] = lim (1 -z “ 1)X(z)

• Initial value theorem can be applied to any X(z).

• Final value theorem will be applicable if (1 - z ' 1) X(z) has all
poles lie inside the unit circle._________________________

INVERSE z t r a n s f o r m

Where the symbol denotes integration around a counter clockwise

c ,r cular contour centred at the origin with radius a.
 1112] SIGNALS & SYSTEMS

Some Common z - transform Pairs

Signal Transform
1. 8[n] 1
1
2. u[n]
1—z -1
1
3. -u [-n -1 ]
1 - z -1

4. z -m
8[n - m]

1
5. a n u[n]
1 - a z '1
1
6. - a n u[-n -1 ]
1- az -1

7 az -1
n a n u[n]
( 1 - a z " 1 )2
az -1
8 - n a n u[-n -1 ]
(1 -a z - 1 )2
1—[cos (O jz -1
9 [cos(o 0 n]u[n]
1 - [ 2 c o sc o q ]z -1 + z - 2

[sinco jz -1
10. [sinco0 n]u[n]
1 -[2 c o s o ) 0 ]z -1 + z -2

1- [a cos (oQ ]z -1
11. [a n coscoQn]u[n]
|z |> a
1-[2acosco Q ]z -1 + a 2 z - 2

[a s in ® z -1
12. [a n sin(o 0 n]u[n] ______L o_
1 - [2 a coscoo j z -1 + a 2 z~2 |z |> a

13. n 2 u[n] Z(z 4-1)

(z - 1)3 |z| > 0

CHARACTERIZATION OF LTI SYSTEMS USING z -TRANSFOR^

Causality . teifi|
• A discrete-time LTI system is causal if and only if the ROC of its $
function is the exterior of a circle, including infinity.
^OLEAS-X----- A H ^ P B O Q K O N ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (113 J

• A discrete-time LT I system with rational system function H(z) is causal if

and only if.
(a) the ROC is the exterior of a circle outside the outermost pole, and
(b) with H(z) expressed as a ratio of polynomials in z, the order of the
numerator cannot be greater than the order of the denominator.
Stability
• An LTI system is stable if and only if the ROC of its system function H(z)
includes the unit circle. | z I =1.
• A causal LTI system with rational system function H(z) is stable if and
only if all of the poles of H(z) lie inside the unit circle i.e., they must all
have magnitude smaller than 1.
 MisceHan
------------ —
. r nw k, M a n having infinite sam ples In the.r im p ulse r6 s
- e
3 3
, k m finite samples in their im pulse r e « Z / *
• HR M ers are M ers having nnne sa p e 9 Pon^

• Fi r f . w s have exact linear phase

• FiR M ers are always stable
• FiR M ers can be re a p e d efficiently in hardw are.
• White HR filters involve fewer parameters, less m em ory require rn ^
and kTA-ec computational complexity.
• Suppose we have a signal f[n] then f[an] where lai is an integer gro^.

than 11’ep'esen* dessimation

• f|an) w m tai < t represents interpolation.

Derivative of Impulse Function ___ ________________

______ _ -TZ~7”~» 8'(-t) is odd function of time whiie6j]y
& '( a p a____________ * | is even function of time.
i_______ ®W____ i . All even derivative of 8(t) are even function
of time and all o d d derivative of 8(t) are
[ odd function of t i m e . I

f(t)6 7 f - a) = f f a ^ f t - a) - f'(t)5 (t - a)

J ‘j( t ) r ( t - a ) d i = -r(a )

In or de* to t»nd touner transform of a signal having N -sam ples it requires

4 N‘ muitip'icaiion and 2N(N - 1) additions
When we find Fourier transform using C o o le y -J u c k y algorithm
. N
muit plications are reduced to — log~Nand a d d itio n s a re reduced to
N iog-^N

group delay = -
— ------------------------- ----------- --- delay = -
— _________ CO
vZiere * u » -> phase of system
pnase of system
For a diSiocxx. tess system group delay and p h a se delay mustW
equal ana equal to a constant value that is
IS

___ M constant
• Group de'-ay means — 88 — • I
ase delay means delay offe ^ S / S f e m t0 a g ro u p of frequence
y ~ystem to a sin g le f r e q u e ^
 A Handbook on
Electronics Engineering

04
Communication Systems
CONTENTS

1. Basics..........................................................................................116-116

2. Amplitude M odulation............................................................... 117-121

3. Angle M odulation.......................................................................122-124

4. Effect of Noise on Analog Communication Systems........... 125-127

5. Random Processes....................................................................128-134

6. Pulse Modulation Techniques...................................................135-138

7- Digital Modulation Schem es.....................................................139-142

8- Information Theory...................................................................... 143-144

8- Optical Communication............................................................145-150

10. Propagation of W aves................................................................151-154

11. Radar and Satellite Communication........................................ 155-164

1 2. Miscellaneous............................................................................. 165-167
• Basic elements or a i
. a device that converts the in fo rm a tio n into

signal. di m t pa t carries the e le c tric a l signal.

. Channel is a P ^ al m e
c o n v e r t s e le c tric a l s ig n a l in to orig

• R eceiver is a device
information.

modul a t ion _______ ____ _____ ______________

Modulation is a process of transforming signal from sig n a l bandwidth

to channel bandwidth.

Need for Modulation

• It is needed inorder to match the characteristic of in p u t signal to that of

channel characteristic.
• Multiplexing is possible due to modulation only.
• Wireless transmission of low pass signal is po ssib le due to modulation
only.
• Some modulation techniques reduces the e ffe ct of noise on signal.
• Some modulation techniques are power efficient.

• Message signal is modulating signal and it m o d u la te s carrier

signal.
• In modulation some properties of carrier sig n a l are varried in
k
accordance with the message signal.

Baseband signal is a signal having sig nifican t fre q u e n c y componen

near to zero or low frequencies

• Noise mainly added to s^naH n^h r ®p r e s e n t a t i o n of a signal.

• Bandwidth of a sianal k rt r C a n n e l.
which amplitude of sianal k T V as b a n d of Q roup o f freq ue ncie s fof
• Carrier frequency is '! ° 2 e ro '
-hiuch higher than m e s s a g e signal f r e q ^
 2. Amplitude Modulation

■M PL ITUDE mo d u l at io n t ec hniq ues

Let VC
= V c C0S<ac t
Vm = Vm sin<om t
then amplitude modulated signal is

S(t) = v j 1+ ^ c o s w m t j.cos<oc t

Frequency Spectrum o f AM W ave

B.W. = (fc + fm ) - ( f c - fm ) = 2fm

Significant frequencies from fc to (fc + fm ) is called upper

sideband.
1 Significant frequencies from (fc - fm ) to fc is called lower

sideband.
[118] , p of am plitude of a m p litu d e m o d u la te d w
e
Minim um value o

m value of am plitude of a m p litu d e m o d u la te d w a V e

Maximum value v

v max ~ , ncjv
v m n will b e
'--------- " T Z T T n d e x in terms of V m ax aana
Now modulation moe --------—
m_ , Vmax + V-nin
C
Note: For avoiding phase reversal Ikl < 1.

Power Relation in AM Wave

p _ V car , V LBS . V USB where, All the voltages are R M S voltages

Pa m - - ^ + - ^ - + - 5 -
R is resistance of antenna across
which pow er is d issipated.
vcar -
~ x/2

Similarly

V ^ _ [k V c /21
2 k 2 V2
- -
'LSB ' USB “ “ p
2 -------- 8R

V2 V2 k2 Vc2 Pam _ i | k2
PAM =—
2R 4 2R ' 4 2R ’ Pc 2
* Maximum power dissipated in the A M w ave is P AM
A M = 1.5 P cb for

a
k = 1 and this is maximum power that am plifier c a n handle
without distortion.

Current Relations in AM Wave

Let l? be the unmodulated current and I the total or m odulated current of an
A M transmitter, both being rms va l ues and R is the re sista n c e in which
current flows then

Pam _ i f R _ k2 l L k2
1+
Pc IC R + 2 i? 1+ T ; k2
2
M o dulatio n by Several Sine Waves
y \j 3 ....etc. be the simultaneous m odulation v o lta g e
total modulating voltage V, will be
 A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [119]

k t = V k i2 + k 22 + k 3 2 + .......... w h e r e , kt -> is o v e r a ll
m o d u la tio n in d e x k r k 2 , k 3 are
re sp e ctive m odulation index for
in d ivid u a l w aves.

P k2
Pam = Pe + = Pc + PS B w here, P SB is total s id e b a n d power.

Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) Technique

Let S(t) is D S BS C m o d u la te d sig n a l then

S(t) = Vm c o s coc t. c o s com t S (t) = k Vr c o s coc t. c o s <x>m t

> * kx V III

Frequency Spectrum o f DSBSC W ave

_ k2 p
dsbsc == '4r “ ; 'DSBSC ’ ^ 0

A single s id e b a n d (S S B) A M s ig n a l is re p re s e n te d m a th e m a tic a lly as

~S(t) = Vc m(t)cos27cfc t A c m(t) sin fc t

where -> m ( is H ilb e rt tra n s fo rm of m e s s a g e s ig n a l m (t).
where (-) sign re p re s e n t USB
(+) s ig n re p re s e n t LSB
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation Technique
Mathematical representation of VSB wave is

where F -> represent the fraction

Frequency Spectrum of VSB Wave

♦ USB

OR
fc
~W fc fc + fm

Power Relations in VSB Wave

AM Modulators and Demodulator

• Power law modulation is used r
linear devices. o r generation of AM waves using nOf1

• Switching modulator is also used fn

r generation of AM waves.
, A nF£ASY a h a n d b o o k o n ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [1211

Balanced modulator and ring modulators are used for generation of

DSB-SC waves.
$SB wave is generated using analog multiplier and bandpass filter.
Filter method and phase shift methods are also used for generation of
SSB wave.
Analog multiplier is also used for generation of VSB wave.

Envelope Detector
It is used for detection of AM wave. Its circuit is

m(t)

rft) is received signal and m(t) is message signal and for better reception
RC must be selected such as

r <RC<<w where -> W is bandwidth of message signal.

• Demodulation of DSB-SC and SSB waves is done using coherent carrier

signal at receiver.
• Envelope detector can also be used to recover message by passing
received VSB signal through it.

Comparison of D ifferent A M Techniques

• AM is used where receiver circuit cast is less that is we want less
complex receiver circuit but it is less power efficient technique.
• DSB-SC is power efficient technique but receiver in this case is complex
due to requirement of coherent detection.
• SSB is a bandwidth saving technique but in this case also receiver is
complex in nature.
VSB is used for television broadcast and its generation is easy and
also bandwidth efficient technique.
 Angle Modu|a t)(j

schem e and phase modulation sc.i om ■ '

also called non linear modulation sc ion

Representation of FM and PM Signals

An angle modulated signal In general can bo written a s
where. 8(1) is the p h a se of the signal an
<jlb
u(t) = A c cos[G(t)J instantaneous frequency is given by

1 d 1
— (0 (t)]; |u(t)« A o OO8[2fffo t4 -0 (tj]l; W ) ■ <3 + 27t d t*
2 n 'd t
• If m(t) is the message signal, then in PM system wo have

0(t) = k p m (t)

• And in FM system we have

w here k |} a n d k t are phase and
« t) - f0 = k | m (t) = - L
2rc dt frequency d e v ia tio n constants

k Dm(t) PM d $ = lk p ^ m (t) PM
0(t) = -
2rtk ( f ’ m(z)dT FM ’ dt
J —‘ <w> 2nk f m(t) FM
---------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------- -------- -I,
B
* y passing m essage through an in teg ra to r and then PM
modulator we get FM modulated signal.
• By passing message through a differentiator then through a FM
> modulator we get Pjdm odulaled signal, J

PM and FM Modulated Signals for Sinusoidal Message Signal

m(t) =• a cos (2tu fm t) *
u(t) = A c cos[2n fe t + k p a cos 2rctTtT
■> PM

U (,) = A “ C 0S^ V ^ a s in l^
+
* FM
----- —— ----- ’m
k( a
ft fm are known as modulation in d ic e s for PM

system s respectively.
>o ££A5Y___ * H ftNP g °O K ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING n 231
e x te n d *h e m o d u la t io n in d e x definition for a general signal m(t)
I
k y n a x [m (t)l

where, W is bandwidth of
message signal.

A fmax
where, Afm ax represents maximum frequency deviation.

For low value of p anole — T____

band angle modulation scheme. N a r r o w b a n d T ° W

- 1 AM. It is used in mobile communication 'S S ' m 10

, for large value of (3 angle modulation scheme is called wideband

angle modulation scheme. wiueoano

Wrther Representation o f PM and FM Signals for Sinusoidal Message

u(t) = Y A c Jn (p)cos[2ic(fc + nfm )t]

where, Jn(P) is known as bessel function of first kind of order n.

Note: Total bandwidth requirement for angle modulated signal is

Bandwidth of Angle M odulated Signal

• Ingeneral the effective bandwidth of an angle modulated signal, which
contains atleast 98% of the signal power is given by
-> Carson's formulae
V 2 ( P + 1)fm
where, p -> modulation index.

^mber of harmonics in the bandwidth (including the carrier) is

Mc
+3 for PM
 rpMMI INiCATION SYSTEMS
LU1L MAgEj
By seeing the graph of angle modulation
whether it is P M or FM.

Angle Modulators and Demodulators

• FM wave can be generated using VCO called direct method
• FM wave can be generated using varacter diode called indirect m
• FM and PM both can be generated using reactance tubes '
• Another method is first generate narrow band FM then pa S s th
frequency multiplier. r o iJ 9hit j
• Demodulation is normally done using PLL.
4t Effect o f Noise on Analog Communication Systems

• SNR is defined as ratio of signal power to noise power.

Effect o f N o ise o n a B a s e b a n d S y s te m

• Its SNR is given by

SA _ Pr where, PR —■>is received signal phase.

n A> n ow No
2 -> two sided noise spectral density.
W -> message signal bandwidth.

SNR of baseband system.

Effect o f N o ise o n D SB-SC A M

For coherent receiver, SNR at the o/p is

s'] Agpm where, Pm -> message signal power.
=
n J0 2WN0 Ac -> Carrier signal amplitude

-> received power for DSB-SC receiver

fS ) = Pr fS )
I n Jo NqW (NA,

In DSB-SC the o/p SNR is the same as the SNR for a baseband

a system. Therefore DSB-SC does not provide any SNR

improvement over a baseband communication system.
Effect o f N o is e o n SSB A M

For coherent receiver

s'] Agpm
SNR at the o/p
N/qssb No W

SNR in case of SSB is same as that of DSB-SC and baseband

system.
L! 26] COMMU NICATIO^SJfSTEMS

Effect of Noise on Conventional AM

SNR for coherent modulator is

SJ| A**k 2 P,
2N()W
where. A. -> amplitude of carrier wave, k -> modulation index
G . •

SNR of conventional AM is always less than the SNR of a

baseband system.

Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation

• Noise spectral density at the o/p of angle modulation receiver is
N() where, Nq/2 is two sided power spectral density
PM of noise.
S no<f )
a |
Nn
A2

NOH
• Effect of noise is constant (independent) of frequency for PM
systems.
Effect of noise is more at higher frequencies and less at small
frequencies for FM systems.

SNR at o/p for angle modulation systems is

o 2 N0 W for PM
PM message signal power.

n ;0 JW 2 N0 W for FM
2
received signal power p
» R
 A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [127]

2
s
- Pm - I -> for FM system
N o (max[m(t)]) 2 In
- 3 p Pf
For FM systems ~ d r M ------- ------- - I
0
(max[m(t)]) 2 1 N / b

In both PM and FM systems output SNR is proportional to square of

modulation index.
With increase in p without increasing the transmitter power we can
increase SNR at output.
Increasing P will increase the bandwidth requirement for transmission
so we are increasing SNR by increasing bandwidth.
»' Increasing signal power at transmitter will increase the SNR at
A / * o/P b u t *n c a s e ° f AM K ' s due to increase in signal power but in
case of angle modulation it is due to decrease in noise power
(noise power at the o/p of receiver).

• In case of FM high frequency component suffers from more

MOTS
noise so pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is used to increase
the SNR for FM system.
In pre-emphasis we amplify high frequency component but low
frequency com ponent’s amplitude are unchanged.
In de-emphasis we deamplify higher frequencies amplitude keeping
low frequency amplitudesame^

de-emphasis and de-emphasis Filter Characteristics

 Random Pro Cess

. _q e value at a t i m e l s a Pr obiijS)i
Random V . ^ * & variable * ^ p | e s p a c e to the set of real n u ^
A random varab fro n rl the
measurement. (CDF)
Cumulative D is tr ib : ^ random variable X is define^

• Cumulative distn u 1P-7 -rc 7 p (X ? ^

properties of CDF
□ 0 5 F x W - 1 . r r p a s i n q function.
□ f x (x ) is non decreasing
• r / t_ n and lim F x ^ -
□ lim Fx ( x ) - ° a x- j +oo

0 •>-«■>
□ ip^XESESSESS
P(X = a ) - F x ( a )-F x (a )_
□
For discrete random variable Fx (x) is a stair ca se function
HO TI
For continuous random variable CDF is continuous.

probability Density Function

• Probability density function (PDF) of a random v a ria b le X is defined as

fx « = ^ -F x W
the derivative of CDF that is
vjA,
Properties of PDF
Basic properties of PDF are
□ fx (x)>0

□ J_JxW dx = 1 total probability

a Ja.Mx)dx=P(a<Xsb)

□ ^<W = fL*x(u)du
M AgFEASy A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [129]
□ For discrete random variables it is more common to define the
probability mass function (PMF) which is defined as
PMF = {PJ where P, = P(X = x()

IMPORTANT r a n d o m v a r ia b l e s
—------------- - ‘ -

Bernoulli Random Variable

This is a discrete random variable taking two values one and zero with
probabilities p and (1 - p ) .

Binomial Random Variable

This is a discrete random variable giving the number of 1's in a sequence of
n independent Bernoulli trials. The PMF is given by

P(X = k) = / C k p k (1 _ p )n ~k ’ ° ^ k ^ n

0 , otherwise

< In this random variable models the total number of bits received
/VO74 I
= | in error when a sequence of n bits is transmitted over a channel
with bit error probability p.

Uniform Random Variable

This is a continuous random variable taking values between a and b with
equal probability over intervals of equal length. The density function is given
by ,
1
fx (x) = < (b -a )
0 otherwise

Naia When the phase of a sinusoid is random it is usually modelled as

a uniform random variable between 0 and 2n.

Gaussian or Normal Random Variable

This is a continuous random variable described by the density function

* The CDF for the Gaussian random variable with m = 0 and o = 1 is

denoted by (j>(x) and given by
[1 3 0 , ^ON^MUNipATipN^—E —

— =P(X'—£ K L .T2^
x

. n M = 1 -<t>(x)- This function is well tabula,

’S X * - " " " ® **

relations

ForaGaussian random variablehaving m eanm and s ta n d a rd deviation,.

Function of a Random Variable

A function of a random variable Y = g(X) is itself a random variable.
• We can use the following relation to find PDF of the random variable Y in
terms of PDF of X is
where, {xj are countable num ber of solutions
L(y)
M y =V W
fferfc) of equation g(x) = y.

Statistical Averages
• Expected value of random variable X is defined as

E (X) = j M Xf x (x )d x

nth order moment of a random variable X is defined as

"H /M x )d x

Expected value of Y = g(X) js

For discrete random variable

6 y -----------
X, expected value of X is

Properties of Expected Value

□ E(CX) = CE(X), where C r
ls a constant.
□ E(C) = C
□ E(X + C) = E(X) + C
 <AOEEASY------- A H A N M O O j ^ E l E C T R O N ,C S E N G | N K „

jrlancefo 2 )
It is defined as
_________
P = E[X ? ] - { E ( X ) } 2

r \ T i 2 C e r e P r e S e n 'S
W° A C -P 0w er c o n ,e n t ° f random signal
Properties o f Variance y

□ v, (ex)« c2 v„ <x) □ v„ (C) =o □ va, (x+ c) =vaf (X)

.’haracteristic Functions
Characteristic function of random variable X is denoted by V x (v) and defined

JxW e |v x d x
iS

• To obtain n,h moment of the random variable X we use the relation

1 cf
j n dv n

Multiple Random Variable

> Joint CDF for two random variable X and Y is given by

FXY(x,y) = P ( X s x , Y s y )

W x y ) - ^
Joint PDF is defined as

3asic properties o f jo in t P D F a n d CDF

□ Fx (x) = Fx y (x , oo) □ FY (y) = FX Y (oo,y)
□ fx (x)= J_~ jx.Y ( x -y) d y □ f Y (y) = J_"jx,Y(x.y)dx

►<x> f oo
□ fX Y (x,y)d xd y = 1 □ FY Y (x,y) = J* f fx ,Y (u,v)dudv
J —« — co ‘ ---- A ,I' J —oo J —00

□ Conditional PDF of random variable y, given that the value of the

random variable X is equal to x is denoted by FY/x (y/x) and defined as

fx.Y (x.y)
fx (x) # 0
WvM=
0 otherwise
* The expected value of g(X,Y) where g(X,Y) is any function of X and Y, is
obtained from
 -JjApg
132

— Y) = (X - nn ) (Y - rn ) w e obtain t /
. In the special case>whereJ . ) o v a r i a n c e 0 | X a n d Y. Hero m
= E(XY)-m xmy , which is ca x
are expected value oft X and _r i a n c e ig c a |t e d c o r r e |a l j o n
• The normalized version of th ■, iq ^

= C O V (X ,Y )‘
and is defined as P«.y
and is denoted by px y °x ct y

If X and Y are independent random variable then the COV (x, yj =

p x y but if px y = 0 it does not im ply n e ce ssa rily that random
variables are independent._____________________ ____

Var (X C|X ' I = I q% (X i)+ L Z QQCOV(Xi,x j

' 1 ' i i j* i
Multiple Functions of Multiple Random Variable
• If we define two functions of the random variable X and Y by

z = g(x,Y) ........... (1)

W = h(X,Y) ........... (2)
then joint PDF of Z and W is

dZ dzl
—* rW /vz i
where J(x, y) =
dX dy
dW dW

Xj and y j are the solution of two dX

equations given as (1) and (2).
Central limit Theorem
This theorem says that some of randn
practical systems) takes the form nf v a r ia b le s (w hich generally occur in

Random Processes v a r ia b le ‘
Random process is a collection t
to various outcomes of a random or ^ n a l s c o rre s p o n d
Autocorrelation X P S r im e n ’
F u n c t lo n

• This represents t h e r e i n . . .

with its shifte d version.

 c o rre la tio n fu n c tio n of the ~~ " ------ —- L■ J

• . . . r- ■, ------------------------
* (t), denoted by

process w h o s e s ta tis tic a l p ro p e rtie s am inHo

a
' tirne o r '9 i n i s o a l l e d s t a t i o " a r y p ro ce ss. p e n d e n t of choice of

a process X(t) is c a lle d w id e -s e n s e stationarv if n

• a r y lf t h e f o l l o w | og
s a tisfied conditions

j mx (t) = E [X (t)] is in d e p e n d e n t of t.
0 Rxx(‘ v y d e p ®n d s o n | y o n th e tim e diffe ren ce t = (t - t la n d not
on t| and t 2 in d iv id u a lly . 1 ana not

m x ( t ) a n d RxxCt + t , t) are p e rio d ic with period T then process is

|f

& called c y c lo s ta tio n a ry p ro ce ss.

properties of auto correction function Rx (i)

□ R (t ), the
x a u to c o rre c tio n fu n ctio n of stationary process X(t) has
following p r o p e r tie s :

□ R (x) is an eve n fu n c tio n i.e. R (t ) = R ( - t ).

x x x

□ The m a xim um a b s o lu te va lu e of R ( t ) is achieved x at t = 0 i e

IRx (t )I < R x (0).

□ If for som e T o w e have RX (T O) = Rx (0), then for all integers K, RX (KT O)

= RX (O).

*074
• Rx (0) g iv e s p o w e r c o n te n t of a pow er s ig n a l.
—J Rx (0) give s e n e rg y c o n te n t of a signal (if signal is energy signal).

• Fourier tra n s fo rm o f R x x ( t ) g*v e s po w e r spectral density for power

signal an d e n e rg y s p e c tra l d e n s ity for energy signal.

P°Wer and Energy of a Random Signal

Power co n te n t o f a ra n d o m s ig n a l X is given by

Px = lit" Tt f Tr E [ X 2 ( t ) l d t
x _>0O2 T J - t ______
t
 C O M M W d C A T IO N S Y ^ S
134
of Random Signal l» Given by
Energy Content
Ex * J M R xx(M )dt
Ex

“ "I X^
re tic a^
la n d^
p ra c d^
ro ces s
c a lin ie re s r'
ony
l powor ,y
po pr
t._______________ _ <_

Cross correladon” unction between two random processes X(t) a r ia V (|H

iR x Y p ^ z l^ E fW W ll; jg.xy(ti't ? ) ~ R Yx(t;.t) )]

Random Processes and Linear Systems

LTI Y O )^
x(t)
h(t)

• Let random process X(t) is input to an LTI system having iiripui»>t

response h(t) and Y(t) is o/p of LTI system then
• If X(t) is stationary process then X(t) and Y(t) will be jointly stationary
with

E[Y] = E[X(t)]j’ _h(t)dt Rxy(t) - Rx (t) * h(-t)

RY (T) = Rx W h (-t)-h (T )|; |s Y (f) = Sx (f)|H(f)|g

where ’ -> represent convolution.

Power Spectral Density

• Power spectral density of a random process X(t) is given by

----------------------------- - '' a n q Y (t) are jointly stationary proces

 Pulse Modulation Techniques

YDere are two types of pulse modulation techniques, pulse analog modulation
techniques and pulse digital modulation techniques

Pulse Analog Modulation Technique

• pulse analog modulation techniques are of three types namely PAM
PWM and PPM.

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

• |n th is m o d u la tio n sch e m e
amplitude of a high frequency
carrier is varried in accordance
with the s a m p le d v a lu e s of
message signal. c(,) inr|nnnn|nnnnn
• Time dom ain representation of
PAM is
Where m(t) is message signal, C(t)
is carrier signal and S(t) is PAM
modulated signal.

Pulse Width Modulation

• In this m o d u la tio n schem e
width of c a rrie r p u lse s are
varried in accordance with the
sampled values of m essage °"'innnnnn nnnn
•
signal.
Time domain representation of s.jnnn.nnnn o__ “
PWM is

Speed control of DC motor is done using PWM.

Pulse Position Modulation

• In this modulation scheme position of
high fre q u e n c y c a rrie r p u ls e s is c(l) i nhnnnnn
changed in a c c o rd a n c e w ith the

•
sampled value of message signal.
Time domain representation of PPM is
s,)uiumim
 COMMUNlCATIONSYSTEMS
IU 6 ] _
^ S i e f f u S ^ ... C
f __ •" pW £
mods. 3 nerated u»lno & " r n 0 r b y " f 9 W M as 9

• PPM fs gene
^ h e l e n w ^bratorniode. «*

Comparison of PAM, PWM, PPM____________ _____________ ——

Pow erefficiency (SNR) Complex^ ,
PAMI I L e s s ’ Low est ' ^ 7 ^ "

PWM High Moderate Moderate

PPM High (Highest ighest

PPM is most effective pulse analog m odulation schem e in terms

of SNR._ _ _ _ _ _ _____________________ _____

Pulse Digital Modulation Techniques

• Important pulse digital modulation techniques are pulse code modulation
[PCM], delta modulation, DPCM

Pulse Code Modulation [PCM]

• In this modulation scheme we first sam ple the analog signal then
quantize it to convert it into levels and encode it and then send it in the
form of digital codes.
• If there is n bit quantizer and sampling rate is fs then bit rate will be

Rb = nf s bits/sec.

Sampling must be done at a rate greater than or equal to Ny

quist rate in order to avoid aliasing.
Higher will be sampling rate, easy will be reconstruction of
signal at receiver.

B.W. requirement is minimum and m axim um R

c. b’
If we are using uniform quatizer with step size A.

A= = Vnax- Vm n

then maximum quantization error will be —

______________________ _ 2 '
Normally used uniform Quanti?aro ris&
type. uzers are mid tread type and nnid
M^p£EASY____A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [137]
f S ignal t 0 Qu a r | ti z atio n noise ratio for PCM for S inusoidal input is (for
uniform quantizer)
[SQNR = 6n + 1.76] dB W here, n is bit of quantizer

As nu m be r of b its of q u a n tize r incre ase SQNR increases bu t at

the sam e tim e b a n d w id th re q u ire m e n t for tra n s m iss io n also
— increase.

Companding
« Companding is c o m pre ssio n of signal at transm itter end and expansion
of signal at re ce ive r end.
There are tw o typ e of c o m p a n d in g tech niqu es p-law c o m p a n d in g and
A-law com panding.
Formulae for p-law c o m p a n d in g is

w h ere. M m a, = 255

Formulae for A -law c o m p a n d in g is

A|Mn| for 0 s |V n | s 4
IV J = 1 + lnA FV

1 + ln A |Vn|
for ^ < |V n K l
1+ ln A
A ma>. = 8 7 6
where

*O7«
• C o m p a n d in g is d o n e to avoid non linear distortion of channel.
• C o m p a n d in g is w id e ly used in telephone system s to reduce
non linear disto rtion and also to com pensate for signal level
\ _______
d iffe ren ce be tw een soft and loud talkers.

Differential Pulse C o d e M o d u la tio n

* When the sam ples of a signal are highly correlated then we go for DPCM
in order to save bandwidth or using the same bandwidth at higher data rate.
Note: In DPCM p rin c ip le used is p redictio n.
Delta M o d u la tio n

* Delta m odulation is a special case of differential pulse code m odulation.

* It is called one bit DPCM as it transm its only one bit per sam ple.
* In delta modulation problem of slope overload occurs if input is changing
very fast that is

A_
< dm(t) -> slope overload occurs.
dt
 coMMyNSSierr553® - -------------
[138] overload error w e ctroo se o p tim u m s ® ol >
• To overcome slope M]

^opt _ dm(t)
th a t Ts

^261 = 2Jtfm A m
For m(t) = cos 2n fm t
. Second problem occurs is hunting, which occur when message is

constant.
Adaptive Delta Modulation
. In adaptive delta modulation step size is ch o se n m accordance
message signal sampled value to overcom e s lo p e overload error

hunting. . .. ,
. If message is varying at a high rate then step size is high and if message
is varying slowly then step size is small.

Multiplixing
• There are many types of m ultiplexing out of w h ic h tw o are FDM anc
TDM.
• In FDM we divide whole bandwidth of channel in sm all segments anda
lot it to different users so that they can a c c e s s cha nn el at the same
time by using their allotted bandwidth.
• In TDM, whole time slot is divided am ong d iffe re n t users so at a time
only one user is accessing the channel.
Bandwidth requirement in TDM and FDM is alm ost same for san?,
num ber of users.

If we are using TDM + PCM and there are N -m e ssa g e s having saw
bandw idth and are sampled at same rate f th e n b it rate will be
_________ s
Rb = N.nfs where, n - bits in quantizer.
lf B W ’ of m essa g e s and sam pling rates are d iffe re n t then overall
r a t e w il1 |R b = Rb i + Rb 2 + K 7 +
_______ R bN
R b1 ■R 2- R
where b M .......... R b N a re h it ra te
B.W. requirem ent it raised cosine "pulses h a ^ X e r x i s used
D
B.W. = ^ - ( 1 + a)
where, a -> lies b e tw e e n 0 a n d 1 •

Note: In case of ADM and

nd D m
h M u
b a nd w idth re q u ire d is alm ost s a ^
 7. Digital Modulation Schemes

Commonly used digital modulation schemes are amplitude shift keying,

frequency shift keying, and phase shift keying.

AmpHt u d e S h ift Keying

• In this scheme am plitude of a high frequency carrier is varied in
accordance with digital data (0 or 1).
• For digital input 1 amplitude level is high and for digital input 0 amplitude
level is low.
• Signalling used is on-off signalling.

B.W. = ^ - = 2 R b
» B.W. requirement for ASK is
’b

• In ASK probability of error (Pe ) is high.

• SNR is less.

Frequency Shift Keying

• In frequency shift keying frequency of carrier is varied in accordance
with digital data(1 orO).
• For digital data 1 we use frequency f, and for digital data 0 we use
frequency f2 , normally f, > f2 .
• NRZ signalling is used.

• Bandwidth requirement in case of FSK is B.W. = 2R b + (f1 - f 2 )

G ^j • In case of FSK Pe is less and SNR is high.

|z~e | • Multiplexing is difficult.
• Used in modem

PSK
* In phase shift keying phase of high frequency carrier is varied in
accordance with digital data 1 or 0.
* NRZ signalling is used.

* Bandwidth requirement for PSK is B.W. = 2R b = 2x bit rate

• In case of PSK probability of error is less.

I_ _
§ •
*
SNR is high.
Mainly used technique in wireless transmission.
 [140]
Comparison of ___ Pe SNR
S?(t)&
Scheme high lo w
S 1(t) = A co so ) c t
2 Rb
C o herent
s 2 (t) = o
ASK
high lo w
2 Rb low
S 1(t) = Acos<o c t
Non-coherent
ASK S2 (t) = 0 _____
2R b +(f) y m o d e ra te high h 'gh
S ^ t j^ A c o s 2k f|t
C o h e re n t
S2 (t) = A cos 2p f2 t
FSK

>2R b m o d e ra te high low

Non-coherent S,(t) = A c o s 2 n f 1t

FSK S2 (t) = A c o s 2k f2 t

S 1(t) = A co so ) c t 2Rb lo w high high

C o h e re n t
PSK S2 (t) = - A cos a)c t

S 1(t) = A co so ) c t 2Rb lo w high low

Non-coherent
PSK S2 (t) = - A cos o)c t
J
Complexity of coherent schemes is always high compare]?
noncoherent schemes.
Coherent schemes have less probability of error compare to
noncoherrent schemes under same conditions.
• ASK scheme has lowest noise immunity against noise.
• PSK is best among all shift keying schemes.
• Coherent schemes requires lesser power com p are to noncoherrent
schemes for same probability of error.

M-array Signalling
• In M-array signaling we use M number of phases (in ca se of PSK). M
number of frequencies (in case of FSK), M num ber of am plitude levels
(in case of ASK) for sending digital data.
By using M-array scheme we can send data at higher rate at the expense
of increased probability of error
• Bandwidth requirement for M-array scheme is

B.W. = S ^ y j^ b in a ry scheme
log2 M

• For M-array PSK B.W. = JL5 b_

__Jog2M
MAp t EASY A HANDBOOK ON El ECTHONICS ENGINEERING (1411

, IIMti « •» .... ''I " ' " I " "I lhc> o/p of if,,, modulator.

Baud rate * ru ,°
(Wild mln Ih given by
_________ log2 M

Q^drflture A m p litu d e M o d u latio n (QAM)

» In QAM dlQltal Information Is contained In both amplitude and phase of
lha signal.
• |i in i mt h I li 11m>ll i (li<jlU.il rru jdulatiori scheme and analog modulation scheme.

In digital cul)le television and in cable modem applications QAM

J Is used.

Nolle In Digital C om m unication

• In digital com m unication for bolter SNR matched filter is used whose
impulse response h(t) is
|h(l) - S ‘ Ot ~- 61 w h ° r G <* represent complex conjugate.
I------------------------ Tb —> bit duration.
S(l) -> Input signal to filter.
• Probability of error Po Is

whore Ed - f (S1(t)-S 2 (t)]2 dt

Tb________________

Nq/2 Is two sided noise power spectral density.

Probability of Error fo r ASK (Coherent)
• Let S,(t) = Ac c o s 2 jrf c t s 2(t) = 0

P J lS i W - S j f f lf d t
td Tb

Probability of Error fo r PSK (Coherent)

* In PSK S^t) = A c cos 2k fc t
S2 (t) = - A c cos 2k fc t
 communicat ion syst ems.--------------

For FSK (coherent) probability of error is ______

Pe for Non-coherent ASK and Non coherent FSK

• Probability of error for non-coherent ASK is

( A
= 221exp [ ’ i ^
p’ 1
'c 0

Pe **" 0X01 — !
Probability of error for non-coherent FSK is 2 4N 0

x L ^ e - ’ 2' 2
,2). •■ QW =
_ „2

1 x ’b
Probability of error for differential PSK is e x P 2N 0

i >
• In case of FSK f, and f2 are chosen such that f 1 = mfs and
f? = kfs where m, k are integers.
• Bandwidth efficiency for PSK is

Be - Transmission rate~
____ B W signal at o/p = 2f% = 0 ,5
 Information Theory

|nl0 r mation content in a signal will be high if its probability of occurrence

’ i l l be less.

Kprobability of o ccurrence of m essage is p then its information content

I will be

bits Hartley or de cit nat

Entropy
, Average information content per symbol in a group of sym bols is known
as entropy and represented by H.
, if we have M sym bols w hose probability of occu rre nce is p 1( p 2 .........

M i
H = X P t lo 9 2 ^
.......p M then entropy H will be bits / sym bols
1=1 Pi

Z—----- ’
Entropy will be m axim um it probability of occurrence of all M
I zEE symbols will be equal and H m ax = log 2 M bits/sym bols.

Source Information Rate

• If source is em itting sym bols at a rate rs sym bols/sec then source

information rate R is given by R = rs H bits/sec

Entropyof Markoff Sources

' Entropy of Markoff source is
n n / 1\ where, P, -> proba bility that source is in
H = S PiLPi|l092 —
state i.
p. -> p ro b a b ility that it going from
state i to j.
Note: Markoff source is source w hich em mits the sym bols dependently.
J°urc« Encoding

, length coding.
^ r! ablelength coding
* SHANNON f ano c o d in g
Huf f man c o d in g
 t 10nsyst ews----- --------
to Shannon

• sr2221
S eSs
N O It

Channel codinQ.—d o n
- e t o ^ ^ ^
I

Efficiency is given by
i------Tn where, H -> is entropy.
e L —>is ave rag e n u m b e r o f b its p e r S y rr) .
according to en cod in g technique. ° Oi

Capacity of a Channel
• Capacity of a channel is defined as m axim um d a ta rate that can be
supported by channel with minimum pro ba bility of error.
• Capacity of a channel having bandwidth B and a d d itiv e Gaussian band
i
limited white noise is

C = Blog2 f i + -
bits/se c
\ N
this is Shannon Hartley theorem.
When B is tending to ~ then capacity does not b e co m e « as S
tends to zero due to high noise power, so
where, S -> signal power.
No
— -> tw o sid ed noise spe ctral density.
 Optical Communication

* General m odel of an op tical com m unication system is as

, Transducer basically converts information from source into electrical

signal.
Optical source (laser or LED) converts electrical signal into optical (light)
signal.
• Optical channel is optical fiber.
• Optical detector converts optical signal into electrical signal. Mainly
avalanche photo dio d e is used.

• When we have to com pare the behaviour of light in two medium

then we go for R a y theory.
When we deal with transmission of optical signal or reception of
optical signal then we go for Wave theory.
If there is interaction between a material and light then we go for
Photon Theory.

Refractive In d e x (n )
• Refractive index is defined as ratio of velocity of light in free space to
velocity of light in m edium for which we are calculating refractive index,

c
that is n = —
v
Note: Value of refractive index is always greater than or equal to 1.

Total In te rn a l R e fle c tio n

by snell’s law
n^sin 0 1 = n 2 sin (|>2
if 02 = 90; internal reflection takes
place.

01 = sin’ 1 —
L___ n!
 ON TE—
(146] COMMUNlgALI - ^ - - -------- -
l ,, h l l W 1 >,,„>! A c tio n i' ^ g t e of
von
w l |l b 0 greater !ha n or equal lo c n tic a l angle 00 = 3 1 0 - ^

. All the Information In optical fiber is carriecI out by J e p - w i p l e of to t a

internal reflection and all the information is carried c o re o f the O p tJCa|

• Cladding does not support any transmission of information.

Acceptance Angle (0a )

n p n2 -> refractive indices of core and cladding respectively.

• Acceptance angle is the maximum angle to the fiber axis at which the
light may enter inorder to propagate.

If angle of incidence to the fiber will be greater than 0, then total

a internal reflection will not take place in optical fibre and some
information will be lossed.

Numerical Aperture (N.A.)

• It is a measure of light collecting ability of fibre. It establishes the
relationship between acceptance angle and refractive indices of different
medium involved.

n0 sin 0a = n, s»n(9O-0 c ) n
o s in 0 a = n ^ l- s in 2 ^

no s in e a ; =
|n .A. = no s in e a =(n?

Relative Refractive Index Difference (A)

• It is defined as

4 = 21^1
2n; • | A. = n 1(2 A ) 1/z
 --------f t H A N D BQQK O N ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [147]

Me
ridon a l and s k e w Rays
, Meridonal rays are those rays which pass through core axis.
, Skew rays are those rays w hich do not pass through core axis.

numerical A pertu re fo r M e rid o n al and Skew Rays

. For meridonal rays N.A. is |n .A. = no s in e a = (n 2 - n | ) ,z2

» For skew rays N.A. is [n .A. = n 0 sinO a3 c o s y = (nf - n | ) 1/2 c o s y

where acceptance angle for skew rays.

y —> is the angle between angle of incidence and normal at the
point of incidence.

• Q O
is always greater than 6 a . O

• Skew rays will be in large number inside fiber.

Normalized Frequency (v)

• It is a dim ensionless quantity and is given by

— x a x (N.A.) = y x a x x (2A)1/2
X * X ____________

where a -» is core radius.

X -> wave length of operation.

Step Index Fiber .r

n(r) = n r<a — r
n 21 r > a |

• The refractive index profile for this ---------------

■
type of fiber makes a step change
at the core-cladding interface.

Mode
• Modes are
>
>
-► different phase
same phase but same energy
equal energy but unequal
and equal phase energy

Number of m odes or mode volume M is |M -

im
w it destination at !?re

Tn.s : '£ j£ J 2 _ r -

. if we reduce the radus s u c h J_

through core so no d-spers.cr a -

Graded Index Fiber

• Graded mdex fiber nas vanab e J - ue core
• Refractive index is max ■ - - - *
distance increases from the core.
. This type of profile for refractive r = e x =
multimode with equal delays.
• Refractive index profile is
a

where a is called pref ie 0' the f oer.

/ -----------------------------------

• Value of a Profile
oc step index
1 trianguiar
2 oarabotc
• A saincreases gradea indexfiber will tend to w a rd s s ie c indexfiber
behaviour

\
Number of modes or mode volume M ? is given b y Mg = i I a l|

>J r y * w e w an
f to transmit only single m o d e then normal
A A" frequency must be in the range 0 < v < v_, w here v = 2.40S
• For single mode transmission m inim um v a lu e of wave

X is given by

Losses in Optical Fiber

• Absorption losses
Intrinsic (due to interaction of one or m ajor c o m o o n e n t of a*®5 5 ’
♦ Extrinsic (due to OH~ n n co m p o n e t n <-
• Linear scattering losses U e *° t r a n s ‘t ’° n ele m e n t im p’

♦ Rayleigh
♦ Mie
 — — — b^ 3 1 nel ect r onksengineer ing n 4 9j
Non linear scattering losses
* Fiber bend losses

C r it ical Radius o f C u rv a tu re

. For multimode critical radius of curvature R, is given by

Rc = ------- ” 1*
__ __ 4rc(n? - n | ) 3/2
• For single mode, critical radius of curvature is given by

20 X -3
c ( n ? - n | ) gjj-
3 /2 2 .7 4 8 -0 .9 9 6 —

Optical Sources
• Normally used optical sources are Laser and LED.
9 Laser is source of monochromatic and coherent light.
• LED is source of monochromatic and non coherent light.

N01*
In case of He - Ne Laser for same o/p optical power, less input
power is required as compared to Ruby laser.

In case of LED total recombination rate Rt is directly proportional to

forward biased current and is given by
where, Rnr -> non radiative recombination.
Rt —Rnr + Rf
Rr -> radiative recombination.
Internal Q u a n tu m E ffic ie n c y o f LED

Rr R .x e
^ = R? Rt a i; Tlint = “ h —

where e is charge on electron.

Internal power Pjnt is given by Pjn t = Photon rate x hf

x
i X
he
Pint = R r X h f | ; Pint ~ 'Hint ~

External power is somewhat lesser than internal power and is given by

where F —» is transmission coefficient and lies
p _ Pint F n between (0, 1). 0 for opaque and 1 for
e x t" 4 *n 2 transparent m edium .
n refractive index of the medium.
n -» refractive index of the crystal.
X

External quantum efficiency is equal to p , where P is input electrical

power.
 fOMMUNICATIONSYSTEMS
______
• Relation between overall mean life time (r,). mean life tj
corresponding to radiative recombination and mean life
corresponding to non radiative recombination is
-7 1 I T T KRr
_i_ = 2
+ and n 'nt R
Tt T nr _____ -1
Coupling Efficiency
• Coupling efficiency is a parameter which defines the amount of op(h
power coupled to the optical fiber from LED. It is given by

Jo0a 1(0) sin 0d0

~rHi2
I(0)sin0d0

for 1(0) = l0 cos 0

Optical Detector
• Optical detector used is normally avalanche photo diode or PIN diode
• Optical detector must have high sensitivity, high fidelity, short response
time and stability within the range of operation.
Quantum Efficiency of Optical Detector
• Quantum efficiency of optical detector is given by
_ electron generation rate
nD incident photon rate

Fe where re and rp are electron and photon generation rate

'p respectively.
Responsivity (R)
It gives the transfer characteristic of detector and is equal to
F F
A/W where, l —>is photo current
p

po -> is incident photon power

Po = photon rate x hf

R= ^ = e re The
Now
P0 Po ___ hf where |ip = er e

g
10, Propagation of Waves

Inan earth environment • ( l | , >(.iionumnoila waves propagate In ways that

depend not only on their own piopoiim>', bul nluoon thosoof environment
itself.
->e < 2h/IHz r a n g ° S W 0ve p ro PQ Qfillons are ground wave propagation

Sky wave / Ionospheric wave propagation _> 2 M H z < |< 30 MHz

Space wave propagation / LOS -> > 30 MHz.

Ground Wave Propagation

. Ground waves propagate along the surface of oarlh
. Ground waves are vertically polarized to proven! short circuiting of
electric component.
• These are also called su rfa ce waves.
* Ground waves are used up to medium frequency range.
Note: AM is an exam ple of Ground wave propagation.

Field Strength at a Distance for Ground Wave

• The field strength in volts/m is given as by taking into account the gain

c
120jch t l
of transmitting antenna t = — 1
*

If a receiving antenna is now placed at this point, the received signal

will be, in volts.

v _ 120nh t hr I where,
Xd 120 it - » characteristic impedance of free space
ht effective height of transmitting antenna
hr - > effective height of receiving antenna
I -> antenna current
d distance from the transmitting antenna
k wavelength
~~< If the distance between the two antennas is fairly long, the'
*O7<
I reduction of field strength due to ground and atmospheric
absorption reduces the value of the voltage received.
At low frequencies absorption is less due to ground so wave
propagation can take place for a large distance._______________
 COMMUNICAnONSYSTE^
made
[152]

Sky Wave sphere played a pan ■

e a r t h's a t m o
• Ionization ° f the upp P a t high frequencies.
propagation of rad© waves pa
r e fle c ts b a c X e a r th the high frequency w a ve s th a t w ould oth e ^

. l o Z p h e r e X u p p e r portion of the

quantities of radiant energy from the sun becom ing heated and lo n i^
. D layer is lowest, then E layer then Es layer then F, layer and in ia s tF _

layer. _______ ___________________ _____

r ^ \ Reflection occurs from ionization layers due to bending of waves
when it travels through different layers.

• This figure shows that as wave is refracted, it is bent down gradually

rather than sharply. However below ionized layer, the incident and
refracted rays follow path that are exactly the sam e as they would have
been if reflection had been taken place from a surface located at greater
height called Virtual Height.
Critical Frequency (f.)
• C ritic a l fre q u e n cy fc for a given layer is the hig h e st frequency that will
be returned down to earth by that layer after being been beamed straight
up at it.
N o te : Critical frequency range for F2 layer is from 5 M Hz to 12 MHz.

Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)

. Maximum usable frequency is a limiting frequency b u t for some s p * *
angle of incidence other than tho M y’

hormal and it is g ive n by

---------------- _ C O S 0 i |M UF = fc s e c 0
A bove equation is also called >
N o te : Norm al values of MUF mav ran
m a y r a n ge from 8 to 35 MHz.
 s ta n c e " ^ ^ ^ nj ^sengineer ing--------- L(153]
~ J

c* o distance is the shortest »

the surface of earth, al which a s k ? 3 ,r a n s m ilt e r ' measured
than y will be returned to the earth Y W aV® ,lx e d ,r e c ’ u e n c y

A frequency w hich makes a given distance correspond to the

skip distance is the MUF for that pair of points.
Transmission path is limited by the skip distance at one end
and the curvature of the earth at other end.
^Fading is the fluctuation in signal strength -at — •__________________ j
a receiver and may be
rapid or slow, general or frequency selective.
Fading can occur because of interference between the lower and upper
rays of a sky wave.
AM signals suffers from frequency selective fading.

Space Waves
. Space waves travels (m ore or less) in straight lines.
* Space waves are limited in their propagation by the curvature of the earth

Radio Horizon

* The radio horizon for space waves is about four thirds as far as optical
horizon.
• The radio horizon of an antenna is given by

|dt = 4 . 1 2 ^ km where, d t -> distance from transmitting antenna

ht -» height of transmitting antenna above
ground in meters.
The total d is ta n c e ’d ’ between transmitting and receiving antenna
is given by

d = dt + dr d = 4.12 + Th?

where, hr is height of receiving antenna above earth in meters.

Une of Sight (LOS) P ropagation

* This is also called Friis transmission.

----(g, 6 . ) --------

p, p.

t is power transmitted by antenna and Pf is power received by receiving

antenna.
Gr Gr are gains of transm itter and receiver respectively.
 made
[154]
Received powe_r is given b y ^ d is ta n ce between twoar.>e -„

p, G t x Ae W a effective area of receiver

4nd2
4n Ae
Now

C pt G t G±
2
( 4nd
So received power Pr will be

Received power in dB is

10log 1 0 Pr = 10log 1 0 Pt + 10log 1 0 G t + 10log 1 0 G r - 2 0 l o g ( ^ ?

______________ ' A (

N O 74
Term 20 log corresponds to path loss.

■ III
 Radar and Satellite Communication

A radar consists of a transmitter and receiver each connected to a

directional antenna.
Transmitter is capable of sending out a large UHF or microwave power
through the antenna.
Receiver collects as much energy as possible from the echoes reflected
in its direction by the target.
Basic radar systems diagram and its timing diagram are as

<— Pulse repetition time (PRT) —>

♦- PRRorPRF

Pulse reception frequency (PRF) or pulse repetition rate (PRR) is number

of pulses per unit time.
These pulses are transmitted by a highly directional parabolic antenna
at the target, which can reflect (echo) some of the energy back to the

same antenna.
The reflected energy is received and time measurements are made, to
determine the distance of the target.
 CATION
“ “ ---------- ..t e d a su fficie n t rest time mUs

« p o . » “ ” ” ,0 » ™

. After th€>rad a r p h n t0 return s ° d

bo allowed lor * * s s iv e p o is e s is ca lle d p u ls 6 V
pulse. netwe e n S I
• lim e diltem n p R T \ maximum d ista n ce to the targe tto |
r e p e t i t i o n s ^ ’d e te r m in e s m a x '
. pulse re P O '^n g r a n g e . ______
m iles
be
measured, - = ^S t
Range 12 36

■ n hv the formulae l _ _ _ — .— —
. Range is given by e ce iver in m icroseconds

.here, *
• For higher accura y ---------- .

Range = __ — J
I----------- ------ r as seco nd return echoes is
The range b e y o n d ^ j ^ X g e (mur) and is given by

called the maximum una 9

where, P R T is in p s e c .
? 5 L | miles
mur = 12.2
. ,„ „ M — » » ”“ * • ' - 2 “ i

maximum range.
• Minimum range is given by __________
'Mjnjmu rn T a n g e '^ G ^ P ^ J yards

where, PW - pulse width in fisec.

• Duty cycle is given by p u ty cycle - p R T ^

• Average power is given by

'Average power = peak pow er xd u ty c y c le j

|PRT = 1/PRF'

Maximum Range rmax po^

• Let Pt is peak transmitted power from transmitter, A p is maximum £
gain of transmitter, Ao is capture area of receiving antenna-
intercepted by the target depends upon effective area, tet us a S
that it is S, then maximum range rmax is given by
 [157]

•max ~
[ Pt A20 S 11/4 P|ApA.2 S'
1/4
r max -
or
l ______ \
(4itt 3 •P_
min /
where X -> wave length of EM radiation.
mm minimum power at receiver which can be recognized
w e : By Increasing P, by 16 times b e c o m e s |u s l d o u b te .

Effect of N o ise o n M a x im u m R a n g e

. Noise affects the maximum range insofar as it determines the minimum

power that the receiver can handle.
• Taking noise into account maximum range rmax is given by
1/4 where, k -> Boltzmann’s constant
P, Aq S
Qnax To -> Standard ambient temp.
4itA,2 kT 0 A f(F -1 )
= 290 K
f A -> Bandwidth of receiver
kT0 A f-> noise in p u t pow er of
receiver
F -> Noise figure of receiver
Maximum range in kilometers is given by
-11/4 where, D -> antenna d ia m e te r in
P P 4S
^max — 4 8
t
km meters
2
Af Jt (F -1 ) S -» effective cross-section
area in m2
Af —>in Hz
X -> in m

Bandwidth required for receiver is n/T, where T is the pulse duration

a
Blind Speed
and n is num ber whose value ranges from 1 to 10 depending on
circumstances.________________ _____________________ t

• Blind speed is a radial speed of the airplane at which the phase shifting
of echo-signal has the value ± n x 2n between two pulse periods.
* It is given by
where, v b Ijn d -> blind speed
v - 1 X wave length of transmitted EM wave
blind ’ 2L
T -> pulse repetition time (PRT)
s
D °PPler E ffect
‘ If the observer is moving with respect to source he observes change in
frequency of the wave em itted by source, this is called Doppler effect
°r D oppler shift.
 Observed frequency f is given by

doppler shift

s - v r is the relative velocity source with re S p ^ .

where v . .
3 ,I

receiver.
f _> js frequency of wave radiated by source.
In radar technology Doppler effect is using for the following tasks

□ Speed measuring
□ MIT - moving target indication
□ In air or space based radar system for precise determination
lateral distances.
Doppler frequency (fD ) is given by
where, fD Doppler frequency in Hz
v -» speed of the wave source (m/sec)
X -> wave length (m)

• This equation is valid if the speed of the source of wave is

like the radial speed.

• Another formulae for dopper frequency is given by

2 v r = 2v r . ^ where, vr -> radial speed of aim
f tx -> frequency of transmitter
X Co
Co -> velocity of light in free space
X -> wavelength of wave

Dopper frequency occurs twice at a radar once on the way from

d radar to aim and then for the reflected (already affected by a

Doppler shift) energy on the way back.

Radar beacons are normally used on aircraft to identify itself-

Another use of radio beacons is rather similar to that of Ii9^ i
houses but it can operate over much large distances._^^>

Satellite Communication
• Satellite communication system exist because earth is a sphere.
• Repeater is needed to convey signals over long distances.
• A repeater is simply a receiver linked to a transmitter
. Satellite systems operate in the microwave and millimeter
frequency bands us.ng frequencies between 1 and 50 GHz.
 -------^ ^ P g Q O K p H E LECTRONICS ENGINEERING [159]

t There are tour satellite system whose orbital velocity height and period
is given as

Satellite system O rb it height O rbit velocity Orbital

(km ) (km /sec) period
hr min sec
Intelsat (GEO) 35786.03 3.0747 23 56 4.1
New-ICO (MEO) 10255 4.8954 05 55 48.4
Skybridge (LEO) 1469 7.1272 01 55 17.8

Iridium 780 7.4624 01 40 27.0

• Time period of satellite orbit is given by

2icr3/2 where, r -> is distance of satellite's orbit from centre of

H1/2 earth.
Ill -> is constant which is product of gravitational
constant G and mass of earth M E .
i Kepler's third law gives the relation between orbital period and semi­
major axis of elliptical path and is
where, a -> semi major axis of ellipse and replaced
]-2_ 4 it 2 a3
by r if path is circular.
|i —> Kepler’s constant.

where, p is semilatus rectum of ellipse,

e eccentricity of ellipse.
 C O M M yN JC A Q ^
[160] Made
„d Geosynchronous Satellites
Geostationary and u 7 j t w h o s e p e rio d is
. Geostationary satellite is m a
earth's rotation pe n a d . re e c t t0 any point on earth at a n v t i
• It remains s ta l,0 " aJ
j H| b e at fixed position with resp e c t ^
• Geosynchronous sate n o t a || t h e tim e ap>r

. h a s a n i n c i i n a , i o n w i t h r e s p e c t '°

also its orbit is not circular.

• Average angular velocity of satellite is given y

g 1 /2 _ 2 it
where, n -> average angular velocity
71= ~ ^a ~ _y
Mean anomaly M is the arc length (in radians) that the satellite
have transversed since the perigee passage if it were moving on
circum scribed circle at the mean angular velocity r| and is given by

M - E - e s in E | where E -» is ecce ntric anomaly.

M is also given by

m = n (t-tp ) where t -> is the tim e of perigee.

Satellite Link Design

• Major bands used for satellite communications are 6/4 GHz, 14/11 GHz
30/20 GHz. The uplink frequency is written first by convention.
• As frequency increases attenuation in atm osphere increases.
• All communication links are designed to m eet certain performances
usually a bit error rate (BER) in a digital link or a signal to noise raw
(S/N) in a an analog link.
• The baseband channel BER or S/N ratio is determ ined by the carriers
noise ratio (C/N) at the input to the dem odulator in receiver.
• In most satellite communications applications, the (C/N) ratio a t^
dem odulator input must be greater than 6 dB
Overall (C/N) at earth station receiver d e p e n d s on both uplink
downlink. H

’ lf atransmitting source, in free space radiatino a total cower P / attS

uniformly in all directions and r ie • , n 9 a to ta P |ed
r is cal
effective i s o t r o p i c a ^ ^ 9 a ,n a n t e n n a t h e n P - G <*

Now received power bv an ant P 0 M , e r t a n s i^

having gain G r is V " a n te n n a a t a d 's ’^ R from t r a ^
, h decibel received power will be

W a g - * path loss in dB

(^p)dB = 20log10 4rcR)

------------ V X /
. In general received power is given as

^U slg R P ldB-KG,)^ ~(g j ^ ( L a)a~-(L,a)dB - (Lfa)a8|

\sten? (k jljg —> loss in dB in atmosphere.
^ a \iB “ * ^ s s associated with transmitter in dB.
^“ra^aB ~ * loss associated with receiver in dB.

System Noise T e m p e ra tu r e

• At microwave frequencies, a black body with a physical temperature,

Tp degrees Kelvin, generates electrical noise power in a wide bandwidth.
The noise power is given by
Pn = k TP B n ] where, k -> Boltzmann’s constant.
Tp -> physical temperature of source in Kelvin
degree.
B n -> noise bandwidth in which noise power is
measured in Hertz.

* kTp is noise power spectral density in Watt/Hz.

I
a • The power spectral density is constant for all radio frequencies
up to 300 GHz. ____________________

* To determine the performance of a receiving system we need to be able

to find the total thermal noise power against which the signal must be
demodulated, this is done by determining system noise temperature.
* System noise tem perature Ts is the noise temperature of a noise source
located at input of noiseless receiver which gives the same noise power
as the original receiver measured at the output of receiver and usually
includes noise from the antenna.
— --------- ---------------\ •„ n f receiver is and its narrowest b a n d > .
• If the overall end to end gai ^ o d u |a to r i/p js g jv e n b y

is B n Hz. the noise p o w e r^ system noise temperature.

jP™ = W p ’ 4 noise power at dem odulator i/p.

‘ q is the gain of receiver from Rf in D

n demodulator i/P.
, tn thP inout of receiver is P where
• The noise power referred to the input
Pn = kT s B n
If antenna delivers a signal power Pr to the receiver RF input. th6n

carrier to noise ratio at the demodulator is given by

System noise temperature Ts is given by

where, Tr -» is the noise temperature of the antenna measured at its

o/p port.
-> equivalent noise temperature of RF amplifier.
T1F -> equivalent noise temperature of IF amplifier.
Tm -> equivalent noise temperature of mixer
Grf gain of RF amplifier.
Gm -> gain of mixer.
G|F -» gain of IF amplifier.
Succeeding stages of receiver contribute less and less noise to the
total noise temperature and in this case system noise temperature is
simply the sum of antenna noise temperature and LNA (Low Noise
Amplifier) noise temperature that is
w h e r e - Lntenna noise temperature of antenna.
S ’ a n t e n n a * *LNA

Noise model for an equivalent n, n o is e tem perature of LNA-

temperature TTO given by P n ° IS e S 0 U r C e Pr o d u c e s a "

1 m e d lim ^ 9 a 'n
KESi Egj
le s s th a n u n it y o f attenuating device0'

degrees.t e m p e ra tu re of device or m edium in

^JADEEASY------- A HANDBggi<gNEIX C r R 0 N | C S E N < . |N E E R |N < . |1 6 3 ,

flois* Fi9u r e an d Noise Temperature

j w e figure is frequently used to specify the norse generated within a
device. The operational Noise Figure (NF) is defined as ratio of SNR at

■JPto the SNR at o/p of a device and g.ven by NF =

(S / N )out

Noise figure in terms of equivalent noise temperature is given by

NF = 1 + l o t v/here, T,^ -» equivalent noise temperature
o
- ------------ 2J TToo->
-> reference
referencetemperature
temperatureand
andisis290
290k.k.
If several devices are cascaded then overall noise figure can be found
using Friis formulae as

'n-1

vmere F v F2 . F3 .......... Fn are respective noise figure of devices

in cascade.

-> G v G 2 . G 3 ......... G n are respective power gams of devices

in cascade.

G/T Ratio for Earth Station

• Il is the ratio receiver gain G r to system noise temperature Ts .
• The link equation can be written in terms of (C/N) at earth station

CA Pt Gt Gf x / A V _ ( Pt Gt
N/ kTs Bn \ 4 j ir J ykB n J \4 t cr J Ts

* So higher the (G/T) ratio higher will be (C/N) radio and better

3
•
will be reception of signal at receiver so (G/T) ratio is figure of
merit for receiver.
Sometimes it is given that satellite terminal has -ve G/T which means
it is below 0 dB/k means numerical value of Gf is smaller than
numerical value of Ts . t

Link Budget
* A link budget is a tabular method for evaluating the received power and
noise power in a radio link
* Link budgets invariably use decibel units.
’ Relation between uplink attenuation and downlink attenuation is given
[164] c o mmu n ic a t io n s yst ems

where,
Aup —>uplink attenuation in atmosphere (mainly due to rain).
Adown -> downlink attenuation in atmosphere (mainly due to rain)
fu p , -> are uplink and downlink frequencies respectively.
Relation between overall (C/N) ratio and (C/N) for uplink and
downlink is as

1 7 1 i
+
(C /N U a . (C/N)u p (C/N) d 0 M ,

where, (C/N)overa)( -> overall (C/N) ratio

(C/N)up -> (C/N) ratio for uplink
^^dow n (C/N) ratio for downlink
 12.
M iscellaneous

• Frequency range of voice signal is 300 Hz to 3.4 kHz

• Frequency range of audio signal is 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
• Frequency range of TV signal is 0 to 4.5 MHz.
• Frequency range of data is based on operation.
• In case of guided channel
Copper cable — kHz
Coaxial cable — MHz
Wave guide — GHz
Optical fiber — Tera Hz

• Coaxial cable is also used for connection making as connectors

BNC (Bay Net Navy Connector) and TNC (Terminated Navy
Connectors).
Amplitude D isto rtio n
• This type of distortion results from production of new frequency in the
output which are not there in the input signal. These new frequencies
are caused due to non linearity of active devices.
frequency D isto rtio n
• This type of distortion exists when signal component of different
frequencies are amplified differently. It is caused by stray capacitances
and circuit capacitances.
Phase D istortion t f h a e in nals of different frequencies.
’ It results from unequal delays of 9___________ ______ _— —

• 540 kHz . ,600 KHZ -

■ t o e b a X e s s a g e signa! is bandlim ited! 0 5 kHz.

•ntermediate frequency used for AM is

 Frequency ol local w ca a to r-s 9 ^ 2
n where. t - * u3

. Polarization is vertical and wave p r o p a g a t e

• The tuning range of local oscillate -> Kl - Tu - J KT -
. An AM signal transmitted at a frequency + 'f * halted
m i ^ a i transmitted at frequency L = i _ *
frequency for an AM signal rr« - .
u
"■■l

image frequency is f \ - t o U_'

. In order to reject image frequency bandwidfri of RF ampimer
IB----- s — -57-1 where. Bc - * is bandwiotn oi AM radio sijna.
Oq
----------------------------- j . bandwidth of RF empire*
I _> intermediate frequency

FM Radio Broadcasting
• FM radio broadcasting utilizes the frequency band SS - ' 08 MHz
• The carrier frequencies are separated by 200 kHz and peas frequent
deviation is fixed at 75 kHz.
• Intermediate frequency f 1F in case of FM is 10.7 MHz
• Polarization is horizontal.
• Wave propagation is space wave propagation.

In case of TV signal picture carrier is VSB-FC modulated cow

a
EM Spectrum
sub carrier is QAM modulated and sound is FM modulated

Radio Frequency 3 Hz to 300 GHz

Infrared 3 x 1 0 12 to 4.3 x 1014 Hz
Visible 4.3 x 10™ to 7.5 x 10™ Hz
Ultraviolet 7-5x10™ to 3 x 1 0 17 Hz
X-ray 3 * 1 0 17 to 3 x 1019 Hz |
y-rays > 3 x 101 9 Hz J
 ------- ^ g g 9 ° ! < Q ! W JCTR0NIC S ENGINEERING [1671

Radio Frequency Spectrum

3 — 30 Hz r
SLF 30 - - 300 Hz - "— * Submarines
ULF 300 Hz — 3 KHz
Ground wave propagation
VLF 3 KHz — 30 KHz '

LF 30 KHz — 300 KHz - — ► Radio beacons

MF 300 KHz — 3 MHz - AM

HF 3 MHz — 30 MHz - — ► Sky wave propagation

VHF 30 MHz — 300 MHz - -— * FM and TV

Space wave propagation
UHF 300 MHz — 3 GHz

SHF 3 GHz — 30 GHz L _____________________

Short wave has range of frequencies from 6 MHz - 25 MHz and it

is an application of HF band.

• Digital communication has advantage that it can use repeaters over

analog communication.
• To overcome intersymbol interference we use raised cosine pulses or
duo binary signalling,
 A Handbook on
Electronics Engineering

N etwork Theory
CONTENTS

1 Circuits Elements and Signal W aveform ..................................170-175

2. Network Laws and T h eorem s...................................................... 176-182

3. Graph T heory...................................................................................183-185

4. Laplace Transform A nalysis and Circuit Transients................. 186-190

5 Resonance........................................................................................ 191-194

B Two Port N e tw o rk........ ..................................................................195-199

? Magnetic C oupled C irc u its ...........................................................200-201

 I

CIRCUIT BL6MBNTS
,__

ftealtfor
□ d is ta n c e .
Conductor
!

R“ p , Ohm (0) a Q.
A
*t
M--------- / ------
w I xmv /• Length ol conductor, m
A =• Area of cross-section, n r
P - Resistivity of the material, Q-m ,

Q» Extension ol wire Results, in c re a s e in re s is ta n c e and

U " compression of wire results, decrease in resistance

Capacitor

□ Capacitance

€ne. A where, e 0 = Permittivity of free space, F/m

. Farad
€ r = Relative perm ittivity of the dielectric
A = Crosssectional area of parallel plated
__ d = Separation of plates, m
r i ' * s r c o n d itio n ,o r d
c - s u p p i y c a p a c i , ° ra c ts

impulse of current i s X t e ^ 60 °f V° lta 9 e ' U n t ''

• ^ ^ o ’ curren t i s a p p l i e d t h e n a t t = 0 + .t s ^

• It stores energy jn th e f
 ENGINEERING [171]

g Inductance
w h e re <Uo ~ Permeability of free space; H/m
HqN2 A
.H enry N = Total No. of turns in coil
A = Area of cross-section of coil, m2
- Length of the coil, m
U " ^ r ®t e a d y D C . supply Inductor acts
as short circuit,
. Inductor doesn't allow sudden change of voltage, until unless
impulse of voltage is applied.
• If unit impulse of voltage is a p p lie d a c ro s s it then at t = 0 + it

stores the energy = joule.

• It stores energy in the form of magnetic field.

• Power dissipation in ideal inductor is zero.
---------------- - - ----------------------------------------------------— _______ ________________________________ >

« If an element is capable of delivering energy independently, then it is

called active elem ent, when it is not then called passive element.
• Voltage source, current source, transistor, OPAMP are active elements
and Resistor, inductor, capacitors are passive elements.
• If voltage and current across an element are related to each other through
a constant coefficient then the element is called linear element otherwise
nonlinear. A ctive elem ents (volta ge source, current source) has
non linear ch a ra c te ris tic .
• Resistance R, inductor L and capacitance are linear element under
normal conditions.
• When element’s characteristics are independent of direction of current
then element is called b id ire c tio n a l elem ent otherwise unidirectional.
• Every linear elem e nt should obey the bidirectional property but vice
versa is not necessary.
• Diode is exam ple of u n id ire c tio n a l element.
* R. L, C are b id ire ctio n a l elem ents and voltage and current sources are
unidirectional elem ents.____________ _________________________
GSi • Internal resistance of ideal voltage source is zero.
• Internal resistance of ideal current source is infinite.------------ ,
 • a linear network is one in which the principle of super position
holds good.
«***■****" • A network containing circuit elem ents w ithout any energy
source is passive network.
• A network containing energy source together w ith other circuit
elements is called active network.___________________

Id e a l voltage source
• Voltage always remains constant for any value of current passing
through it

P ra ctica l voltage source

* It has small internal resi^t^nm \/«u
with respect to current a 9e a c ro s s the element van
 173
Ideal currant so u rce
' current always remains constant for any value of voltage across it

Practical c u rre n t so u rce

• II has large value of internal resistance. Current varies with respect
to the voltage across the element.

A network in which R, L, C can be separated electrically is called

lumped netw ork and network in which elements R, L, C can not be
separated is called distributed network.

M)1t
Transmission line is example of distributed network.
Network theory concept can be applied only for low frequency
application.

STANDARD INPUT SIGNALS

Step Function

f(t) f

k
0 ; tS O
f(t) =

o
Gate Function
 n OWOrk THWHY
PM|

Remp Function

Impulse Function i
i
i
i

0 !

□ Area under the impulse function is unity J

□ Sampling property of impulse function J f ( t ) - 8 ( t t o ) d t« f( t 0 )|

MISCELLANEOUS
□ Average value

where T is the lime period of periodic function yfi

□ RMS or effective value

• RMS value of sin wt and cos wt is - i

V2
y(t) a0 + (a, coswt+a? cos2nt+.„) + s in wt + b ? sin2cot + •••)

' ■ ■■ ■— — — — -■ -- — — 1
.r > $ Y A H — D B 00K 0N ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [175]

form factor

eM _ e -M
sin ©t = and ' <ot = — L?—
2j 2

e“ ’ - e _<ot p 0>t . o
e
-<0t
sinh cot = —"T------------ c o s h cot =
and
2 ________ 2

• A v e ra g e va lu e is use d for D.C. pow er calculation.

H • RMS v a lu e is u se d fo r A .C . pow er calculation.
• A v e ra g e v a lu e and RMS value do not depend on frequency
b u t it d e p e n d s on sh a p e of the w aveform .
 Network Laws and The

KIRCHOFF'S LAW

Kirchoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

n
X M ( t) = o
....in a closed loop
1=1

where V( is the voltage drop or voltage gain across ith element

Kirchoff's Current Law (KCL)

n
X ’i(t) = o
at any node

where l ((t) is the current through i,h branch

• KVL is based on the law of conservation of energy.

• KCL is based on the law of conservation of charge.
* KVL and KCL are applicable only to lum ped networks. __ ■.

Ohm's Law
• ,f states that at constant temperature current density is^direcS

proportional to electric field intensity, that is | j = cf E,

Different forms of Ohm's Law

Form
1st form Equation
2nd form J=oE
3rd form V = |R
l = GV (G = 1/R )
4 ,h form
dt
0APEEASY ^HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [177)

5th form

6th form

7th form

8th form

O hm s law is applicable to both lumped and distributed

networks till the network is linear.

RESISTOR
Combination of Resistors
□ Resistors in series
M— V ,----- M«— V2 — M M— Vn — H

----- WA-----•— VWV— ♦ ................• — WA------

Rt R2 Rn
|M

—V— ------— ■

□ Resistors in parallel

□ Voltage Division Equations

H— v i - V2 — H
r— V A V -
Ri R2
| m j

<>◄
---------- v ----------
INDUCTOR
Combination of Inductor
□ Inductors in series

□ Inductors in parallel
 A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [179]

■ R a tio n of Capacitors

□ CaPa c ito r s in s e r ie s

SOURCE T R A N S F O R M A T IO N

Transformation of a resistive voltage source to a resistive current source

NETWORK t h e o r e m s ________________________
SuPe rposition Theorem

response in any elem ent of a linear, bilateral, R, L, C, network

c °ntaining more than one independent voltage or current sources is the

Hebraic sum of the response produced by various sources each acting

alone.
 or nonlinear.

for maximum power transfer

zL =z;
Case 1: If ZL = RL and Z s = Rs
Rl = Rs

Case-2: If Zs = Rs + jx s and ZL - RL

Tellegan's Theorem
• In any network the sum of instantaneous power consum ed by various
elements of the branches is always equal to zero.
• Total power given out by different voltage sources = Total power consumed
by various passive elements in various branches of the network.
b
£ v k ik = o
where, b =Number of branches
k=1

*0 7 4
Tellegan’s theorem works based on the p rin c ip le of taw of
conservation of energy.

Millman's Theorem
 [181]

where Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + .... + Rn

■ _ h^l +I2R2 + h^3 + .... In^n

eq R1 +R 2 + R3 + .... Rn

hevenin's Theorem
It is used to represent a linear bilateral network by an equivalent circuit
having a voltage source and resistance in series with it.
^ th

-o A
Network
■o B

where v th = open circuit voltage across AB.

Rth = equivalent impedance seen from terminal AB by
replacing all the sources by their internal impedances.
Or*° n s Theorem
‘ J is used to represent a linear bilateral network by an equivalent circuit
a v in 9 a current source and a impedance in parallel with it.
 t heobY

,hortcircui l c u r ( ' n c e s e e n from term inal A B 1

short c«
s’ equivalent WP e ° *
c e s by their internal impedan J
B« " replacing a " t h e I
I o r bilateral if it remains invalid,

R e c ip r ^ T h ^ ^ is s a id l0 be ' e C ip f 0 (Ccause and effect in the network*

r^^^anrient so should be zercy ■■■

. All the
 Graph Theory

pr o duc t ion
□ Rank of g ra p h

Rank = (n — 1) where, n =Number of nodes.

Tree is a collection of minimum number of branches
connecting all the
nodes of a graph without making a loop.

• Number of KCL equation = (n - 1) -------------------------------

JL • The number of trees for a given graph = (n )^ 2 ^
• Tree is a connected graph. '
. Branch of a tree is called a twig.
. Remaining part of a graph after removal of twigs is called cotree. It is
collection of links.
• Links are the branches removed from the graph to make a tree
□ Total n u m b e r o f b ra n c h o f a g ra p h

where, L = Number of links

r f • Number of twigs = ( n - 1) = Number of KCL equation

• Num berof loops = Number of links
• Every connected graph has atleast one tree.
• Rank of a tree is same as that of graph from which it is made.

mat r ixes____________________________________
Incidence M a t r ix

* It is a mathematical representation of a graph in form of a matrix.

• Number of rows of a matrix = Number of nodes in the graph.

* Number of columns of the matrix = Number of branch.______
Matrix entry
=> if branch is incident on a node.
+1 => if branch is pointing away from node.
_ 0 => if branch is not connected to node._____________
* Sum of elements of each column is zero.

a •
•
Determinant of incidence matrix of a closed loop is always zero.
Order of incidence matrix = (n x b)_____________________ _
 --^S|A S

’ ♦ Rank of «nc d e n ce _ _

* ‘* * ^ 1
tuducd in<x»* o< one line (ro w ) ,h e in c id e n t ^ a v l x ,s
. O btained after me r
caned reduced me matrix = (n - )
. o rd e r of Reduced i

□ N um ber ot tree fo r a S ' * * ' . . . . . p ^ , , ~ a -

where, [A ] = R e d u c e d in c id e n c e m
’ '3ujy
[A ] f = T ransp ose o f Rim
' “ ‘ i b ^ r X p o ' b , a n c h containing only one tw ig a n d a n u m b e r of lin k i

Fundamental Cut Set Matrix

• Fundamental cut set is a group of branch c o n ta in in g o n ly one twig ano
the minimum number of links.
• Fundamental cut set matrix can be used to w rite K C L e q uatio ns for the
given network

« Number of fundamental cut sets of a g ra p h = Number of

3•
twigs = (n - 1)
Number of rows of the matrix = N um ber of fu n d a m e n ta l c u t sets
• Number of columns = Number of branches.
• Number of KCL equation = Num ber of fu n d a m e n ta l c u t set.

• From the cutset matnx we can write equations g ivin g the branch voltages
in terms of tree branch voltages by sim ply re a d in g th e co lu m n s of cut
set matrix
E ntry in the m a trix
* 1 =» " orientation of branch is sam e as th e o rie n ta tio n o f cut seis
related to it
-1 =» if onentauon of branch is opposite to orientation of c u t set related to1-
0 =» II a cut set is not related to th e b ra n c h .

Circuit Matrix
For a g ra p h hav.ng n nodes and b b ra n c h e s , th e c irc u it m atrix B ais’
rectang ular m atnx having b colum ns an d as m a n y a s ro w s as th e re * 9
loo ps Its entries are as y
 ’ A HANDBOOKON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [1851

4-1, if branch k is in loop h and their orientation coincide.

bhk
-1, if branch k is in loop h and their orientation do not coincide,
o. if branch k is not in loop h.
^ o i d : The rank of circuit matrix will be b - (n - 1).

1,C it is a g r o u p o f b ra n c h e s containing only one link and a number of twigs.

Ldam enta! Tie Set M atrix
f lt is a mathematical representation of fundamental tie sets of a graph in
form of matrix.
Fundamental Tie set is a group of branches containing only one link and
minimum number of twigs.
□ Number of fundamental tie sets for a graph.
= Number of links
= Number of KVL(mesh equation)

L = (b - n +1)

Matrix entry is
+1 If orientation of the branch is same as the orientation of loop current.
-1 => If orientation of branch is opposite to loop current.
0 => If branch is not related to the loop.
 Laplace Transform Ana|y S j$
C lr c u i.T r .n a *

LAPLACE TRANSFORM

□ One sided Laplac

£ [f(t)l = jf(t)e - s,dt = F(s)

0 __________ _
For the two sided L ^ i^ r a n s f o r m a t io n , the lim its on the integratio

are f r o m ------- ^ T S C R C ^ c u i t s o n e -s id e d
g j transform"^ u s e X analysis purpose w h e re initial conditio^

are used. — —-------------------------

Properties of Laplace Transform

□ Linearity £ { a fi( t) + bf2 (t)} - aF ^s) + bF 2 (s)

cff(t) = snF(s) - sn ’ 1 f(0) - sn " 2 f'(0 ) - sn -3 f’ (O)-...

□ Differentiation dtn

□ Integration
 1
' , . , - ^ W K O N I C S ENGINEERING [1871J
a L a p la c e jra n s lo rm of p e r io d ic fu n c t)o n

whore, f(l) = p 0 r i o d l c ( u n c t|o n w t h

1- e- time period I
Mt) = Function over one time
I period
LAPLACE TRANSFORM PAIRS i
Laplace
f(t)
in v e rs e L a p i^ e F(s)
8(t)
u(t)
1/s
r(t) = tu(t)
1/s 2
<
tn u(t) n!
Z t hT

e^'iX O 1
s+a
(sin (ot)u(t) co
s 2 + (02

(cos cot)u(t) s
S2 + (02

co
[(sin h cot)]u(t)
s 2 - C0?

s
(cos h cot)u(t)
S2 —CO2

n!
(e-crt t n )u(t) \n+1

2cos
(t sin © t)iu (t)

s 2 -c o 2
(t cos cot)u(t)

(0
(e-«’ sin (ot)u(t) (s + a ) 2 + co2

s+a
(e ” w c o s (ot)u(t
(s + a ) +(o
 n et w o r kt h ^ ------------------
nasi— — ' ,c ruiT el ement ^ nJ j Do m a i n ^
r epr esent at ion ^ -----
R" Energy d i s s i p a t i n g ^ ’

• Linear element
• Bilateral element

/n time domain

I n s-dom ain ESEZM where S= ° +

For sinusoidal excitation

o=0 and s = jco

Inductor
• Energy storing element

Time domain

M t) = L ^
In tim e dom ain

ln s-dom ain VL (s) = s L -l L (s) —Li(0~

Capacitor
• Energy storing element

V c (s)

Time domain
S-domain
 ENGINEERING [189

in time domain i c (t) =

dt

In s-domain l (s) = sCVJs) - Cv (O")

c c

Gf, t o f

----- -
where. Ro = Coefficient of gyrator (Depends upon op-
V2 s ~ AMP parameters and R. C)

TRANSIENT r espo nse

* Transients are present in circuit, when circuit is subjected to any changes
either by changing source magnitude or by changing any circuit elements
provided circuit should consists of any energy storage elements.
* When circuit is having only resistive elements, no transients are present
because it allows sudden change of voltage and current.

Transient response depends only on circuit components and

their layout that is on system not on input and output.
• Transient are present due to finite value of time constant which is
not zero.
I • Time constant is time taken for response to rise 63.2% of the

maximum val ue. ,

RL Circuit
□ The transient current through the inductor L at any time t

H t ) = i . - ( i - - i 0 -)e ' Rwl/L

where i_ = Current through L at t i.e. steady state current
through L
i0 - = Current through L at t = 0~
R = Thevenin's equivalent resistance seen across L for t > 0.

Circuit
The transient voltage across capacitor C at any time t

vc (t) = v ,- [V ,- V o - ]e
 n h w o r k ih ^
--------------- ^ I q e a c r ° ss capaC

V" = vollagea c r o s s ^ a tt =

v0 .=Voltage a c ^ a |e n t r e s is tance seen across C fO r t

R -Thevenm sequ
n eq

AC Transients 9 must be
• For transient free response

equal to

coL
0 = ta n 1
R
if switch is closed at t = 0.

Vm sin(cot + 9) (Q

if switch is closed at t = t0
For transient free response 0 must be equal to

0 = tan'1 (tpRC)
if switch is closed at t = 0.

0 = tan" 1 (coRC)- wt0 if switch is closed at t = t 0

Condition for Transient Free Response for Different Inputs for RL,
RC Series and Parallel Circuits :
/
Time at Input RL series X

RC series
which swi ch or parallel or parallel
is closed

t= 0 V(t) = Vm sin (lot+e) 0 = tan- 1 cox 0 = ta n - 1 cor

= timeconst.)
(x = RC = time const.)

t =0 V(t) = V m cos (wt+0) K

6 = tan~1 on + -
0 = ta n - 1 on+5
1 = *0 V(t) = Vm sin (oit+0) 0 ta n
~ ~1 on - (otQ 0 = t a n ' 1 oj t -

t = tg V(t) = v m cos (cot+0) n

6= ta n 1ttn:-cot0 + —
u
0 = tan~1 cox-
L_____ 2
& *) n c ir c
uit it is not D o s s i h i Z ^ ^ T ^ '
1=1 since circuit is havinatwninH 0 o b t a i n t r a r *sient free respo nS ®_
L&C. 9 l n d e Pendent enerc
3y storage elemen
 Resonance

, AtResonance, the circuit behaves like a resistive circuit

povver factor of th© circuit at resonance = 1
^ries Resonance

/It Resonance
• K I = |Md | and these are 180° out of phase
• Imaginary part of input impedance = 0

I
minimum l(B=t O0 p maximum

1
where = Resonance frequency in rad/sec
Vl c
iy • For co < cdq series RLC behaves like RC capacitive circuit.
7' • For to > w0 series RLC behaves like RL inductive circuit
"*** • For co = w0 series RLC behaves like resistive circuit.

* Series RLC circuit is an example of band pass filter.

* At resonance voltage across capacitor and inductor is Qg^s (whare
^ V s q u a lity factor), but they are out of p h a s e . ,

Q nA L.^ 1
where o)q —
■>resonant frequency.
(d 0 RC
 N E T W Q R K J^ ^------------------- ■

______________
□ BandWitW w h e re W |, w2 = Cut-off frequency Qr
,v1) = (o>2 - (° i ) = l power frequency 'M '
— --- vt

I__ :______________
□ Frequency at which voltage across capacitor is maximum

I 1 / 1 R2 1
lc 2n\LC 2L2

□ Frequency at which voltage across inductor is maximurn

1 ____
L c 2r 2
2Jl c - —

„ , . . Resonance frequency f
Selectivity = -------- - — — — --------- = — nBy­
Selectivity Bandwidth f2 -

n ( Maximum energy stored A

□ Q-factor Q-factor = 2n - -------- —— ------ —
I, Energy d is s: ip a te d /c y c le )

Inductor L with internal resistor R

<t>L
Q-factor = —
n
Capacitor C with effective internal resistor R

Q-factor = -
©RC
Leaky capacitor which is represented b y a c a p a c ito r C a

resistance Rp in shunt
Q-factor = wRCp
 H ig h e r th e --------------- u a

. Higher the selectivity le s « . b e t h e quality factor

y , e S S e r w i “ b e the bandwidth

. Selectivity of series RLC c ir c u it c ,g

2 *
• s e l^ i'y of se r' e s circuit with L variable is a ls o

—— — — - 2 ■
^ ile l Resonance

IC V

c=k

At Resonance
[(J= pel and these are 180” out of phase
Imaginary part of input im pedance = 0

maximum l( 0 a ( | ) Q .minimum

1
where, to0 - .......resonance frequency in rad/sec

• Parallel resonance circuit is also called anti-resonance

EE) circuit.
• Parallel resonance circuit is an example of band reject filter.
• Higher the value of quality factor higher will be the value of lL and lc
and lower will be the value of I.

•©- * For co < w0 the circuit acts like an RL circuit.

,A • For re > o)0 the circuit acts like an RC circuit.____________

Another form of Parallel Resonance Circuit

L
n 9 4 } NETWORK THEORY Ma d e C|

• Resonant frequency fBf

where Qo is quality factor of series resonant circuit at resonance.

• Impedance at resonance

m Q
z ar = w ar *-Q - ~ (assuming R to be small)
War

Ratio of currents lc and lL

* Higher the value of Q higher will be lc and l L and lower will I .

S • Higher the value of Q lesser will be the difference between lc

and lL .
• If R -> 0 then Q ~ and lc ~ > oo and I -> 0.
y
 Two Port Network

^ p r O f f NETWORK

+o—
V, Two-port
Network V2

TWOport network is special case of multiport network in which each port

consists of two term inals. H

P^ng P d n t Impedance and Admittance Functions

, Driving point im p e d a n ce function

7 - M s ) \ V (s)
‘ d' (s ) “ Ms) a n d Z7 ^ (s) = ^2 /
» Driving point a d m ittan ce function

Y. (q) = -M s ) . v ^(s)
d’ l ) V ,( s ) a n d d 2 < S )’ w

Impedance and Adm ittance Transfer Function

• Impedance Transfer Function

7 (s ) - W d Z (s )-^ >
Z2 ’ ( s ) - h (s ) a n d Z i2 ( s ) - |2 ( s )

* Admittance Transfer Function

v 2 1/ Q( \) h ( s ) , v12H ) - *1(—
“ v 7 I) and < s ~ V (s)
2

Ullage and Current Transfer Function

M ag e transfer function

V ^s) Yg(s )
G S
12< ) = V2 ( s ) and G 21<S ) " V^s)

C u rre nt transfer function

h(s)
a 12 = and =
l2 (s)
 • _ V = AV- + B I 2
ABCD or T or transmission Pa r a m e cv2 +

ope n c ir c u it im p e d ^

B l parameters. c a ||e d short circuit admittance parameters

. Y-parametersar . .n c o n s tructing models for transistors
. Hybrid Pa r a m fe te t ^ X can t be measured using Z-paramefc
’ or " m e t e r s because toward biased of base-emitter juncta.
?s difficult to measure Z 12 and 7 ^ and of because of reverse braseo
of collector-base junction it is difficult to measure Y n a d Y1;,
and Reciprocal

Reciprocal Symm etrical

Z-|2 - ^21 Z u = Z22
y 12 = y 21 Yu = Y22__
CD Q
<

A = D
T“
II
o

hi-, h 12
h12 - - h21 = 1
h2 i h 22
O )
CT

C\J
t-

912 ~ ~921 = 1
0 )
O )

CM
CM
CM

INTERCONNECTION BETWEEN TWO-PQRT NETWORK

Cascaded Network

A Bl [A ' B'lTA" B*
c D ~ c/ rr C" D*
 hn h i2 ’ h 'n + h " i h i 2 + h i2
Series-parallel N etw ork
_h2 i ^22. _^21 + h^-j ^22 + ^22.

Qu g i2 g ii+ g i'i g i2 + g i2
Parallel-series N etw ork
,921 .921 + 921

Input Impedance

Vi
• If a load impedance Z L is connected to port 2 then Z in = | is called

input impedance.
hput Impedance in Terms o f Z-parameters

Short circuit input impedance (ZL -> 0) is

Open circuit input impedance (Z L -> °°) is

 ^ JJE T W O R K T H E O R Y ------------------
[198] _____ Terms of Transmission Parameters
Input Impedance
—
Z|n = czT+o
. Short Circuit input impedance (ZL -» 0)

• Open circuit input impedance (Z L -» is --------—

Input Impedance in Terms of Hybrid Parameters

h i2 ^ 2 1 ^ L
Z in = 11 1 + h2 2 Z L

Short circuit input impedance (Z L -» 0 ) is | Z ^

Open circuit input impedance (Z L -> °°) is

Output Impedance
If Z L is connected to input port 1 then Z o = V2 /l 2 is called output impedance

Output Impedance in Term of Z-parameters

If Z L is connected to input port 1 then Z o = V 2/l 2 is ca lle d output impedance

^1 1 ^ 2 2 ~ ^ 1 2 ^ 2 1 + Z22Zl
Z ii + Zl

• Short circuit input impedance (ZL -> 0) is _ Z iiZ 22 - Z 12Z21

O S ---------------------- y
Z 11
• Open circuit input impedance (Z L -> « ,) js
oo ~ z ~22

Output Impedance in Term of Transmission Parameters

7 - DZ|_ + B
J__c z,7 a
' Short circuit input impedance (Z , 0 ) is
Z os — T-
___ A
O pen circuit input impedance (Z
l S o °) is
| A D 0 ^ ------- AHANDBOQk ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [199]
ed an ce
1, a gelmP

If two im pedance Z n and Z i2 are such that Z h is driving point impedance

at port 1 with Z i2 connected to port 2 and Z i2 is driving point impedance
a t port 2 w ith Z n connected to port 1 then Z h and Z i2 are called image
impedance of the network.

Itnag* Im ped an ce *n Term s o f Short Circuit and Open Circuit Impedances

,^-H 'J ^ in o • ^ in s ’> •os

where, Z jno> Z jn 8 are open circuit and short circuit input impedances
respectively.
^00’ ^os are open circuit and short circuit output impedances
respectively.
 Magnetic Coupled Cir,

. The amount of magnetic coupling is expressed by coefficient of

cou plin g (k).

useful fluST
k ~ total flu x

For ideal circuits k = 1.

• For practical circuits, range of k is 0 < k < 1.

Leakage Factor

to ta l flu x
Leakage factor is given by Leakage fa c to r =
u se fu l flu x

» for ideal circuit it is equal to 1.

• a * for practical circuits it is always greater than 1.

Mutual inductance between two coils is

M—kA/L1L2
where M -> mutual inductance between the coils
L1 self inductance of first coil
L2 -> self inductance of second coil
k -4 coefficient of coupling
Dot Conventions
• When either both the currents arc e r ,•n 9 a t d o t t e d terminal■or io<avin9
the dotted terminal m , , , lea*™
the dotted terminal, mutual inductance will be added
versa then mutual in d u c t s J T ,'S e a v in 9 th e d o t t e d t e r m in a '°
 A Handbook on
Electronics Engineering

s
Control Systems
CONTENTS

1. Mathematical M od ellin g.............................................................204-208

2. Block D iagram ............................................................................. 209-212

3. Time Response Analysis of Control System...........................213-222

4 Stability A nalysis....................................................................... 223-228

5- State Space A nalysis............................................................... 229-231

Compensators.............................................................................. 232-234
 Mathematical M © ^

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Translational System
Mass

x = D isplacem ent of block M

where, F = Force on block M,
v = Velocity of block M M = Mass of block M

Damper

Spring
F = K(x1 - x 2 ) = K j (Vt - v 2 )dt
— kF

where, F = Spring force,xr x2 = Compression or expansion of spring

v r v 2 = Velocity at side 1 and 2, K = Spring constant
Rotational System
Inertia
String or rod

<<i>c9cT
^-rn—
i—
Damper

Spring twisted
 A HANDBO O K O N ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING____[205]

ANALOGY & FORCE CURPFm t * m * .

"V oltage Current Force Mass Torque

Series RLC Parallel RLC Damper Rotational
" V 1 F T
q 0 X 0
R____ 1/R f f
V Linear velocity Angular velocity
1/C 1/L K K
L C M ______ J______

5ERVO MOTORS

field Controlled DC M otor

• Block diagram

Dynamic equations
Corresponding equation
D ynam ic equations in
in s-domain
tim e dom ain
O• I d if Vf (s) = Rf lf (s) + sL f lf (s)
V ,= R f l1 + L( -

TM (s) = s2 J m e m (s )+ s ( n e m (s)

TM (S) = SJm “ m(s) +

dco
m dt
 CONTROL5YSTEMS
L?9«l

• Dynamic equations
Dynamic equations in Corresponding equation
time domain in s-domain

Va - eb = Ra ia + La Va (s) - E b (s) = Ra la (s) + sLa la (s)

U d0m (/
®b ~ ^b — ^b®m Eb (s) = sKb em (s) = K b <om

Tm = Ky>a Tm (s ) = K T la (s)

TM - J m d (2 + dt
Tm (s ) = S2 Jm em (s) + s ^ 0 m (s)

TM - J m +
dt TM (s) = sJm <om (s) + ^co rn (s)

AC Servomotor

Input
V c(t)
o
i Control
Winding

Ref. W inding
 [207]
1 Block d ia g ra m _
V,(S) „
* V c (s) w m (s)
3 (' + s T „)

dynamic e q u a tio n s

'Dynamic equations in
Corresponding equations
time domain
in s-domain
TM = m ^ + KVc
TM (s) = sm9m (s) + KVc (s)

TM —Jm If TM (s) = $
d t2

gener at or s__________
Separately Excited DC Generator
Rf if

Input
Vi °T
• Block d ia g ra m

v f (s) E(s)

• Dynamic e q u a tio n s

Related equations in Corresponding equations

time domain in s-domain

V ,= R (i, + L f J Vf (s) = Rflf(s) + sLflf(s)

e = Kgif _____ E(s) = Kg l,(s)___________

Separately Excited DC Generator Connected to Load
H 08] CONTROL SYSTEMS

• Block diagram

K IA _____
V,(s)
(Rf +sl.|)(Rt + R J V((s)
Dynamic equations

Related equations in Corresponding equations

time domain
in s-domain

, V,
L(S) = ^
 Block Diagram

t Pa NSFER f unc t io n
^nLooP

R(s) G(s) C(s)

□ Transferfunction

R(s) R(s) - Laplace transform of input

□ impulse response of a system
g(t) = c(t) where, g(t) = Inverse Laplace transform of G(s)
c(t) = Output of the system
Closed Loop Transfer Function

R(s)

^5 • Transfer function is always calculated with zero initial conditions.

EE) • Zero initial condition ensure the linearity.
• Highest power of S in the denominator of transfer function is called
order of the system.
• Transfer function is property of a system itself, independent of
magnitude and nature of input or driving function.
• It does not provide any information concerning the physical structure
of the system means physically different system can have same
transfer functions.
• Transfer function and impulse response function contain the same
information about the system dynamics._____ _________________ t
Block diagram reduction
Original Block Diagram Equivalent Block Diagram________

1. A /O\A-B+C A r X > a +C< x A-b >c

' HzxJ-------*
B| cF c‘I n
------------------- cl
2. ■
A
— - h
XTX
iY j A-B+C»
bF b'
_________ ____ _____ _—
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ — ---------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------- \

A block diagram has the advantage of indicating more

•
realistically the signal flows of the actual system.
* Block diagram of a given system is not unique.
• Feedback element in most cases is a sensor that measures the
output of the plant.
• The ratio of output C(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the
..__ feed forward transfer function.
Flow G raph
A signal flow graph represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic

^branch represents the functional dependance of one signal on

Anode adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits this

s um to all outgoing branches. ♦ ip

F or a given system, a signal flow graph is no
 ^ j pARP TEST SIGNALS
$ » p ^ cti<>n

r (t) = Au(t) where, u(t) = P t> 0

0 ; t< 0

Parabolic F u n c tio n

2
r(t) = ^At- u ( t )

Impulse Signal

5(t) = u(t)
S(t) = 0; t * 0~
+a
lim f 8(t)dt = 1
ct->0 J
-a
t’m e Response Analysis o f D iffe re n t Systems
Overall response of the system consists of summation of two responses.
|§ t r = C ' s s (t) + C t r (t)| where, C ss (t) = steady state response
_ C tr(t) = transient sate response
• Transient response only depends on the system component
and their layout not on input.
• Steady state response depends on both input as well as system
com ponents and their layout.
• Worse the transient response lesser will be the stability._____
 1 ,/T
□ Time response expression c(t) = £ " C(s) = 1 - e '

□ Error e(t) = r (t)-c (t) = e t /r

Settling time (ts ) = 4T when the actual output reaches within

2% of the desired value

Smaller the time constant T, faster w ill be system response

de
0/1T represent—
dt att=O

Subjected to Unit Ramp Input Function

□ Time response expression c(t) = ( t - T + T e " ^ )

a Error |e(t) = r(t) - C (t) = (T

Subjected to Unit Impulse Input Function

□ Time response expression c(t) =

—e
 ENGINEERING [215]
Physically first order system may represent a RC circuit,
' ' ‘’’‘‘I thermal system or the like.
Smaller the time constant T, smaller the steady state error for
ramp input.

> . Unit Impulse response = £ J ^ p re s p o n s e ]

w***3" . d
• Unit step response = ~ [unit ramp response]

• Unit ramp response = Integration of unit step response

• Unit step response = Integration of unit impulse response

• Above formulae are valid for linear time invariant system only.

TIME r es po n se o f s e c o n d o r d e r c o n t r o l syst em

__ Mn
* C (s )
s(s + 2^con )

C(s) _ to2
□ Transfer function R(s) s 2 + 2£<on s + o>2

Subjected to Unit Step Input Function

□ Time response expression
Case-1: £ .< 1; Underdamped oscillations
where, wn = Natural frequency of
c(t) = 1 - . -=sin(cod t + 0)
oscillations
tod = Damped frequency of
2 oscillations
0 = tan’ 1
£ = Damping ratio
Ccon = Damping factor

2
Q Damped frequency w d = © n
Response settles within 2% of the desired value (1 unit) after
*O7«
damping out the oscillations in a time 4T (or 4/£o)n).
Frequency of transient oscillations is the damped natural

frequencycod .
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
----------------------------------------— — ~---- —
216]
Sustained (undamped) Oscillations
Case-2: £ = 0;
|c (t)~ (1 -c o s a ) n t)

For C, = 0 the transient response does not dieout

If the linear system has any am ount of clam pjn |
undamped natural fre q u e n c y can n ot H p ^ 6 n|
b s e r^

Case-3: £ = 1; Critically Damped O scillations

Case-4: £ > 1 Overdamped Oscillations

□ Time constant of the response

For £ > 1 there will be neither undamped oscillation nor damped

oscillations.

TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER C O N T R O L SY S TE M

□ Rise time

□ Peak time
 tjA 5 Y ------ HANDBO O K ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [217]
A

Maximum overshoot
a
a Settling time

on 2% basis

on 5% basis

Two second order system having the same z but different o)n will

0 exhibit the same over shoot and same oscillatory response, such
system are said to have same relative stability.__________

Subjected to Impulse Input Function

□ Time response expression
Case-1: < 1

Case-2: £ = 1
c(t) =
Case-3: C, > 1
 [2181
imaginary saxis c 0 J e p ; = i .
Real axis c o r r e s p o n d s ^ -------
m ▲

Constant C, Locus
. where t t '^ a n d i^ a r e settling
"m e foZcormsponding systems
h a v in g ro o ts s ,. s 2 a n d 3

Constant o)n Locus

Here ts2 < ts1 and
• system having poles s 2 w ill be
m o re s ta b le th e n s y s te m
having poles s r

Constant o)d Locus

Here t s 3 < t s 2 < t s1

and o)n 3 > ©n 2 > con i

Decreasing order of stability will

be

S-| < S2 < Sg

Constant a Locus

Here |£, < f e ] ,

System with poles at s, will be

less stable than the system with
poles at s2 .
 [219]

Formulae for settling time is

system.
, critically dam ped system is fastest ,
overdamped and critically damped system 9 dam ped '

Steady State Error

Steady state error is caused by imperfection in the system components
deterioration and ageing of components. Y c o m P° n e n t s

R(s)

• So error E(s) depends on input as well as the system components

and their layout.
• Also depends on the type of system.

STATIC ERROR COEFFICIENTS___________________________________

Static Position Error C o e ffic ien t

Kd = lim G(s)H(s) . e ss = lim sR — — —

S-»0 s-»o 1+ G(s)H(s)

Static Velocity E rror C o e ffic ien t K v = lim sG(s)H(s)

s - > o __________

lim s 2 G(s)H(s)
Static Acceleration E rror C o efficien t K aa = s-»0

Steady State Error fo r S tep, Ram p an d Parabolic Input for Different Number
Type of System __________ _________
 cont r pl SY^t ems
-1 * TyP ! icapab’ e of tracking ramp and parabolic inP u
bu
J . ?; rp u S ’s capable of tracking step input w i l h

error, ramp input with finite error but incapable of

. Type Tsystern ^ c a p a b le of tracking step and ramp in p u ,

zero error and parabolic input with f o t e error.

. Type greater or equal to 3 is capable of tracking step, ramp
parabolic input with zero e r r o r . .

• Peak overshoot (Mp ) increases

• Rise time (tr ) decreases.
• Peak time (tp ) decreases.
Effect of adding a zero to open loop transfer fu n ctio n o f 2n d order system
• If zero is added very near to origin then dam ping of the system
worsens.
• If zero is added far from origin then dam ping of the system improves
Proportional-plus-integral plus proportional d e riv a tiv e control action
It is combination of proportional control, integral control and derivative
control. Its transfer function is
7 < \1 where, K = gain of proportional controller i
H(s) - K p p + — + Td sJ integral t i m e

Td -> Derivative tim e

• It improves both transient as well as steady state response.
PD Controller
It is a combination of proportional and derivative controller. ’

Effect of PD controller

PI Controller P d ln ,tia ,ly unstable system.

It is combination of proportional o
a an d ‘ntegral controllers.

Its transfer function is H(s) = K 1+ _1_

P “T*_
Ts
 j^ A S Y ------- ^ ^ B O O K o N el ect
£ff0 ct Of PI controller " — ’^^engineer ing [221]

, im proves c la m p in g a n d re d u c e s m
, D ecreases b a n d w id th . m a xim u m ove rsh o o t

, Filters o u t h ig h fr e q u e n c y n o is e
, c irc u it is s m a lle r.
. im proves g a in m a rg in a n d p h a s e
■• I•

5BN5ITIVITY
w h e re S K A = S e n s itiv ity o f v a ria b le A w ith re s p e c t to
C pAM
* ~ 3K/K p a ra m e te r K
, is p re fe ra b le th a t th e s e n s itiv ity ( u n c t io n s
sensitivity of overall transfer function mi i . K u ld b e m inim um ,
transfer function G(s) (s ) W lth aspect to forward path

gM _ G (s) 3M (s) _
For open lo o p c o n tro l s y s te m G M (s) 'd G ( s ) ~ 1

For clo sed lo o p c o n tro l s y s te m Sq = --------

1 + G (s )H (s )
1__
Sensitivity of overall transfer function M(s) with respect to feedback path
transfer function H(s)

M
G (s )H (s )
H 1 + G (s )H (s )

CONTROL ACTIONS
Proportional C o n tro lle r

M (s)
Kp ►—
s(s + 2£(Dh)

' <on in cre a s e s b y

^d e c re a s e s b y

’ in cre a se s
Steady s ta te e rro r r e d u c e s
 [ 2 2 2 ] _____________ CONTROLSYSBMS----------------
1 1 ' , Q p n s i e Stability decreases.
• Transient response wors . . amplifier with an a d ju s ts
. Proportional controller is essentially an p justa b le

Derivative Controller
E(s) r — MJ S )

R(s) — kDs ► s(s + 2 iX )

• Type and order of the system reduces by one

• Oscillations has died out hence transient response improves
• Not used in isolation
• Steady state error increases.
Integral Controller

M(s)
R(s) A
s
F — F C(s)
7k S(S + 2 ^ )

Increases type and order by ‘1’

Makes the system less stable
Steady state error reduces
Improves the steady state response

■■■I
 Stability Analysis

WhC e S y S t S m W i" in ’ in it e S ta te in f i" it e t im e

h a° X s * called
stability analysis.
□ Asymptotic Stability
A h S ,e t Z j ‘ f ? U t a n y
? in P
h a V i n 9 S O m e i n i t i a l condition is said

to be stable >f response decays to zero regardless of magnitude of

initial conditions.
□ Stability Criteria
Characterization of transient response behaviour.

If all the characteristic roots lie in the left half of S-plane then system
is said to be stable.

If there are repeated roots on J o axis and/OR there is any root in

right half of S-plane system will be unstable.

If there are non repeated roots on Jco axis and no root lie on right half of
S-plane then this is marginally stable or marginally unstable system.

nmt • Routh array gives the absolute stability but it fails to provide
information about relative stability of two system.
Oscillator is a m arginally stable system.
• Routh array test is in ap plicab le to irrational transfer functions.

ROOT LOCUS____________________ __________ _

• Always sym m etrical about real axis
I1 Root locus points always aw ay from open loop poles and towards zero

or infinity
* Root locus is a tim e dom ain technique.
’ It gives the path tra ce d by the root as a parameter (usually gain K)

varies.
Q Characteristic equation
j +Gi(s) H(s) = ~ 0 ]; ||G ( s jH ( s ) H | magnitude criteria

]zG (s) H( s ) = (2 q +1)180°] angle criteria where q = 0 .1 ,2 ,3

 ^^C O K TR O L S Y S T E M S ^AD je
[224]
----------— - (p - 2)
Num ber ^ T S b r a n c h e s term in atin g at zeros
a
w tle r e - Number of branches term in atin g at infinity
(P ' p Number of open loop poles
=

Angle of Asym ptotes

(2q + 1)180° [when K varies from 0 to

B = P ^Z

□ Centroid real part of open>

real part of open j _
x loop poles J __ _
loop zeros I

OA = —

R0 0 t s of — = 0 gives Breakaway or breakin point

ds
□ Angle of Departure [fc = 180° + $] (When K varies from o to-)

□ Angle of Arrival |$A = 1 8 0 ° - $ ] (When K varies from 0 to ~)

where 0 = D|>z - S4>P

0 = Sum of all the angles sub ten de d by remaining zeros
<t»p = Sum of all the angle subtended by poles
*
• Out of two criterion angle criteria is m ore significant in the
" | sense that any value of S that satisfy the m agnitude criteria
may not satisfy the angle criteria but any value of S that satisfies
angle criteria will satisfy m agnitude criteria.
► Angle criteria is sufficient to provide com p le te root locus.
► Centroid always lies on real axis also ca lle d centre of gravity d
the root locus.
► Centroid will not exist if (P - Z) < 1.

• Breakaway point always lies on the root locus

■ « « « I" * »

• »=««« »„ * , aiv,„ by . s
II I.
Finding value o f K M P h ^S o rJo n g ttis •fr o m p o fe )
----- P a s o r ie ngthsl7orn zeroa)
^ e e a s y - f l - H A -N D B 0 - 0^ ^
w ith + v e f e e d
w J tem back or w h en K is v a rv in T f
5y . All the rules based on magnitude c X m ’ " t0 Z e r°'

All the rules based nn an 1 e r i a remains same.

. All the rules oased on angle criteria changes
Changed rules a re :
t Root locus includes the real axic eo
are even number of poles and zeros'7 1 6 0 1 l ° t t l e r *9 h t w h ic h th e r e

A n gle of A sym ptotes

where, q = 0 , 1 ,2 ,3

Angle of D ep artu re
<f)D = E angle subtend by all zeros.
- E angle subtended by remaining zeros.

Angle of A rrival

<|>a = 2 angle subtended by all the poles

—E angle subtended by remaining zeros.

Effect of A dding Poles on th e Shape o f Root Locus

• The complex part of root locus has tendency to shift towards right
side.
• The range of K for which system is stable decreases which makes
system relatively less stable.
• The addition is some what equivalent to applying integral control to
system.

Effect of A dding Z e ro on th e Shape o f Root Locus

• Complex part of root locus has a tendency to shift towards left site.
• The range of K for which system is stable, increases that is system
becomes relatively more stable.
• Adding zero is somewhat equivalent to applying derivative control.

BODE pl o t
* It is frequency domain technique for analysing a system.
* It is semilog plot.
It is mapping of +ve half of imaginary axis to G(jro) H(jco) p ane.
This is applicable to minimum phase system only. „ to r c in th o
‘ Hgives clearly the gain and phase contribution of various factors in

t Ransfer function.
Bode plots are also called corner plots.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
[2 2 6 L

□
- cross over f re qu e n c y

W pc _> p h a s e c r o s s o v e ^ e d ^ ____________________

s w • For stable systems

Gain cross over frequency < phase crossover frequency
•J L . g .M. and P.M. both are positive
• For unstable systems
Gain cross over frequency > phase crossover frequency

G.M. and P.M. both are negative

• For marginally stable systems
Gain cross over frequency = Phase crossover frequency
G.M. and P.M. both are zero

no t *
When a pole on real axis is added, head of polar plot shifted
by 90° in clockwise direction, and tail rem ains the same.
At
"
corner frequencies
- ■ - —
there is error of 3dB for--------------------------------------------------
first order term.J
G.M. and P.M. for Second Order System

□ Gain crossover frequency |© gc = (on

□ Phase margin -M- - tan 1

« 1 (M

□ Radius of M-circles Radius

L-—Z V M 2
 EASY a h a ndbo o k q n
1 — R27)

j centre of M-cIrcles Centre M*

g jANT PHASE ANGLES LOCI (N-CIRCLFM

□ Radius of N-circles Radius »

□ Centre of N-circles Centre = J Jl

2 ' 2N

iV2
□ Cut-off frequency w c

□ Bandwidth B.W. = (oc

OND ORDER SYSTEMS

0(8) <0n
2 Transfer function R(s) s 2 + 2 £ a ) n s + con

Resonant frequency

Resonant peak

Phase angle at resonant frequency

 COffTROlJXSTEMl-----------------------
I?28J _— — — z e ro ,, u) a p p r o a c h e s " ^ )
."A s approach® 5 Z 0 >n a n ^
approaches infinity.
. For 0 < V ■ l h e r 0 S O n a r " r e q U ®n C y a l w a ys ha v
v L Jth a n ^ a n d th e re s c n a n tp e a k h a v e a v ^ ^

than 1______ _________ _ ■— F/

Nyquist Plot and Stability Criteria

• It is best stability criteria. m
. It is mapping of imaginary axis of S -p la n e to b (s )H (s ) plane.
• This maDDinq is unique.
. Closed contour on S-plane does not in clu d e a n y p o le (open |O o ,

,ompnt of (- 1 + i°) P ° i n t i n c l o c k w l s e Action.

N -> Number o f e n c i■r c ^
o t e s o n the right half of S-plane.
Z _> Number of closed P r i g h t h alf of S-plane.
p _ Number of p o l e s o p e ^ , ^ = _ p
. For system to be stao of / -| + jO) p o in t m ust be equal to'

• For minimum phase system N yquist stab ility criteria says that
F'-- :j there should be no encirclem ent of ( - 1 + jO) point.

• For minimum phase system polar plot is su fficie n t to investigate

whether or not the closed loop system is stable.
• It is applicable to both minimum and non m inim um p h a se system. |

■I I I
ueral r epr esent at ion of STat -
a state equation [ x ^ A x T f q —

0 Output equation [yJ^C xJ^D u]

where,
* = Velocity vector (n x 1) State vector ( n x 1 )
j = Input vector (m x 1) 2
Output vector ( p x 1 )
A = System matrix (n x n) Input matrix (n x m)
C = Output matrix (p x n) D 2
Transmission matrix (p x m)
n = Number of state va ria b le s D
Z
Number of outputs
m = Num ber of inputs
Eigen value of system matriY~AT^7-------------------------------.
A
f roots of system

. in state s p a c e representation we can deal with m a n y i n p u t and

many output at sa m e ttme w hich is practical situation in industries

State Space Representation in Canonical Forms

• Suppose we have system with transfer function

b
IY(s) = = oS n + b iS n - ’ + b g S "- 2 + + bn
U(s) Sn + a ^ -1 + a 2 S n " 2 + .... + a n
 C0NTR0LSXSBM5
[230]

Xi " b n -a A -
-S n
bn-i ~ flo-ibp

- f l 2
-a , J *n J L ^ -^ b o

Xi

01] + bou
y = [0 o

!_Xn J

State Transition Matrix

a +— A?t 2 A3t 3
0(t) = e AAt =1 + At
3

In order to find state transition we use follow ing form ulae

0(t) = L- 1 [(sl —A )] - 1 where L~1 means inverse Laplace transform.

Properties of state-transition matrices

• ,0(0) = 1 (I -> identity m atrix)

• 0(t 1 + y = 0 ^ ) . 0(t2 ) = 0(t2 ) 0(1,)

• [0(t)] n = 0(nt)
0(t2 - t , ) ^ , - t0 ) = 0(t2 - t0 ) = 0(t 1 - t 0 ) 0(t 2 - t,)
. e (A+B)t = e AT e BT jf A B = B A

• e<A + B * * eAT e BT if BA # AB
Solution of state equations
State equations is

x ( , ) = e a 'x ( 0 ) + e « ] e - «
Solution is b u (T )d T

--------- ------- — 0
Controllability

: A n ~1 b] w h ere Q r = C ontrollability
m atrix (n x nm )
 ptEA S Y A H A N D B O O K ONELECTRo N |CS ENGINEERING [231]

^ d it io n for state controllability

Qc 0 .... (M atrix be non singular)

Observability

where Q “ O bservability test matrix (n x nm)

o

Condition for state observability

Op Q •••• (M atrix be non singular)

Another form to ch e ck observability is

CA

CA n ’ 1

• Qo must have rank n for system to be observable.

Condition for output controllability

Qc = [CB:CAB:CA 2 B:-...‘..... CAn~1 B:D]

» The m atrix CL of order px(n + 1)m should have rank p for completely
w
output controllable.

□ Transfer function
 Lead Compensator
Electrical circuit for this is

Hi
O----- ----- WvV

Here,

• It improves transient response of the system.

LAG Compensator
Electrical circuit for this is

V p(s) = 1+ Ts
R1
TrfVT I v Vj(s) 1 + pTs
t 2
V,(s) f v^s)
where,
C

1 o-
T 1

-------------------------------- 1---------------- 0

• It improves steady state characteristic.

Lead-Lag Compensator

V0 (s) ct(14-TjS) (1 + TpS)

V,(s) (1 +•gT^H U pTgS )

Q R 1+ f k
R ^R ; * p

T2 = RgC;

• Pole-zero plot for above circuit to be used as compensator must be

1 ggA§X A.HANDBOOK ON EL
E g R O N ICS ENGINEERING [233]

---M----- 0— 0 — M---- - ►
- 1 - 1 - 1 -*R 0
«T I Tl T2 PT,

• Lead compensator is equivalent to adding zero to the system.

• Lag compensator is equivalent to adding pole to the system.

Operational A m plifier Circuit th a t may be Used as Compensators and

Controllers______________________
Control Transfer Operational amplifier
function circuit
action
■
of >

l y
cr cc
cr cr

i >“
•'T CO

P
-

c2

R4 1
I r3r& s
4 I
C 2 R 2 r

rm

PD 5i . ^ ( r ,c ,s + i )
h3

3 3 T s.

Pl R4 r 2 R2C2S +1 V' ^ ^ Z vq
R3 r 1 r 2c 2s
 s+a
Camper satc< **r tne form G(s) = will work as lead compen:
s+b
• a < b and sag compensator if a > b.
^e o ja n cy at M x h maximum phase lead occurs is gj = Tab rad/sec
r
 A Handbook on
Electronics Engineering

Ml
I— — -------n)

V
~L
Electromagnetic Theory
CONTENTS

1. Co-ordinate System and T ransfo rm a tion..................................... 236-238

2. Vector C alculus 239-242

3. Electrostatic Field .................................................................... 243-248

4. Magnetostatic Field 249-252

5. Maxwell’s E quations 253-255

6- Electromagnetic W ave Propagation ...... 256-260

...... 261-264
Transmission L in e ................................
...... 265-268
8 Antennas................................................
 C 0 .o r d ln a t 2 ^ 2 2 ^ ± ^ h

_____________________ ___ __________

• A vector drawn from the origin to an arbitrary point P(x, y, z) is called the
position vector of point P
□ Position vector of any arbitrary point (x, y, z)

f = xix + y iy + z iz
□ Displacement vector

d / = dx ix + dy iy + dz iz dl = 7(dx) 2 + (dy) 2 + (dz)2

□ Unit vector

□ Differential length elements dx ix . dy iy i dz iz

dS = dy dz ix
□ Differential normal surface areas dz dx iy
dx dy iz
□ Differential volume [d v T d x ^ T d T ]
L H tgf ^ H A N D B Q Q K - - EL -E ^ I R QNICS ENGINEERING [237]
< ^ l c o -o r dinat e s y s t em^ z)
INE>----------------------- 4 1 --------------------------
z = constant = c
(a, a, c)

0 = constant = a 0 < r<oo

o

x r
r = constant = a

'z a r e m utually perpendicular unit vectors drawn at a

x _X

□ Position v e c to r o f an a rb itra ry po in t P(r, z ) IT T F iT ^ r

□ D is p la ce m e n t v e c to r

d/ = drir + rd(|)i0 + dziz » d/ = 2 + (rd<j>)2 + (dz) 2

□ D ifferential le n g th ele m e n ts dr >r . rd<|> i*. dz i2

dS = r d<> dz ir
dr dz i^
□ D iffere ntia l n o rm a l s u rfa c e areas
r d<) dr iz

□ D iffere ntia l v o lu m e ld v _ ^ rd r_ d £ d z
(M 8) ELECTROMJWNETICTHEOHV--------- _

. i A a n d i ^ " ' u lu ^ ^ ^
at a point P(r, 9. 0) ,
□ Position vector of an arbitrary point

□ Displacem ent vector __ ___________

s k l0 d 1
Td/I- 1Odor' • (fhifioXyi
d / = dr ir +rdGioj H ^ J‘L ’ - ____ *

. r3 rV fd o l(h r ninO cfy i

□ Differential length elements |

dS = r H int)do (

r e ln O d f d i ,
□ Differential normal surface areas
r dr dO ■
- - ........... ♦

□ Differential volume d v » r 2 sin0 dr do d0

Relationships Between Different Sets of Coordinates

Cartesian Cylindrical Spherical

x, y.z r, ♦. z r, e ,»
Cartesian x = r cos0 x ■ r slndcos0
x,y,z y = rsin<|) y = rsinosin0
z=z z = rcoso

Cylindrical r = 7x 2 + / rc = rc sin0

r, 0,z 0 = tan-1 — 0=0

X
z=z z = r cose
r = ^/x2 4-y2 + z2
Nno

Spherical
II

y2 4. X
9 = tan- 1 - /------ v2-
r.M 0 = tan-1 —
z z
0 = tan- 1 X
0=0
X

In above table rc is for cylindrical co-ordinate system and r for sphencal

co-ordinate system. s
 Vector Calculus

^ 5 2 ^ ------- _ _ _ _ _
4 p r5 uCt
g Dot product of vector A and vector B

a -b = A B cose

g Cross product of vector A and vector B

—* — *
A xB = A B sine ■l n

Where i n = Unit vector in the direction of perpendicular to A

Remember: • A x B = -B x A A •
__ AxB^ xC = Ax(I BxC)
>
ScalarTriple Product

A x (B x C) = B - ( 0 x a )-C -(A x B)

Differentiation of Vectors

If A — A x ix + Ay iy + A z iz

dA = dA x ix + d A y iy + dA z iz

• But it is not similar in cylindrical and spherical co-ordinate

g system.
dA * dA r i0 + d Az iz
and dA * d A r ir + dA0 ie + d A0 „

’’^dient

Gradient is an
results a vector function. . t uf i r Q ninn
The magnitude of this vector function' th e s c a |a r
of the scalar field is the maximum ra
function at that point. .------- ---------- ------- '
 1240] , S S i w S t S t point is the d i r e c t ^
or

of increase occurs ---- ----------------- ------ t

this maximum rate
n Gradient of scala
, h A = W, V is said to the scalar potential of A .

dV 3V . f")\7
VV = - - lx + - - Iyy + x*
In Cartesian co-ordinate system dx dy ;Jv

3V. 1 dV
VV = - - I r + ! + dV
In Cylindrical co-ordinate system ' <
In Spherical co-ordinate system~
-------- 3V. l3 V i ._ J _ _ ^ i
W = 3r *r +
r 36
0 r sin 6 3<|> *

Del Operator
3 . 3_. d_.
In Cartesian co-ordinate system - ’« + 'y + V

„ 3 . 13 . j -
V = — L 4 - ——L + — i
In Cylindrical co-ordinate system dr r d0 3z

„ _ 3 . 1 3 . 1 3
In Spherical co-ordinate system 3r r 36 0 r sin 6 3^’

Divergence
• The divergence of A at a point P is the outward flux per unit volume as
the volume shrinks about P.

Divergence of a vector is a scalar.

Concept of divergence is valid at a point.

□ Divergence of vector A

a . ds” w h e re ' A = Vector quantity

Div.A = V • A = lim - s------- Av = Infinitesimal volume -
_______ av-*0 Av
s = C losed surface
ds h
■■J

In Cartesian co-ordinate system V ■A = 3AX 3Ay 3AZ

3x 3y
 ■ rvlindrical co-ordinate system [241]
i n ,---------- - --
V A = - JL (r a \ ,1 ^Aa 3 a~

•, ~
Spherical co-ordinate system
h
------- ~
A 1
v a =t —
r dr rsine ae (s in 6 A«) +—L - ^ i
~a v < ^ ~ 7 7
properties of divergence of rsinG

Divergence T h e o r e m ————2_ILJ
. The total outward flux of a vector field a ,h
the same as the volume integral of the divergence^ S U r ,a c e S is

. f l ' A)dv = o^A- ds

. Where the integration is performed throughout the volume V bounded

by s.
Curl

« Curl of a vector is another vector

□ Curl of vector A

(6 A d/
V x A = lim where, As = Infinitesimal area
-------
As —
>0 AS
Ac = Periphery
• As the divergence of a vector is associated with a point in space, the
curl of a vector is also associated with a point in space.

□ Important identities involving curl

y .( V x A )= ~ 0 ~ |; | V x V A = 0

Properties of the curl

x (A + B) = V x A + V x B ] ; | V x ( V A ) ° W x A + W x A |

S lo ^es T h e o re m

^h e emulation of vector field A around a closed path L is equal to the

Surf ace integral of the curl of A over the open surface s bounded by L,

Provided A and V x A are continuous on s.

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
----- ■ - — *■ ■— - ■» . —

LW ]
Laplacian (Va )
Laplacian of Scalar
• The Laplacian of a scalar field V is the divergence
A /C gradient of V,
• Laplacian of a scalar results in a scalar ______

[LaplacianV * V 2 V * V.V V |

In Cartesian co-ordinate system

In Cylindrical co-ordinate system

In Spherical co-ordinate system

v 2v = l |
f
2 av
dr
1 d
s in e — +
___ 1 (& }
r dr r2 sin0 30 30 r 2 sin 2

• A scalar field V is said to be harmonic in a given region if its Laplacian

vanishes in that region.

V2 V = 0
Laplacian of Vector
• The Laplacian of vector A is the gradient of divergence of A minimuni
curl of curl of A.
pV 2 A = V ( V - A ) - V x V x A

Solenoidal and Irrotational Vectors

• A vector A is solenoidal if its divergence is zero.

• A vector A is irrotational if its curl is zero.

 Electrostatic Field

AND F IE L P INTENSITY

Ij '5 Law
r rrP
g P0l^e between two point charges

where, F12 - Force on charge Q2 due to Q 1

Ha = Ri2 = r2 - f ,

g 0 = permittivity of free space

Field Intensity
• The electric field intensity (or electric field strength) E is the force per
unit charge when placed in an electric field

□ Electric field due to continuous charge distribution

p- f Pl1217 L
Line charge

Surface charge

„ c _ f pv udv
Pv v .
- — - 2t Ir
Volume charge L Jv4 7 t€ o R
 Y--------------
ELK T RPJ^T'CTHEO«
IJZ— —J__________ — —

A Line Charge intensity due to infinitely long line charge

□ Electric field
Pl
E = —~ —r 'f Line charge
2n e0 P
7------->
= Charge per unit length
where
= Line charge density c/m

A S □ E lZ d intensity due to infinitely charge long sheet

E - ■P — in w h e re Ps =
surface charge density, C/m 2
2e0 '

fo r z > z 0
2e0
E= <
If sheet is on xy plane z = z0 fo r z < z 0
2 6 o

< / In a parallel plate capacitor, the electric field existing between

p _ P$ .
the two plates having equal and opposite charges c ~ ~ ’n

A Volume Charge
□ Electric field intensity due to uniformly with charged sphere

3eo P o 'r '

Where, p o = Volume charge density
a3 .
3 e o r2 p ° 'r ' r>a
a = R adius of sphere

ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY

• Also called electric displacement

□ Electric flux = Js D <dS

GAUSS'S LAW
 -------■ R - j R z A A j i v
first equation

£LgrTRK POTENTIAL
□ potential d ifferen ce

Movement of a test charge in an electric field

i

V - Q where, VAB -Potential difference between

R

V AB “
i

4A K Go the points A & B

i

w ab = W ork done by the field in

V _ W AB _ [ moving a test charge q from
Va b - - - J
A to B
_ ______z a
d / = In fin ite s im a l le ng th of
segments
'k z • The n e g a tiv e sig n in above equation indicates that the work
I '\ f~ is b e in g d o n e by an external agent.
***** * v ab ,s negative, there is a loss in potential energy in moving
c h a rg e Q fro m A to B i.e. the field does the work.

□ Potential at a point P d u e to point charge

where, V(r) = Potential at a distance
V(r) = j E d Z = - f E d 7 r from the point charge
r ©o r= d is ta n c e of point P
from point charge
i/
The p o te n tia l at a n y point is the potential difference beh^een
that p o in t a n d a ch o se n point (or reference point) at wh.ch

po tential is zero. V = - -------- 7

4 k Go r
 For static aiectrc * ~
Relation between d e c tr k

Poisson s Equation

ELECTRIC DIPOLE

but opposite sign are seed-

□ Dipole moment

□ Electric field intensity due to electric dipo e

Od
E = ----------(2cos©ir ^Sinei^)
4 k €q r

E= — 2 cos 9 i, + sinet^) j

ENERGY DENSITY IN ELECTROSTATIC FIELD

□ Electrostatic energy density w e = = -1 0 £

*- w-

□ Total electrostatic energy = 1 1* o E dv

_____ 2 2IfA
CONDUCTOR_____________
• A perfect conductor (a = c a n n ^ a )n a n

Inside a conductor
l E = a .p » - ° - V - > = 2 ] where, Vf c = ^ d iffe re n t » W * *
P te l

points a and b in the conducted

 joule's law
'"here, J = Current
^tinuity Equation

r ; apy
V-J- 3 t Note: Fo r
steady current = 0
at
boundar y c o n d it io n s
pjelectric-dietectric Boundary Condition

Ei - E1t + E 1n where,

^ E + E2n E v E2 = Fields in media 1 and 2 respectively

2t
Et , En = tangential and normal components of E
Tangential Component Relation

D u _ ^2t
E-lt - ^ 2 t
e
2

^0rnn£Component Relation
j \ £ P ^ = ps | where, e 1 & e 2 = permittivity of dielectric 1 and 2
p = free charge density placed
deliberately at the boundary

& • The tangential component of E is continuous while that of Dis

.I x discontinuous at boundary.
• Tk ■ t of n is continuous while that of E is
The normal com ponent of □ is c
discontinuous at b o u n d a r y . _____________ —
 g| E ^ O M A G N E T K T H g g g V --------------------

tf no free charges exists at the Interface

Conductor-Dielectric Boundary Conditions

Dt = e Et - 0 | and Dn = e En = p s

’i
4> Magnetostatic Field

^AVART'S l aw

0 Ma9n e t i c f’e , c * 'density

dH (in word)
it Field Intensity for Distributed Current Sources

IdZx r
Line c u rre n t J . -3
l r

KdSx r
Surface c u rre n t J . -3 where, K = surface current density
s 4n r

Jdv x r
Volume c u rre n t . -3 where, J = volume current density
V 4 jc r

AMPERE'S CIRCUIT LAW

The line integral of m ag ne tic field intensity around a closed path is the

same as the net cu rre n t enclosed by the path oH .d/ = len ciosed

Maxwell’s third e q u a tio n V xH = J

Q' • The m a g n e to s ta tic field is not conservative

“*<*)»/ As V xH = J*0

lr
Magnetic field intensity due to infinite line curr ----- 2 n r
 where, in = Unit normal, K = uniform current density

MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY____________ ___________

B = m0H where, p0 = permeability of free space.

V = j B.dS
□ Magnetic flux through a surface S
s

MAGNETIC SCALAR AND VECTOR POTENTIALS

The magnetic potential could be scalar Vm or vector K

' • Important identities which must always hold for any scalar
p field V and vector field a ■

V x (V V ) = 0
V.(V X A) = o
Magnetic Scalar Potential (Vnr)

The magnetic scalar potential is only defined in a region where J = 0

Vector Magnetic Potential a

A = [EoldZ
For line current
[ 4nR
 Ahandbo o ko ne^ ^ ^ ,
en g n eer |NG p si
I " ’ —

fo t surface current 4 ,tR

s

po r volume cu rre n t

^gnetic Flux Through a Given Area V =£A j/

___________
Poisson’s equation

FORCES DUE TO MAGNETIC R E ID

for« on a Charged Particle --------------------------
□ Magnetic force
W h e re R ^y® lo c ,ty o f m o v i ‘ng Charge Q
Fm = Q ( u x B )
□ Electric force agnetic field

where, Q = electric charge

Fe = QE
E = electric field intensity
For a m oving c h a rg e Q in the presence of both electric and
magnetic fields

Lorentz Force Equation F = Fe + Fm = q (e + u x b '

Force on a Current Element

□ Force on a current carrying conductor
where, id / =Current element of current carrying
conductor
’ The m agnetic fie ld is d e fin e d as the force per unit current element.

MAGNETICt o r q u e a n d mag net ic mo ment

 where, a re a o f 'he ioo „
□ M agnetic torque f*

Normal com ponent relation Bin - ^2 n

s , • The tangential component of H is continuous while that ol Bis

~ A j~ discontinuous at boundary.
• T h e normal component of B is continuous while that of H is

tan 9,
discontinuous at boundary.
ta n e 2 M2

MAGNETIC ENERGY
□ M agnetostatic energy density

wm = l i m = - u H2 - 1 r H - B 2
av-,0 a v 2k 2 B M ~ 2u

□ Total m agnetic energy Wm = I f B H d v = i f g H 2 dv

 Maxwell's Equations

^TRODUCTION

• Static
• Steady currents M a n rw -------- --

FARADAY'S L A W f ie ld fo r w a y e s ^

r F e induced emf (V ~ ~ --------- ---------------------

change of the m agnetic flux |i n k a g e b y ™ t h e time rate of

TRANSFORMER A N D M O T IO N A L ELECTROMOTIVE FORCES

Stationary Lo o p in T im e -v a ry in g M ag n etic Field
□ Transformer emf

□ Maxwell’s equation for time-varying field Vx E 3t |

6 V a r Ving
*M0V"f~
j im electric field E is not conservative (V x E * 0)

□ ^ ° ° P *n $ t a t ’ c M agnetic Field
o t *°nal electric field
where, Fm = Force on charge moving with
uniform Velocity u, in a magnetic field
^ = uxB
 ,j |i noMAGNHI< IIICOItY
r ( l

□ Motional anil of flu* onliltiu w ,l,

V PIIH J ' ■

□ Moving loop In Ilme-varylng IM'I

V , 4 f ' < " '• !'"n
v rtinl J J (ft •'
I, . .... - ■

V x g* V x ( iix l i)
dl 1 - /

DISPLACEMENT CURRENT ___

□ Displacement current density

MAXWELLS EQUATIONS IN FINAL FORMS__________

Maxwell's Equation for Static Electric and Magnetic Fields

Differential
Integral Form Rem arks
(or Point form)
V D -p r f D - d S - J p / lv
v G auss's law
S v

VB =0 <j)0 dS = O Nonexistence of
s m agnetic monopole

V xE = 0 tj)E d l - 0 Conservative of
i electrostatic field
V x H .J <fH-dl = J j dS
A m pere's Law
i s
Maxwell's Equation for Time-varying Conditions

D lflbiantidF biD integral Form Remarks

V D=p v f t > dS = J P v dv
___S v Gauss's law
VB =0 dS = 0 Nonexistence of
___s isolated magnetic charge
r-y r- <)0
v xE » ----- ^ E d l = - ~ fB d S
dt
i «t i F arada/slaw >
V
V7x H t)D
i_l ^ JI+ —■ H
dt
f d l4
( ^ fjd s ’
. i____ JJV dt ) Ampere’s circuit law
 1255]

gv!Ng POTENTIALS
tfA
E = -V v - —
_________ St

n tz
condition for potentials ^V.A = - n 6

- ^ jrm h a rm o n ic Held is one that varies periodically or sinusoidally with________ _ ________

time.
A = Re {A s e*“ '
Phasor form of vector A is A s (x, y, z)

fi|W
Harmonic M axw ell's Equation

Point Form Integral Form

V •D s —pvs i oD s -dS= jp vsdv |
VB =O 1
S <£Ba dS =0

V x E s = -jw B s 1 |E s dl=-j<ofB s dS

V xH s = Js + j<oDs 1oHs -dl = (Js + j<oDs )d S

in t r o d u c t io n
in general, waves are means of transporting energy or i n f o r m ^

t /
• Various conciiuoi is >■
• Free space : o = 0> e = e o- r a 0 )6
. Lossless dielectrics : cr = 0. °

• Loss dielectrics : o * °
Good conductors: a ~ G = e0,o r ° = 0 )6

co is the angular frequency of t h e w a v e -------------- J

WAVE PROPAGATION IN LOSSY DIELECTRICS

□ Vector wave equations

2
For E field ; For B field V 2 H S -
? h, <
where, y = propagation constant of the medium

□ Propagation constant

y = a + jp and where, a = attenuation constant

y 2 = jcog(o + jw e) p = phase constant

□ Intrinsic impedance

e = ^ ta n - 1
n
where

□ Wave number
(o _ 2n where, u _ wave velocity
u “ T
= wave length
 i ENGINEERING 1257]

0 Loss tangent tane =

q where, 6 = loss angle
_________ CD G tan e = loss tangent

□ Complex Permittivity

where,
e' = g
= re a l c o m p o n e n t of
com plex permittivity
e" = o / cd = im a g in a ry com p on en t of permittivity

□ Loss tangent tanO = — = _£_

_______ cd e

E S I N L 0 S S L E S S P IE L E C T R IC S
ri f# !^
77^7 In lossless dielectric; o « toe
r. =
CD
u= —

—Z 0 °; E and H are in time phase with each other

pl ane waves in f r ee space

11 In free space 0 = 0, e = e 0 , P- = Ho |
l------- w 1 a 2n
a =o , p = o 4 ^ =- ; • u = ^ = tX = T
Rmimi * * c

Bo =
where, iK = direction of wave propagation

PLANE WAVES IN GOO D CONDUCTORS

€— ~~ —r
*i
In good conductor, o

a = p=
Z
45°
CD
2<o , 2 ir- • n = N0 _
u= — P'
 “X depth is a measure of the depth to which an EM wa v e

1
— *
1■ /
rtfgG a
<1

The skin depth is useful in calculating the ac resistance

skin effect.

□ Surface or skin resistance

PQYNTING'S THEOREM__________ ______________________

• This theorem states that total power entering into a closed surface is
dissipated in volume.
• The instantaneous ohmic power dissipated in volume V.
• Time rate of change of increase of energy of electric and magnetic
fields which are going to be stored in the volume.
That is

• Average power density for a EM wave moving in z-direction having E

field in x-direction and B-field in y-direction.

Above equation is written for lossless If

For general medium power density is medium.

— 1 E2
Fb = 2 M L 9 " 2“ C ° S e n ®2

where, n = no ej0n
 . cy A HANDBOOK ON El P r m « ____

, j o n Coefficient (O
gei
VVhere Tip ^2 a r e i n t r i n sic impedances of medium p a h
• a c t i v e l y and wave is incident from medium i t o medium™

A |So for lossless and non magnetic medium

Transmission Coefficient (t )

for general medium

for lossless and non magnetic medium

W * Reflection coefficient changes the magnitude and phase of

A /; reflected wave with respect to incident wave.
• Transmission coefficient changes the magnitude and phase of
transm itted wave with respect to incident wave. |x = 1 + r

(i°D a v g )i ~ (P p a v g )r + (P pavg )t

W h e re ( P Davg)i' <P D a vg V ( P D avg)t a re a v e ra 9 e P0 W e r d e n S '" e S ° ' in C id e n t '

reflected and transm itted wave respectively.

(P p a v g )r (P p a v g h _ _ |r |2

(P o a v g )i ( Pp avg ) i _________

^ave Polarization ...

This is the orientation of electric vector at a fixed position in space

'■"'ear Polarization
If F _ c F = E COS (Wt +
COS Wt,
— ^ xq Fy yg
then wave will be° linearly polarized if
^ O o r 180.
rt 'Ca ' Polarization
and Ey = Ey cos w t
E x = 0 0
 [ 2 6 0 ] ELECTROMAGNETICTHEORY-------------------

Horizontal Polarization _ /
if E = E cos y a r |d
then wave is said to have horizontal polarization. I

Circular Polarization
If Ex = cos cot; Ey = Eyo cos (cot + 0) |
ancj = E
e - ± it/2
then wave is said to have circular polarization
f in all other conditions except above conditions wave7Tsaidt?|
|E-Eij have elliptical polarization.

Oblique Incidence of EM Wave

For angle 9C (critical angle) 0( = jc/2 that is for 0 > 6 total internal
reflection takes place. 1 c

g • Total interna! reffection will take p a ce o n ly if

------------^ ^ e o f t o t ^ i n t e r r g ^ ^

Brewester Angle -- ---------- :-----------------

W h e re ®B is k n o w n as B rew ester angle.

 Transmission Line

^ . 1 E < ,u iv a le n t C ir C U it ° f T ra « " > is s io n Line

Ra z Laz

, This equivalent is dra w n for AZ portion of the line

, r , l , G. C are p rim a ry c o n s ta n t of line and has units Q/m, H/m S/m
F/m respectively.
Voltage and C u rre n t in Transm ission Line
\/T v + e~ Y Z + \/~ e 7 z | w h e re ’ Propagation constant
V + -> voltage in forward direction
V“ -> voltage in reverse (reflected) direction
Wave is tra v e llin g in + z direction.

V+ e ' Y Z + V e Y Z R + jcoL where, Zq -> characteristic

’’ Zo 1 Zo = ^
G + jcoC impedance of line.
Lossless Tran sm issio n L in e
For lossless tra n s m is s io n line
1
v p= eL I
Y = jcoVCC !
a = 0, p = (o Vl C ; | Vl c |. H

where r| -> in trin s ic im p e d a n c e of line.

v p _> p h a s e v e lo c ity of EM wave on the line.
Perfectly M is m a tc h e d L in e .
A line w h ich is te rm in a te d b y a load Z L (Z L * Z o ) is a mismatc
Standing w a ve a n d VSW R pattern exist in this case.
’ [ £ * 0 ] a n d S > 1. W here . S Voltage standing wave ratio.

M a tc h e d L in e
in e
perfectly matched line.
, 's te rm in a te d b y a lo a d Z L = Z o then it is a
» r = 0 a n d S = 1 in th is case .
tending w a v e d o e s no t e x is t in this case.
 E L E CTROMAGNCTKTHEORY
[262)

Reflection Coefficient (D

VSWR (S)

Input Impedance (Z b ) Zin - ^0 + Zl t a n f h y /J j

For Lossless Line

Input Impedance fo r Different Loads

For lossless line

1. Z L = 0 (short c irc u ite d ) | Z OT = jZ 0 ta n p 7 | | T = - 1 | s =

Perfect m inim a will o c cu r at load end.

This is used as stub line.
2. Z L - » ~ (open circuite d)
z r = - jz cot pz, r = 1, s ~
• There is p e rfe ct m axim a at load end.
• This is used as stub line.
Practical Method to Calculate Zo
Zq = ^Z qcZsc w her e ’ Zqc-* open c irc u ite d (Z L —><«) in p u t impedance
Z s c —>short c irc u ite d (Z L -> 0 ) in p u t impedance
Input Impedance with Respect to Variation o f Length o f Line

For Z= X or — F o r/ = 7
2 4

Zjn = Z o

If Z L an d Zq are real
’ Z l iS 'e S S th a n P ^ e c t m in im a is o b ta in e d at load
t?l IU.
’ toad end. * ” th a n p e rfe c > m a x im a is obtained a'
 ' ■ , 'gASY
J . . . - »a■h a n u b o q k ONELFr-rn^

63
P*** is said to be distortionless if a . ,,
linear f u n c l i o n o f frequency. <<0) w h e r e a is constant and
J Condition that a line will be distortionless i s r s ^ - ™ ,

pot distortionless line tnuM -G ]

V cospz jZ 0 sinpz
X'
Js. -^-sinpZ cosfJZ
Jl .

X ' co s pZ - j Z o sinpZ X'

^ s in prZ cospz Js.
Jl . Lz o

Smith Chart
’ Smith Chart is helpful in calculating transmission line parameters
Graphically.
formalized Im pedance o f Transm ission Line

is normalized im pedance corresponding to impeda

[264]_____________ ELECTROMAGNETICTHEORY

‘O - • Constant resistance circles have centre at .0 j and

• Constant reactance circles have centre at [ t x ) and radius * ,

y distance is equivalent to 2 k .
All the constant resistance and reactance circles pass through (1,0)

Capacitance per unit length of coaxial cable is

where a, b are ra d iu s of inner and outer
c = conductor respectively.
ln(b/a)_

Z o = 60
Characteristic impedance of coaxial cable is

Inductance per unit length of coaxial cable is L — ^ - ln ( b /a )

 Antennas

----------------------------------- ----
mainly co n ve rt V/1 w a ves into EM waves for wirefess transmission

H.lf Wave Dipole

Hertizian Dipole
Also called o scilla to ry c u rre n t elem ent of small length.

f l dlsine.(DA • x^-iBrA
’ E(r' 9 ' = I m 4rr e r e J

• H r, 9, 6, t) =
( lm dlsine.coA _■ --jBrA
------------ smart+ e
,p a*
Y ’ k 4 t i e rc )
• Total power ra d ia te d is

Wr = l^ x 8 0 K 2 f l ) where, dl —> length of antenna

___ \ A/
N a tio n Resistance
N a tio n re sista n ce fo r he rtizia n dipole is

applicable for dl «

i >■
k ’^ k n r t h p ability of antenna
^*9her the ra d ia tio n resistance hig
^? 5 **ra d ia te power. _____________ —--------
 Half Wave Dipole

For this antenna di —» 4 10 4

sinwt

' ,pr a»
• H(r, e, 0, t) = 2nr sine i> ____

• Radiated power from half wave dipole is W,—= 73 l?m s

. Radiation resistance of half wave dipole is | R > 7 3 Q

Radiation resistance of quarter wave m onopole is R, = 36.5 Q

Radiation resistance of folded dipole is R, - 292 f l.
**
Radiation Resistance
Radiation resistance of any dipole antenna (any length) is

2
F\ = 80n I x

where Lo , = is effective length of antenna.

2L
■ef
— — for half wave dipole.
7t

ef for electrically short dipole.

Le l = ,p h y for Hertizian dipole.

Here L phy is physical length of antenna.

i /
Rr for electrically short dipole - 20 k 2

Rr for electrically short m onopole is R r =

Rf for electrically short m onopole over a ve rtica lly grounded

conducting earth is = 40k 2 f 2

---------- -------- ---------- U

Radiated Power Density (PQ) PD = = 1 Eo(r,0,<|>)

 AH ANDBO OKONEI F r r n n . . -
— ^ ^ ^ nic seng ineer ing
[267]

power Intensity V =
z ,ed

d !J differential solid an g le and

<^3s where, n -> intrinsic im pedance

an Antenna
Directive gain G d
power gain G p

V (9 .0) -> radiation intensity

V avg ^avg average radiation intensity

q = Gd x efficiency of radiation
--------R r
where, Rr - > radiation resistance
n = Gdh x - —
U P Rr + R/
R z -» lo ss resistance
4nv(e.<|>)
b p~ vu W jn -> input power
’ ’ In

Directivity D is m axim um value G d .

n 4* A e _ 4 k y m a x
X2 ’ Wr where, A e effective area

• Directivity is alw ays D > 1.

wC • D irectivity of half w ave dipole is 1.63.
«*■*- • D irectivity of hertizian dipole is 1.5.

• Vy. = J J\g(0,<|))sine de ck|)

00 ________

^’rabolic Reflector

2
Directivity D' = 9 .8 ? (—
____________
D —► dim ension of parabola.

l ' 0 ,n Antenna
 A Handbook on
£ | e ctronicsEngineermg

08
Digital Electronics
CONTENTS
270-271
1. Number S ystem a n d C o d e s ...........................................
272-280

Logic G a te s .......................................................................... 281-283

Boolean A lg e b ra & R e d u c tio n T e ch n iq u e s.............. . 284-288

4. Arithmetic O p e ra tio n a n d C irc u its .............................. .289-297

Code C onverters, M u ltip le x e rs a n d Demultiplexers
..298-304

Sequential C irc u its (FFs a n d L a tc h e s )..................... ..305-306

7. Shift R e g is te rs .................................................................. ...307-310

Counters .........................................................................
...311-315

digital ICs F a m ily ........................................................... ...316-320

10 A D Cs and D A C s .............................................................
....321-322

neous.
 Number System and cOt|

DIGITAL NUMBER SYSTEM------------------ ------------------------------ ------

. A number system with base V will have b' different dtgtfs from 0 t0 ( b ^

□ Number representation __ ______________

where, N = number, b = base or radix

. d d d ... d, d 0 represents integer portion of number
1
(N ) , d ' ’ d 2 ..' d 4 ... d ^ represents fraction portton of number
and between these two there is a radical sign.

Weighted Number System

• Binary, octal, hexa decimal, BCD, 2421 etc.

Unweighted Number System

• Gray code, Excess 3-code
Number system B ase(b) D igits
Binary 2 0. 1
Octal 8 0, 1,2, 3 ,4 , 5. 6 ,7
Decimal 10 0, 1.2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ,8 ,9
Hexa decimal 16 0, 1 ,2 ,3 , 4, 5. 6. 7, 8 .9
A. B .C , D .E .F
• In binary number system, a group of "Four bits" is known as “Nibb'e*
and group of “Eight bits" is known as “Byte".

CODES
Binary Coded Decimal Code (BCD)
• Each digit of a decimal number is represented by binary equivalent.
In 4-bit binary formats
™ a] " “ b e r ° * P 0 S s i b l e re Pr e s entation = 2> = 16
Valid BCD codes = 10,
Invalid BCD codes = 6
In 8 -b it binary formats
Valid BCD codes = 100, 156
invalid BCD codes = 256 - 100 =
BCD is also called 8421 code
 — ^ hA ? ^ P i 0 ~ ELEC TR ?- 'c s ^ ,2 7

h ic a not a self com plem enting code

i ii10
^P SS-3C0<le H
„ is a 4-bit code.
* it can be derived from BCD code by addino“v t „ „
* it is a “self-complem enting code” eaC h c o d e d n u m b e r-

; „ is the only code w hich is unweighted and self complementing.

2421,3321,4311,5211
sum of w eight is 9. all are self
" C O m P| e--------
™nttng :----------------------x
codes where

gray Code
, Also called minimum change codes” in which only one bit in the code
group changes when going from one step to the next.
• Gray code is also called cyclic code or reflective code. Since error is
minimum so also called minimum error code.
Binary-to-Gray C onversion
• ‘MSB’ in the gray code is same as corresponding digit in binary number.
• Starting from "Left to Right” , EXOR each adjacent pair of binary digits to
get next gray code digit.
Gray-to-Binary C onversion V ‘V 3 ""
• “MSB" of Binary is same as that of gray code. * JSt
bn-! '

* ' n s e ^ - c o m plemented code, the sum of weight = 9.

AA • The la rg e st num ber that can be represented by using
N-bits is (2 N - 1) 10 ._________________________________ -
h number system has base b then we can find its b s complement and

~ 1)s com plem ent. L _ .m i ir r ,

T° determine (b - 1)’s complement subtract given number rom
, "umber possible to the given base i.e . ( r " / 1) . _ , om t e m e n tthen
To determine b ’s complement, first determine (b
, ®d d 1 to get b's com plem ent ofnum ber b d iv id e integer part
convert decim al num ber into any ot
» b and m ultiply fractional pah with b.
J X ’ X zX i x o)b = (A ) l o
n A = Xo + X ,b 1 + X 2 b 2 + X3 b 3 ■■■■
LOGIC G A T E S ____________ ________________
• OR, AND. NOT are Basic Gates
• NAND, NOR are Universal Gates
• EXOR. EXNOR are Arithmetic Gates

NOT Gate
• Also referred to as “Inversion" or "Complementation’’.

Symbol and Truth table:

Input A O utput Y = A

Transistor circuit:

• When “Even number" of NOT Gates are connected in Feedback, then

acts like as “Bistable Multivibrator” .

• When “Odd number" of NOT Gates are connected in Feedback, then

acts like as Astable Multivibrator (AMV) or Squarewave generator o’
Clock generator or Ring oscillator.

All inverters take some time to get the response “Y” this time is ca'le°
“Propagation delaytime" (t 1
' per*
 eASX-
Si - - ; ^ ^

an ^s ta b le M u ltiv ib ra to r (AMV) ------ ------

0 Time period o f AM V [j
PdJ

^ere n = number of iinverters (No t Gates)

V Pr o Pagaiion ® a y t i m e o l e
T = Time period of a so. iar»
Ring oscillator W a v e 9 e n e r ated by AMV or

□ Frequency o f AM V

ano Gate
Symbol and Truth ta b le :

Inputs Output
A«--------------1 Y = AB A B Y = AB
b « --- l_y 0
0
0 0
1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

f *
J /

•o - * In AND operation
V
ENABLE INPUT => Logic'1'
DISABLE INPUT => Logic ‘0’
I___ ___________ >

Transistor c irc u it:

" + V CC

• : Rc
A B Ti t2 Y
0 0 OFF OFF 0
W / '1----
A*— L T, 0 1 OFF ON 0
1 0 ON OFF 0
B 1 ON ON 1
*— W . ----- | t2 1
T Y = AB
 Diode circuit diagram:

A B Di U2 Y
0 0 ON ON 0
0 1 ON OFF 0
1 0 OFF ON 0
1 1 OFF OFF 1

x’/ , • In AND gate operation, any unused inputs (Floating inputs)

✓O' may b e connected as:

J U Logic *T for TTL c ir c u it
Logic '0' for ECL circuit _________________
\ _____________________________ __ _________________ — --------------------------- -— ------------------------ — -------- ----

OR Gate
Symbol and Truth table:

Inputs Output
A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
A* Y=A +B
0 1 1
8»
1 0 1
1 1 1

• In OR operation
-y C ENABLE INPUT => Logic ‘O'
***“ * ' DISABLE INPUT => Logic T

Transistor circuit:

A B Ti t2 Y
0 0 OFF OFF "o
0 1 OFF ON 1
1 0 ON OFF 1
L x
1 ON ON 1
 ON ~ ^ ^ ^ 1 ! ^ N E E R I N
G

275

D.

A B
2
ON ON 1
ON OFF 1
OFF ON 1
OFF OFF 0

HAliDG a te
Symbol and T ru th ta b le :

Inputs Output
A* A B Y = AB
B* 0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

'C' * ln HAND operation

v ‘ ENABLE INPUT => Logic ‘1’
DISABLE INPUT => Logic ‘O’

Transistor c ir c u it:

A B _T, t2 Y
0 0 1
0 1 ON 1
1 0 ON 1
1 1 ON ON 0

Qu
er Gates Using U niversal G ate NAND

gate
AB
a -------- 1 'y _____ [
b ---------L
 OR gate

NOT gate

EXOR gate

EXNORGate

NOR Gate
Symbol and Truth table: Inputs Output
A B Y = (A + B)
A’ =_(aT b) 0 0 1
----------
0 1 0
In NOR operation 1 0 0
ENABLE INPUT => Logic TV 1 1
disabl e input J
 dig it al el ec t r o nic s
[278]
5^s v
EXORGate
switch".
• It is also called "stair case

□ Boolean function of 2-input EXOR operation

Y = A ® B = AB + AB

-----------------------------------—.
A ® A = 0, A ® 0 = A
A © A = 1, A® 1= A
• A ® A ® A © ..... ....upto n terms = 0, when n = even
V ____ = A, when n = odd __
EXNORGate
• It acts like as an “even number of 1’s detector"
Symbol and Truth table:

Inputs Output
A B Y = Ae B
0 0 1
A* V v Yi!i e b
0 1
b *— 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
 Boolean function o f 2 -in p u t U R
0 — -— -_____ operation •

± A B + AB

, When both the inputs are same, then output becomes HIGH
i'
or Logic 'V .
t When both the inputs are different, then output becomes
LOW or Logic ’O’.
,
ln
cxNOR operation
• BUFFER CIRCUIT => Logic 1
f ° r I^ E R S IO N C IR C U IT ^ L o g ic 'O’

aq a = q , A©Q= a
• A0 a 0 A 0 upto n terms = 1, when n = even
___________ = A, when n = odd
X
1 1
'O'- A © B = A © B and A © B = A © B
V A © B = A 0 B and A © B = A ® B
V — —-- J

NOIt
• For odd no. of inputs EXOR and EXNOR area same.
1

EE| i.e. A 0 B 0 C = A oB oC
as A 0 B 0 C = A © B C + (A®B)C = (A©B)C+(A©B)C

A©B©C = A © B C + (A©B)C

A©B©C = (A © B )C + (A©B)C

• A©B®C = A © B ® C = A®B®C

A0B0C = A e B G )C = _ A Q B g C -------- ------------

‘ E e B sA B = A + B|
* EXOR and EXNOR are also called arithmetic gates as th y
ln addition, subtraction, comparator circui s.
[280] uiuM r.h-.~-—
ALTERNATIVE SYMBOLS OF GATES

pBUbbied^ORgate^Nj ^ D j g j g .

| Bubbled - NAND gate s OR gate

NAND and NOR gate as universal:

No. of NAND No. of NOR

Logic gates
gate required gate required
NOT 1 1
AND 2 3
OR 3 2 ■

EX OR 4 5
EX NOR 5 4

• A N D ’ 0 R Logic = NAND-NAND Logic => SOP

U==J— • OR-AND Logic = NOR-NOR Logic => POS
 Boolean A lgebra & R e d u c t s T .
— — auction Techniques

^ aNJU-GEBRA LAWS

A + B = B + aT^ and (~A-B~ = B -A

iative l a *

A + (B + C) = (A +"B)Tc T a + bT ^
and A-(B.C) = (A.bT c T a b ~c ]
pbtributive L a w

(A + B) (C + D) = AC + AD + BC + BD~|

NAND and NOR gates do not follow associative law but follow
commutative law.
OR, AND, EXOR, ENOR follow commutative and associative
both laws.

BOOLEAN ALGEBRAIC THEOREMS

AND-operation T h e o r e m

A -A = A-_ A 0L---
_____ 0
= --------
A-1 = A A A = 0
Involution T h e o r e m

^•operation T h e o r e m

A + 1= 1 |~A + A = 1
 dig j t al el ec t r o nic s
[2821
Transposition Theorem
^a +bHa £ c )£ a +bc

Distribution Theorem
A 7 B C ^A + Bjg+C>

Consensus Theorem
• Used to eliminate redundant t • j n c l jo n
. it is applicable only when if a boolean functio .

1. Contains 3-variables
2 Each variable used 2-times
3 Onty one variable is in complemented or uncomplemented fo rn i
4' Then the related terms to that com plem ented or uncomplem e n lM

variable is the answer.

Boolean Algebraic Theorems
Theorem No. Theorem

1. (A + B) • (A + B) = A

2. AB + A C = (A + C )(A + B)

3. (A + B)(A + C) = AC + AB
4. AB +AC + BC = AB +A C
5. (A + B)(A + C)(B + C) = (A + B )(A + C)
6. A ■B - C -... = A + B + C + ...
7. A + B + C +... = A B C . . .

Duality Theorem
• “Dual expression” is equivalent to write a negative logic of the given
boolean relation. For this we,
1. Change each OR sign by an AND sign and vice-versa.
2. Complement any 0 or ‘1’ appearing in expression.
3. Keep literals as it is.

* F o r 1 - t im e s D u a l - jt is called “Self Dual Expression".

* For N ‘ v a r i a b | es, m aximum p o ssib le Self-Dual Function

= (2) 2 fk 1 = 2 ( 2 n / 2 >.

• With N-variables, maximum nneciKi^

u m Possible distinct logic functions = 2
______________
 f l j£..
A. HANDBOOK ON EJ R T Bb q9 !>M
r ------ ^ N G IN E E R I N G r 2 8 3 ]
theorem ”—
obtaining complement expression we
Change each OR sign by AND sign a n d v i c e
!' complement any 0 or T appearing in exo ® T
2 ' complement the individual literals. P s s ,o n -

3'
^glEAN FUNCTION REPRESENTATION_______

•litheterms contain each literal.

E x .: F(A,B,C) = A B C + A B C + A B C

Standard Form
All the terms do not have each literals.
Ex.: F(A,B,C)= A + B C + A B C
Note: A binary-variable is called “ LITERALS"
Minterms and Maxterms
» n-binary variables have 2 n possible combinations and each of these
possible com bination is called “Minterm or Standard Product"
• ''Maxterm” is th e c o m p le m e n t of corresponding “ Minterm" i.e.
M= m .
• Inan n-variable Karnaugh-m ap there are 2n cells.

COMPLETE SIM PLIFIC ATIO N RULES

* Construct the K-m ap and place 1's in those cells corresponding to the
1's in the truth table; Place 0 ’s in the other cells.
* Examine the m ap for adjacent 1’s and loop those 1’s which are not
adjacent to any other 1’s. These are called isolated Ts.
‘ Next, look for those 1’s w hich are adjacent to only one other 1. Loop any
pair containing such a 1.
* Loop any octet even it contains some 1’s that have already been looped.
* Loop any quad that contains one or more 1 s which have not already
been looped, m aking sure to use the minimum number of loops.
Loop any pairs necessarily to include any 1 s that have not yet
lo °ped, making sure to use the minimum number o oops.
* Form the OR sum of all the t e r m s g e n ^ ^ _________ _

||j K-map will p ro vide m inim ized expression but not ne

^ S L y n ia u e . --------------------------------
 Arithmetic Operation and Circ u j

DIGITAL NUMBER REPRESENTATION_____________________

• In unsigned magnitude representation with n bits, the p o s s ib te "j^ ""
values are [ 0 - ( 2 n - 1)]. 6r

• Extra bit -» sign bit -> MSB

if MSB = 0 -> +ve number
if MSB = 1 -> -ve number
• In a sign magnitude representation the range of number.

- ( 2 n "1 - 1 ) to + (2 n ~1 - 1 )

• In 1’s complement representation, the +ve num ber are represente

similar to +ve number in sign magnitude, but for representing (_)v
number, first to write +ve number and then take 1’s complement of tha^

□ Range of 1's complement number

- (2 n -1 - 1 ) to + (2 n -1 - 1 )

• In 2’s complement representation of a number +ve numbers are

represented sim ilar to +ve num ber in sig n m agnitude, but
representing -ve number first to write +ve number then take 2’s
complement of it.
□ Range of 2’s complement representation number

- 2 n~1 to + (2 n "1 - 1 )

BINARY ARITHMETIC_________________________________________ _

• When both number have same sign then we add only magnitudes and
use the sign as MSB.

Vs Complement Addition
• When the numbers have different sign, keep one number as it is and 1s
complement the other then we add magnitude only
• If carry is present
1. add carry to LSB
2. sign of the result is sign of the uncomplemented number.
• If carry is not present
1. take 1's complement the result
2. sign of the result is sign of the complemented number.
 R85J
A d d it k > n

- cornpternent n'settxxi of renresAm s

,
n 1> tH n b O f a r e o f $ a m e
* c i <' a n d if carrv is J ' J ? ' “
is not generated take the Z s c o m ^ ^ S ^ ' 1" an d 11

o cc u rs w hen two sam e sioned n t - □ S 9 n a d

^ r ^ a i x ^ T o d e t^ lo v v rfto w . v e V e X O R n ^ '" '
a re
^ i C . . w h e r e C „ input carry

" <W ut o X O R gate is 1 then overflow, it it is zero then no

omenta*

0 ' No oxorflott
’ - Ovotfkhv

X- *»2 ! s c o m p o n e n t representation there is only one re p re se n ts^

- ( / - lor zero w hile in i s com plem ent representation there are two
r
* zeros + 0 and - 0,

OlGfi-Al LOGIC CIRCUITS__________________

Combffvatiorial Circuits
• Xsput does not d e p e n d on previous value of input.
• \o feedback is required-
• : consists of input variables, logic gates and output variables.
• \c memory is required.

Sequential Circuits
* Ou ^mk a e o e n d s on the present as well previous value of inputs.
* t consists input variables, sequential circuit and output.
* Memory is required.

jy ADDER (HJt)___________________________________________
* A c circuit for the addition of two one-bit numbers known to as an
'HALF A D D E R (H. A )’ .

’ ra b «l and Truth Table

Inputs Outp u t s __
A B Sum(S) CarryfCi
0 0 0
0
1 1 0
0
1 0
1 0
0 1
1 1
 _ m G lT ^ y £ T 5 0 N !« M ADE '<;
i !>■■ ■ n
B. m * "*~~l

□ Logical expression

Carry, Q C ^ A B ]

~ - . number Ol NAND-NOR-gates required to implementM

XZ* adder = 5
»j L _ . |m p|e m ent the H.A circuit by minimum num ber of logic ga te s
if we have all gates except EXOR and EXNOR is “3’ .
• To implement H.A. three 2:1 MUX is required.___________ __

FULL ADDER (F.A.)

• It performs the arithmetic sum of the three input bits i.e. addend bit,
augend bit and carry bit.
□ Logical expression
Sum, S= A B$ C

Carry, C = AB + BC + CA = AB + C (A ® B)

v** • A F.A. can be implemented by two H.A. and one OR-gate

• Total number of NAND-gate/NOR-gate required to implement
«*-*-*» a FA is equals to "9” .

HALF SUBTRACTOR (H.S)

□ Logical expression

Difference,

Borrow, B=AB

J Q ~ T°t a l number of NAND/NOR gates required to implement the H-S ■

m W is equal to “5".

FULL SUBTRACTOR (F.S)

‘ l p e u° , m s * s u b t r a c , i o n between two bits

account that a 1 may have been borrowed by a lower s ig n if ic a n t ^
 I Difference.

Borrow' - B13JL^c7KET^77r==r—
-—
LJ (A®B)•C
~X* .• A FS' can be —---° --- -
,> Num ber of NAND/NOR g a t e s r 6 Q u ir p r i ®'
n e 0 R 9 a ,e '
JL. is equal to "9". squired to implement the F.S
7*^nparallel adder n F.A, or lin - n r * ~ ■—----------- *
a n d tn -n O R -g a te ) are r e q u i r e d t o a d X X X ' 15 H A

Look Ahead Carry A d d e r

. in parallel adder for n bits there is 2n t d e ia v f _r P r V ...
IS delay provided by each logic c f e " ° ld 'n 9 r 6 S U h

» Look ahead carry adder is used to make the addition faster

. in look ahead carry adder to provide carry O/P it requires 3 logic gate
delay * a y

• To provide sum it requires 4 logic gate array

i Carry circuit is implemented using two level AND-OR gate circuit.
1 Number of AND gates require in carry circuit for n bit look ahead carry
adder is

_n(n + 1)
n an d - 2—
• Number of OR gates require in carry circuit for n-bit look ahead carry
adder is n.
Comparator
A > B = AB

A < B = AB

A = B = AB + AB

A>B

A A<B
B
 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS----------------------------M A p £ y $

• Suppose we have
p =
Q = 838.8,60
Logic expression for P - Q. P > 0- < lS

Y,[for P = 0 ] « (A. O B3 ).(A2 • B? ).(A, 0 B,).(A 0 9 BQ)

Y2 [for P > Q) = A j B3 +(A3 •)B3 )(A 2 B 2 )

+(A 3 OB 3 )(A 2 q Bj XA j ^ j )

+(A3 9 8 3 )(A2 0 B ? XA, 9 B ,).(A o Bo )

Y3[for P < Q] = AjB 3 +(A 3 ■ B3 )(A 2B 2 )

+(A 3 O B t )(A j 0 B. )(A;B t )

+(A 3 OBaXA? 9 B 2 X A ,© B ,X A o Bo )
 5. Code Converters, Multiplexers
___________ and Demultiplexers
^ L EXERS (MUX)_______________________________________

, It selects binary information from one of many input lines and directs it
to a single output line
t The selection of a particular input line is controlled by a set of selection
lines.
. There are 2n input lines where ‘n’ is the select line

• MUX is also called data selector or many to one circuit or

11** ] universal logic circuit or parallel to serial converter.

, • If there are M no. of data inputs and n is number of select

lines i/p then |n = log2 M|

4:1 MUX

St So Y
0 0 lo

0 1 h
1 0 *2
1 1 h

Y = output = St Sq Iq + $1 So h + S1 Sp l2 + St Sp l3

The size of the MUX is specified by the 2n input line and the
single output line for n selection lines.
MUX contains AND gate followed by an O R - g a t e . ,

2; imux

Y = Slo + SI,
 1 MUX any 1 va
g | icinn one 4 *and
. Iimplemented some of three variable funoton can be

implemented.
• One 4 :1 MUX and 1 NOT Gate
♦ All 2 variables logic function.
. All 3 variables logic function can be implemented.

• One 8 :1 MUX
♦ All three variable logic function.
♦ Some of four variable logic function can be implemented.

• One 8 :1 MUX and 1 NOT gate

♦ All three variable.
♦ All four variable function can be implemented.

MUX as Universal Logic Circuit

• AND gate using MUX

o
2 :1
AB
MUX
 using MUX — peer in g L291

A
2 :1
MUX (A+B)
1

N OTgate using MUX

1 -
2 :1
MUX A
0

NAND gate using MUX

Requires 2
AB
2 ■1 MUX
B

* NOR gate using MUX

B
Requires 2
A +B 2 :1 MUX

EXOR gate using MUX

B It requires
2 : 1 A©B 2, 2 : 1 MUX
MUX
B

A
 Requires 2
AOB 2 : 1 MUX

A
Three Input EXOR and EXNOR Gate Using MUX

A B

4 :1
MUX A©B®C
= A®B©C
= A®B®C
= A©B©C

A B
 — G ^ fE R lN G [29 3
c
c
c A©B©C
= A©B©C
c = A®B©C

c
c a ®b ®c
= a ©b ©c
c = A@B®0
= A©B©C

c
c
A®B©C
c = A©B®C
c = A®B©C

c
c A©B©C
c = A0BOC
= A©B©C
c

A B

^ j P l-EXER ( D E M U X ) ___________ _

’ re ceives information on a single line and transmits this on one o

i POssible cutout Ho p s
. J '^ o d e r ” w i t h a n e n a b |e input can function as a ■Demultiplexer.
e rn u * is also called data distributor or one to many circuit.
 DIGITALELECTRONICS
[294]

1 : 2 Demux

1 ; 4 DEMUX

To be Implemented Required No. of

Given DEMUX DEMUX
DEMUX
1 :2 1 :4 1+2 = 3
1 :2 1 :8 1+2 + 4 = 7
1:2 1 : 16 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 = 15
1:2 1 : 64 1+ 2 + 4 + 8 + 1 6 + 32 = 63
1:4 1:16 1+ 4 = 5

• The number of select lines required in a single input and l n' output
DEMUX is log2 n.

DECODERS____________________________
• A Decoder have many inputs and many outputs line.
• It is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from n input
lines to a maximum 2n unique output lines.
• If the n-bit decoded information has unused or don't care combinations'
the decoder output will have less than 2n outputs
Decoder is used to convert binary data into other codes like binaryt0
octal (3 :8 decoder) binary to hexadecimal (4 :16 decoder).
□ Total number of output lines
 ' 0 ratal Numbor 0 , O utP u t ^ ; B " T , , O , ^ ^ IN
wliore n . Total n u m b * ^ 2 n G - (295
^ 4 Decoder ln p u t linos

A E A b
5 . Di Dy 0,
1 X X
2 x4 1 1 1
Decodor 0 0 0 0 1 1
2 0 0 1
B 1 0 1 1
'3 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 0
E (enable)

h j mQ Q 1 . h u t MUX and Vice-versa.

>1 _ . ._ J ---- - a I ■4 U t
— j
•( Decoder and Demux circuits are almost same.
_ ____x_!_- *
♦ Decoder contains AND-gates or NAND-gates.

To be Implemented Required No. of

Given D ecoder
Decoder Decoder
2 :4 4 :1 6 1+4 = 5
2 :4 3 :8 2 + 1 NOT Gate
4 : 16 8 :2 5 6 1 + 16=17
Encoder
• Encoder is a combinational circuit which has many i/ps and many o/ps.
• It is used to convert other codes to binary such as octal to binary,
hexadecimal to binary etc.

^ P £ CONVERTERS
Bco to Excess-3 Code
‘ Lel input variables of BCD code is A. B, C. D and output variables of

e *cess-3 is W, X, Y, Z.
 □ Minimised boolean function

Z=D
Y=CD +CD
X=BC+BD+BCD
W = A + BC + BD

Binary-to Gray Code Converter

Equivalent logical gate diagram

 w Binary Converter

Equivalent logical gate diagram

B3 —G3
B2 ~ B3 ® G2
B i = B 2 ® G-|
Bo = B-| ® Go
 Sequential Circuits (FFs and Latch

FLIP-FLOPS---------- _ _ _ _ _ --------— ------------------- -------

• These can store "one-bit of information .
. r d flop circuit is also known as "Bistable Mult.vibrator" or Latch".
. A flip-flop circuit can be constructed from two NAND-gates or two Nor .

gates.
Clocked S-R Flip-flop

• Truth table of S-R FF

HOLD state
RESET state
SET state
FORBIDDEN state

• Sn and Rn denotes the inputs and Q n the output during the bit time n
* Qn+i denotes the output Q after CLK passes, i.e. in bit time (n + !)•
 o o o x
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 X 0

□ Characteristics equation of SR-FF

Qn+1 = S + R Qn
• Invalid states are present when both the inputs (S and R) are HIGH.

: Characteristics equation is valid only for S.R - 0.

• JK-FF are universal FF because the FFs like D-FFs, SR-FF and

T-FF can be derived from it.

F300I
| j y V j ___________________ —— -——
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS------------------------ —d *Ea$v
"• f

• Also it is as

Truth Table of JK-FF

K Q o .i
Clock J

0 X X Qn
1 0 0 Q. —— HOLD state
1 0 1 0 — RESET state
1 1 0 1 — SET slate
1 1 1 o. — • TOGGLE state

Characteristic table

Excitation table of J-k flip flop

0 1 1 X
1 0 X 1
1 1 X 0
 ENGINEERING [301]
g Characteristic equation of JK Flip-flop

J Q n+KQ n

. The "Race-aroundconditiorrwi

• To avoid this, we should maintain

tpw < *pd(FF)
* < T

D-flip-flop
* It is a FF with a delay equal to exactly one cycle of CLK.

• Graphical diagram

D* J Q

> JK-FF

K Q

J = D and K = D

• Truth table and C haracteristic table

D Q, Q t h-1

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 1
(Characteristic table)
(Truth table)
Characteristic equation of D-Flip-flop
Qn-n - P ]
[302]

• Truth table and Characteristic table

HOLD state
RESET state

(Truth table) (Characteristic table)

□ Characteristic equation of T-Flip-f lop

Excitation table of T flip flop

 T in ie
5<tuP , .
Setup time is m m im um time required tn koo
applying clock. 0 k e e P i/p at proper level before

H0 |d Tim*
, Hold time is m inim um tim e required to k ^ n ■/
applying clock. k e e p ’/p at same level after

CONVERSION OF FFS
SR-FF to JK-FF
SR-FF to D-FF
S = JQ n a n d R = K Q n ~[ [~S~=D~andR = D [
SR-FF to T-FF
JK-FF to SR-FF
S= TQ andR = TQ
JK-FF to D -FF JK-FF to T-FF
J= D andK = D J=K = T
D-FF to SR-FF D-FF to JK-FF

D = S + RQn D = JQ + K Q
D-FF to T-FF T-FF to JK-FF

T=JQ +K Q
T-FF to SR-FF T-FF to D-FF

T=SQ +RQ T = D®Q

-fY * ^ a c e ' a r o u n d co n d itio n occu rs in JK-FF and T Flip-Flop to

AZ* store 2 -b its o f inform ation.
• R a c e -a ro u n d c o n d itio n alw ays arises in "Asynchronous
circuits".
• A M aster-slave FF co n sists of an SR-FF followed by a T-FF.
* The fre q u e n cy is alw ays halved at the output of any FFs whose
behaviour is sam e as TOGGLED-FF.
^°99le Mode of Operation

CIK-------------->
Q(n+1) = 0(n)

K
304

Q(n+1) = Q(n)

Q(n+1) = Q(n)

Q(n+1) = Q(n)

CiK
Q(n+1) = Q(n)
 Shift Registers

sHlfTREGISTERS___________
, m shift register each CLK P U L S E s h iftT ^ “ ---------- -----------------
he c o n te n t o f
b it to the RIGHT or LEFT. register by one-

, The "serial input" determ ines what 9aoes intn th ^ , ,.

0 e s l n t 0 t h e Leftmost FF during the
s h ift .

SISO
4-bit Right-shift SISO Register
. in right shift SISO register, LSB data is applied at the MSB FF'(D-FF)
. m W bit register, to enter 'n' bit data, it requires W clock pulses in ser al
form.
i if ‘n bit data is to be stored in SISO register then output to take serially
for (n - 1) clo ck pulse are required.
» SISO register is used to provide ‘n’ clock pulse delay to the input data.
» If T is the tim e period of c lo ck pulse, then delay provided by SISO is
nT.
4-bit Left-shift SISO Register
• In this above SISO reg ister MSB data is applied to the LSB FF(D-FF).
• To enter the ‘n ’ bit data in serial form we require 'n' clock pulse.
• To exit or getting ou tpu t of ‘ n ' bit data as serially we require (n - 1 ) clock
pulse.
SIPO
• For n bit- serial input data to be stored the number of CLK pulse required
= n.
• For n bit-parallel o u tp u t data to be stored the number of CLK pulse
required = 0 (there is no need of CLK pulse).
PISO
• It stores parallel data. To store n bit num ber of CLK pulse required = 1
CLK pulse.
• To give serial out d a ta nu m be r of CLK pulse required - (n 1).
[ 3 0 6 ] DIGITAL ELECTRONICS madeeasy

" 'X parallel in data the number of CLK pulse required = 1 CLK

. For parallel out data the number of CLK pulse required = 0 CLK .

□ Time delay .
A SISO SRs may be used to introduce tim e delay At m
signals
where. N = Num ber of FFs
A t= N x T = N x p
’c T = Time period of CLK pulse
f = CLK frequency
• The amount of delay can be controlled by the fc or number of FFs m
the SR.

Cx » • All shift registers are JK-FFs. <•

-Q - . -p ip o " register is a storage register m ade up with D-FFs. .'

• “PIPO" register is not a shift register. !z

• Each Shift Left operation multiply the data by 2 and each Shift Right
operation divides the data by 2 . I »
8* Counters

i^opy 710^____
'^ T • ,f N = total n u m b e T o F s t a t P ^ T H T ----------------------
:Q- l a r e s a n d n = number of FFs then

n ^ 3 2 i5 ^ N " ]
• If N = 2°, then w e get BINARY COUNTER
|f N < 2 n , then we get NON-BINARY COUNTER

• Depending on clo ck pulse a p p lied counters are of two types

Asynchronous Counters Synchronous Counters
• Different FF’s are a p p lie d with A ll FF’s are a p p lie d with same
different clocks. clock.
• Slower Faster
• Fixed cou nt s e q u e n c e either Any count sequency is possible.
up or down.
• Decoding error. No decoding error.

MOD N u m b er

• The “MOD-number” indicates the number of states in counting sequence.

• For n-FFs, counter will have 2 n different states and then this Counter is
said to be u M 0 D -2 n Counter".
• MOD num ber in dicates the frequency division obtained from the Last

• It would be c a p a b le of counting upto (2 n - 1) before returning to zero

state.

UP/DOWN COUNTER
* An “Up/Down C ounter” can count in any direction depending upon the

control input. -— ; — 7--------------------------------------------

• In “ M O D-N C ounter", if applied input frequency is “f", then
I *07<
output fre q u e n cy is f/N. d b M 0 D .
• If two counters are c a s c a d e d ^ . t h fe ( M x
N, then num ber of overall states;
N) and counter is called MCT>---------------------------
[308]_______ -
Ripple Counter J, Qi J2 0, -
Q
1— Jo ° > FF2
> FPi
FF0
Ki Qi K; 0;
1—
o__ 5 °
IL (MSB)
(LSB)
CLK Pulse
■FFs there are 2 n possible states.
• in ripple counter with n-
count that can be counted by this counter is 2^_ 1
• With n-FFs the maximum *

Disadvantage of Ripple p r o p a gation delay of FFs i.e. t .

. Decoding error is present due to p W ry
For proper operation o f the rip p le counter.

ntpd(FF)

f^ = n tp d (F F )
□ Maximum CLK frequency

For determination of Up/Down Counter

Triggering with CLK connection in Access as
(-ve) edge Q UP Counter
(-ve) edge Q Down Counter
(+ve) edge Q Down Counter
(+ve) edge Q UP Counter

In ripple counter flip flop applied with external clock will act
3 as LSB bit.
Clear and preset are known as asynchronous input to flip flop

NON-BINARY RIPPLE COUNTER

Decade Counter or Mod-10 Counter
Pr

* ~ j T0 Qq — T
Pr

Qi
_1L
T2 Qg T3
rQ 3
LSB
Go > MSB
Qi
02 a 3
clr clr Iclr
CLK Pulse
clr
freq. = f
Q;
0

Used states - 10 and unused states - 6 AND-gate

For down counter, Mod Number - 2n - N

Output frequency of MOD-10 counter = f / 1 0 .
 In 4-bit ring counter
Used states = 4
Unused states = 2 4 - 4 = 12
, in any counter if CLK freq ue ncy is T the FFs output frequency is “f/N"
(where N = N um ber of states).
Self Starting R in g C o u n t e r

Twisted-Ring C o u n te r
* Also known as Johnson C ounter or Switch Tail Ring ou
 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS________________
[3121
• With n FFs there are 2n states in this counter.
• With n FFs the maximum count by this counter is (2n ~ -j)
• In normal "Johnson counter with n FFs and the inpm
frequency is T then output frequency of FFs is “f/2n"
• In a "Counter" if a feedback connection is used the number of possible

• states will Johnson

In normal decrease.counter frequency at o/p of each flip is f/2n and

duty cycle is 50%.______ _______ _______________________

In Johnson counter to decode each state one two i/p ANDo?

NOH
NOR gate is used.
Lockout may occur when counter enter into unused state

SYNCHRONOUS-SERIES CARRY COUNTER

Input

□ C lock frequency

tpdfff) + ( n ~ 2) tpdtAhp-gate)

• Total d e la y of th is c o u n te r is m u c h lo w e r than an
asynchronous counter with sam e num ber of FFs.

| total delay = FF tpd(FF) + tpd(AND gate)

SYNCHRONOUS-PARALLEL CARRY COUNTER

• It is the “Fastest Counter".

□ Clock frequency | °
 Digital ICs Family

CHARACTERISTICS o f D IG IT A I |c $
propagation D e la y ( t J ) ~

□ Delay time
[7 - tp H L + tp iH where,■W
t, h = Delay time in going form LOW
,ns
| *pd _ 2 logic to HIGH logic
tpnL = Delay time in going form HIGH
logic to LOW logic
, The delay times are m easured between the 50% points on the input and
output transitions.

In BJT, tp L n > t P H L due to reverse recovery time.

InFET, t PLH < t P H L due to large capacitance formed.

Power Dissipation (P D )
• It is the am ount of pow er dissipated in an IC.
• It is determ ined by the current “ l c c ” which draws from the Vc c supply.
□ Collector current
r u = current value when all inputs are
where, lrCCH
i Ic c h + 'c c l HIGH.
cc - 2
|__. = current value when all inputs are
LOW.
Pp(avg) = *CC x V CC mW
□ Power dissipated

Figure of M e rit (F O M ) FOM = t pd x PD(avg)|, picojoules

, rim irp of merit (FOM) should be as small
• For the best op era tion of ICs, figure or mem >
as possible.
• X h e m axim um num ber of

by a logic gate ou tpu t w ithout affec ing 9 h d {o r additional

• High Fanout is advantageous because it reduces
drivers to drive m ore gates.
Noise Margin . , „ tn rim u it ability to tolerate noise
Worse im m unity of a lo gic circu it re e voltage. A quantitative
Wi.hout causing spurious changer; rn the
Measure of noise im m unity is cal
 MADE EA j. r

111?!... —margin
• The high state noise - ___V is dolined as
N (I
v„ I
• The low state noise margin VN t Is d e fin o d a s

| M \ 1 “ V|L(niHx) *

In a logic family
1w \/ -> V ^ > ^ 1 1 (in H x) > V OL(mnx)
r*
Over all noise margin is lowest am ong high stale noise marg,,

and low state noise margin.---------— --------- J

IpLffnaxj

'lL(max)
Fan out(High) = .
'IH(max)
is lowest among Fanout (high) and Fanout (lev/)
N ote: Overall Fanout is ___

MOS LOGIC FAMILY _ _____________________________ _

• MOS digital ICs use enhancement MOSFETs exclusively.
• Because of the symmetrical construction of source (s) and drain (D), the
MOS transistor can be operated as a bilateral device.

N-Channel MOS (NMOS)

Vdd
<i

l--------- 1-------- ----- = (M B )

d O2

• It is faster than PMOS.

• NMOS conducts whenever input is HIGH.

Symbol
drain
 L o g k G a te s b y N M O S 1
f int ----------- —

Inverter by NMOS
NANDbyNM OS

Active

It is always
in ON state

— GND

NORby NMOS
p^hannel MOS (PMOS)
, Also called “ Pull-Up Network".
, PMOS uses FETs having heavily doped P-channel.
i PMOS conducts whenever input is LOW.

Different Logic Gates b y N M O S

NANDbyPM O S
Inverter by PMOS

A ctive load

It is a ways
; in ON state

GND
 [314] dig it a l el ec t r o nic s

NORbyPMOS

Complementary MOS (CMOS)

• Lower power dissipation. Q,
• Excellent noise immunity.
• High packing density.
• Wide range of supply voltages.
• High speed.

03

Different logic Gates by NMOS

— GND
Inverter by CMOS

- GND

no r by CMOS

Y=(A+B)

- GND
 f U rNDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [3151

of clock skew occurs in CMOS logic.

'^ - ^ ^ T jo o p e n collector configuration provides wired logic while

* totem-pole configuration it does not provide wired logic,
'^rob'ern of current hogging occurs in DCTL logic.

p, * (2 L logic family has highest figure of merit among all logic

famil’®®- , ...
■ h a s highest noise margin among all logic families
109 ^ u e to use of zener diode.
111$
3nd rovides less power dissipation, higher speed of operation
ii e p
10iem-P°'
' ^ ^ '^ a s te s t logic family among all and this is due to avoidance of
has m ocedelay as eompated to P a n s ® togto
t
10.

DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTERjDAC)

□ Analog output voltage of an N-bit straight binary DAC

where k = Proportionality factor.

b = 1 if the nth bit of digital input is ‘1’.
n ' , ,
= 0; if the nth bit of digital input is 0 .

Weighted-Resistor DAC

R
□ Output voltage v °=^ r (2N-1Vn-i + 2N ’ 2 VN-2 + ...... + 21Vt + 2°V2)

□ Proportionality factor K=
F T r -Vf>
.V y . * Th® resistance values are weighted in accordance with the
A A binary weight.

* amp e re
OPAMP is employed as a "summing amplifier".
OP-AMP is used in negative feedback mode to work as a “current to
voltage converter .

□ Input current to open ~

341
 resistor

□ Gain ol OP-AMP
w h e re , V,e( = Reference voltage or Input voltage
V o = O utput voltage

7y We alw ays c o n s id e r the b it as MSB. where the input reference

J ,. voltage or s u p p ly to b e g i v e n . ,

□ Output analog voltage

H-2RLadder DAC by Using In vertin g OP-AMP

b, b0 ) R-2R ladder DAC

 DIGITALELECTRONKS
im
□ Output voltage
For 3-bit DAC

2 b , + b0 ]
V° = [sR
For N-bit DAC

□ Output current

Inverted Ladder (R-2R) type DAC

□ Output voltage
For 4-bit DAC

Vo = -4^ [bo + 2 ^ + 4b 2 + 8 ba]

For N-bit DAC

• The bit stream (b b " T V 3 ' e d I m e s a m e p ° ‘e

- ----------- ---------- L i ^ bh ' b o>2 has MSB = b , and LSB = b0
J ,
 N~1
I —Vref
rward current 'f - x £
o F° Li=O
R
nation for DAC

an N-bit DAC
I /U • Number of different levels = 2N
• Number of steps = 2N - 1

□ step Size (or Resolution)

Resolution =

“Resolution” can also be expressed as the amount of voltage or current

Step size
% Re so lu tio n = Full scale o u tp u t X 1 O O %

ADC_________
Counter Type A D C

Maximum conversion tim e = (2 n - “i ) "^c l k ^o r n

Conversion tim e d e p e n d s on input analog vo

^llel Comparator Type
, 50 C a 'led flash typ e ADC.
ls the fastest ADC am ong aH-
 For n bit flash type ADC (2 n - 1) com parators are required.
For n bit flash type ADC 2" registers are required.

SAR Type ADC

• SAR type ADC is mostly
used in digital circuit to
pro vid e in te rfa ce w ith
microprocessor.

Remember: In SAR type

ADC conversion time is
uniform for any analog
voltage and equal to nTC LK .

Dual Slope Integrating Type ADC

For n bit dual slop type ADC 2n

a
where total time for conversion for input V is
a

• It is slowest AD C am ong all.

It is most accu rate am ong all.
Mostly used in digita l voltmeter.
 M i s cellaneou$

trigger i/p

Memories
They are of two types
• Primary memories
♦ RAM ♦ ROM
• Secondary memories
♦ Semi random ♦ Serial access
Difference between RAM and ROM

RAM ROM

• It is read/write memory.
• Random a c c e s s (tim e required
to access any m em ory is same
• Volatile m em ory (te m p o r a l
data storage) __________—
^ i Random Memory
^9-All disc m em ories (C D s D V
• H r e a c ^o n , y m e m o r y
• Random access.
• Permanent data storage
s nied
ro u

^9- Magnetic tape, M agnetic bu

° f e * F e r r 'te m em ory is DRO (Destructive read out)

 DKilTAl

RAM
• State HAM
• Dynamic HAM
Dyr’amte HAM
S late H A M ___ ___
DuU » ' MQ6 Cd
• Data a a » a d * *
M U S F E T au aa d
• f t j l MOS» I ’
Siri***
• FaiMtf
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 yVHandbook on
Electronics Engineering

09
Microprocessors &c
Com puter Organization
CONTENTS
1. Basics......................................................

1 8085 A r c h ite c tu r e ................................ ■324-324

3 introduction to 8 0 8 5 P ro g ra m m in g .3 2 5-326
4 Interrupts....................... ----- .327-346

• 8 1 $5 I/O & T im e r a n d 8 2 7 9 K e y b o a rd /D is p la y .347-348

.349-349

Computer Organization
’■ Basic..................................................... 355-356

7 Graph................................................... 357-359
35A-352
.................................................................... ...353-354
.360-361

' Stack & Q u e u e ...................... 362-363

J Memory M a n a g e m e n t ............
^ ^ c e U a n e o u s .............
• Memory size = 2A x D
where A -> Address lines
D-> Data lines
• Number of chips required of M, to expand it to M2 is

Size of M2
n ” Size of

where M1 = Memory size of smaller chip

M2 = Memory size of bigger chip
• A byte is a group of 8 bits.
• Nibble is a group of 4 bits.

A' • 8085 microprocessor internally divide the crystal oscillator;

A Z frequency by 2 so crystal oscillator frequency is always 2
R**, * 6‘' times t h e m jc r o pr o c e s s o r frequency of operation.
• Data bus reflects the bit of microprocessor.
• Address bus reflects maximum memory that can be interfaced to
microprocessor.
 ^ i^ h ite c tu r e

r eg is t er ------------- -
D, D6 Ds D< D3
S z AC1
p
CY
Carry fla fl <C Y ) : a n a r i , h m e ’ ic operation results ln
, set otherwise it is reset. s u l , s m a carry, the CY flag

parity dag (P ) :
„ if the result ha s an even num ber of f s tho n
9 S 6 t'
a K the result h a s an o d d num ber of Vs the flan *
Auxiliary C arry (A C ): In an arithm etic operation $ r8 S 6 1
=> If carry is g e n e ra te d b y d ig it D 3 and passed to D f|a o h
otherwise it is re s e t. 4 ’ a g 1S s e t -

Zero Flag (Z):

=> Zero flag is set to 1, w hen the result is zero.
=> Otherwise it is reset.
• Sign Flag (S):
=> Sign flag is s e t if b it D 7 of the result is 1.
=> Otherwise it is reset.
Program Counter (PC)
• Ins a 16 bit re g is te r u se d to hold memory addresses. The function of
program co u n te r is to p o in t to the memory address from which the next
byte is to be fe tch e d .
M Pointer (SP)
’ It is a 16 bit re g is te r u s e d as a memory pointer. It points to a memory
location in R e a d /W rite m em ory, c alled s t a c k . ____ ______

■ fr • T here is nd e ffe c t on flag s during

y • Low er 8 -b it o f a d d re s s bus and data ous a
****» • A d d re s s b u s is unidirectional.
• D ata b u s is b id ire c tio n a l. __ — -------- -— TSjZZtTridresj
' l,' n « ^ ssandm ^ ^ g i v e n then f ^
'a s t address = [Initial a d d re s s in hexadecim
h e x a d e c im a l equi v a *e n
1 if m e m o ry size - ( 1 ) J calculating memory s'ze
U 'y m °ry ra n g e is g iv e n then formui ei a d c jress} H + ( 1 >h ]
e m °ry size = [(last ad d re ss ) - ( ln
H
,326] MICROPROCESSQRS&CPMPgER ORGANIZATION
^ -T S U E ta T c y c ie is th e time required to c o m p te te to e ^ . **

of an instruction. <
¥ ' . Machine cycle is the time required to complete one op^,
of accessing memory. **1
. T-state is one subdivision of the operation performed in o n ,,,
**OCk f
oenod _________._______________ _— .— __
3035 Machine cycle status and control signals
Status ^*1
I” ” 1

Machin© cyclo IO/M s, So Control signals

1. Opcode fetch 0 1 1 RD - 0 1
0 1 0 R D «0
2 Memory read
0 0 1 WR = 0
3. Memory write
I/O read 1 1 0 RD = 0
4
I/O write 1 0 1 W R cO
5
Interrupt 1 1 1 INTA - 0
6
Acknowledge

7. Halt z 0 0 RD * o
8. Hold z X X WR = 0

9. Reset z X X INTA = 1

where Z = Tri state (high impedance)

X = Unspecified __ 1
INTERFACING I/O DEVICES
JnHrA a r e m e m W y m a p p e d 1 / 0 d e v i c e s a nd I/O mapped I/O
• For memorymapped'|/o^ a M m ^ T T ^ i a f e d a ta V a K )ff

for data transfer ' m e m o r y r e | ated instructions can be usee

usea l ' 01 e / c e e d , h e n .M>s< 2S6 men memory mapped ( 0 <■

• memory-mapped h it? '° n C a n b e Pe r f o r med directly in cased

I/O wnn
Arithmetical or loaical o
• An input and output nor/ IS 0 0 1 p o s s i b , e i n case of I/O mapped l£

differentiated by control q
030 6 Sa me a d d r ess
— - The ^vvlil
and the WR is used to SHabT th ° * U S e d '° e n a b t e
R ,h® inP U
'
• A tri-state buffer is c o m m o n ly ^ P O rt

to interface input devices.

 In ,r o d u « i o n to M gs pr „
= P r o 9ramming

four add re ssing modes.

T fie reare
-J immediate a ddressing
Register addressing
3 Direct addressing
4 indirect addressing.
instruction is a typ e of immediate addr
JM P : •
Data copy instructions d o not affect the f|a a s e S S 'n 9 '

Add and subtract are performed in relation tn

however the increm ent or decrement O D e m t i ^ ^ ° f t h e E m u la to r,
register. c a n be performed in any

In decrement or increm ent operation all flags r e aaff

9 S aare o ♦ aexcept carry
f f ected
flag CY.

In logical AND, AC is set and carry is reset

otter logical operation AC and cany both are re K I „ „
M he ) la o ss
are changed a c c o rd in g to the result. ' ag

NOT operation does not affect any flag.

Conditional jum p instructions allow the microprocessor to make decision
based on certain co nd ition s indicated by the flags.
INX and DCX d o e s not affect any of the flags.
Compare instruction w ork like subtraction but content of accumulator
and register d o e s not change.

8085 INSTRUCTION SET____________________ _____

Abbreviations u s e d in th e d e s c rip tio n o f the instruction set.

Flags
Reg. = 8085 R egister S = Sign
Mem.= M em ory Location Z = Zero
AC = Auxiliary Carry
R = R egister
Rs = R egister Source P = Parity

Rd = R egister Destination CY = Carry

M = M em ory
( ) = C ontents of
XX = R andom Information
 es«asB02!!-S!«»^
lB K
A C Iu .,. » « -X
Operand
M -Cycles T-States
Opcode 2
2

(W a(operand) and the Carry Hag are added to the contents o f

E m u l a t o r and the result is stored io the accumulator.

. A H flags ate modified to reflect the result of the addition.

. addition the previous Carry flag is cleared. '

• This instruction is commonly used in 16-bit addition and it
should not be used to account tor a carry generated by
8-btt numbers____ __________________________ _

ADC: Add Register to Accumulator with Carry

Opcode Operand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
ADC Reg 1 1 4
Mem. 1 2 7
Description:
• The contents ot the operand (register or memory) and the Carry flag are
added to the contents of the accumulator and the result is placed in the
accumulator. The contents of the operand are not altered; however, the
previous Carry flag is reset.
Flag:
• All flags are modified to reflect the result of the addition.

This instruction is generally used in 16 -b it addition. For

example, to add the contents of BC registers to the contents
of DE registers this instruction is used to account for the carry
generated by low-order bytes.

ADD : Add Register to Accumulator

Opcode Operand Bytes M -Cycles T-States
ADD Reg. 1 1 4
Mem. 1 2 7
Description:
• The contents of the operand m e ,m 0 Ly ) a d d
c o n te n t ol the accumulator ancnhe X ^ ®d "? nr
If the onerand k « m o m . e e s u n l s s t o r e d i n the accumulator,
address " h e HL r e g Z r ^ ° C a , '° n ' ‘ h a t i s ' n d l c a t e d th e
 a re m odified to reflect the
result of the addition.
mediate to Accumulator
' Add1"1
O perand Bytes
M-Cyc\es T-States
8-bit 2
data 2 7

neScriP>'°n :
V
r h e 8-bit data (operand) are added t ,u
' - " “ * “ d " » » • » .

Fia9s:
, All flags are m odified to reflect the result
• L°9i c a l A N D w ith Accum ulator ° a d d itlO r’

Opcode
ana O perand
Reg. Bytes C y c le s T-states
1

Mem. 1 1
4
Description: 2 7

• The contents
of the operandof the accum
(re giste ulator
r or am a”
memory) • " .^ N D ed * the contents
accumulator. If the operand is a memory lo c a t ® * P la c e d in ,h e

by the contents o f HL registers. 7 ’ 1s a d d r e s s is specified

Flags:
' AcV sT m 0 d i f i 6 d t 0 r e f le C ‘ *h e r e S U lt ° f , h e n a t i o n . CY is reset and

ANI: AND Im m e d ia te w ith Accumulator

Opcode O perand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
ANI 8-bit 2 2 7
data
Ascription:
’ The contents of the accum ulator are logically ANDed with the 8-bit data
Operand) and the results are placed in the accumulator.
Flags;
' S' 2. P are m o d ifie d to reflect the results of the operation. CY is reset

. a n d AC is set.
Qi.
Unconditional S u b ro u tin e Call
T-States
M-Cycles
PPode O p eran d Bytes 18
C< 5
1 6 .b it 3

a dd re ss
 M ,o«Q *sQ rrrrsi£4S i® ryirssB S sri!^rio(Lji^^

Description: transferred to the address specified by u

. The program sequenc ■s a d d r e s s o f l h e next instruction to c au
operand. Before the trans . ... p u s h e d o n t h e s t a c k U
{the contents of the Pr °9

Flags:
• No flags are affected.
CM A: Complement Accumulator
Opcode Operand Bytes M -Cycles T-States

CMA None 1 1 4

Description:
• The contents of the accumulator are com plem ented

Flags:
• No flags are affected.
CM C: Complement Carry
Opcode Operand Bytes M -Cycles T-States
CMC None 1 1 4

Description:
• TheCarry flag is complemented.
Flags:
• The Carry flag is modified, no other flags are affected.
CM P: Compare with Accumulator
Opcode Operand Bytes M -Cycles T-States
CMP Reg. 1 1 4
Mem. 1 2 7
Description:
contents e of S the Tccum U ator 6 Bom m e m o ry ) a re c o m Pa r e d w i, h ttle

,h ^ S e - ' o " o w Psr e S e r V e d a n O e

* If (A) = (Reg/Mem) ■Zero f S ^ ' T r fl£ > 9

- If (A) > (Reg/M em ): Carry and 1 , « *

• The comparison of t w o b y t e Z s r o f l a 9 s a r e reset.
of the operand from the conte fP r , O r m e d b V subtracting the contents
contents are modified. n S 0 accum ulator; however, neither

Flags:
’ S f th e op erato n° “
o “ " a d d i,io n t0 Z CY to reflect the r e s *
 CS ENGINEERING 1331]

O p e ra n d Bytes
M -Cycles
8 -b it T-States
CPI 2
^ crip ,io n . .
( The second b y te (8 -b it d a ta ) is r
accumulator. The v a lu e s b e in g C nm P a r e d w i >h the r
P a r e d r e main u n r h ' 6 n t s of
fe S 0 Its of the c o m p a ris o n are in d i r t the
=> If (A) < D a ta : C a rry f| a a te d b V setting t h e f |a " 9 e d and 'he
g is

3 lf (A ) > D a ta : C a rrY a n d Z ero f l a l ? ^ iS r e s e l -

, The com parison o f tw o b y te s is n y a re re set.

" ” 0 1 " » « . b »
s: r ' n ° c o n t ®nt is modified
«

. S. P.A C are a ls o m o d ifie d in addition t o 7 .

theoperat'on. °d C Y ,0 re ^ c t the result o f

DAA: Decimal Adjust Accumulator

Opcode O p e ra n d Bytes M-Cycles T-States
DAA None 1 1 4

Description:
• The contents of th e a ccu m u la to r are changed from a binary value of two
4-bit b in a ry-co d e d d e c im a l (BCD) digits. This is the only instruction that
uses the auxiliary flag (internally) to perform the binary-to-BCD conversion.

• S, Z, AC, P, C Y fla g s a re altered to reflect ^ e r ^ ° ^ X t o r as

Instruction D A A c o n v e rts the bm ary contents of
follows: . _ D \ i n t he accumulator is
1. If the v a lu e o f th e lo w -o rd e r four bits (U 3 - o 6 ( 0 6 ) t0 lh e

greater th a n 9 o r if A C fla g is set. the

low -order fo u r b its. / n _ n ) in the accumulator is
2- If the v a lu e o f th e h ig h -o rd e r four i s ( 7^ 4s t r u o t i o n a dds 6(60) to
greater th a n 9 o r if th e C arry flag fs set. W

the h ig h -o rd e r fo u r bits. •
•• Add R e g is te r P a ir t o H a n d L Re9 l s t e “ c ,e s T-States
Opcode O p e ra n d Bytes 1

R eg. P a ' r
 332 t
/
Description:
• The 16-bit contents of the specified register pair are added to the n
of the HL register and the sum is saved in the HL register. The c
of the source register pair are not altered.
I

X e result Is larger than 16-bits the CY flag is set. No other fla g s y

0
d lltx a c u .
Note: After the execution of the instruction, the contents of the
pointer register are not altered.
0
DCR: Decrement Source by 1
Opcode Operand Bytes M-Cycles T-State S I
DCR Reg. 1 1 4
fl
Mem. 1 3 10

Description:
. The contents of the designated register/memory is decremented by 1
and the results are stored in the same place. If the operand is a memory
location, it is specified by the contents of the HL register pair.
H
Flag:
• S, Z, P, AC are modified to reflect the result of the operation. CY is not
modified.
DCX: Decrement Register Pair by 1
Opcode Operand Bytes M-Cycles T-States [
DCX Reg. Pair 1 1 6
Description:
• The contents of the specified register pair are decrem ented by 1. This
instruction views the contents of the two registers as a 16-bit number.
Flags:
• No flags are affected.
D I : Disable Interrupts
Opcode Operand Bytes M -Cycles T-States
DI None 1 1 4
Description:
• The Interrupt Enable flip-flop is reset and all the interrupts except the
TRAP (8085) are disabled.
Flags:
• No flags are affected.
 [333]
; s e q u e n ce can no t be in L d

d e la ys, th is instruction ®r r u p , e < iF o r e x a dU "o n o f a

>and the in te rru p te d at

w a s TRAP r o p e e r >abled at in . 9 n n , n 9 of the

3O 85J ° A L 2 £ !!}2 tb e d i a t t h e end of the code.
s a b |e d

Ena bleln‘ e r r u p t s
fl'
0 p C ode O p e ra n d Bytes
^-Cycles
El None T-States
4
nescriPt i o n :
• T h e mterrupt E n ab le flip -flo p is set and all interrupts a r e e n a b fe d

Flags:
, no flags are affe cte d .

After a system reset o r the acknowledgm ent of an interrunt t h a l ,

Enable flip-flop is reset, thus disabling the interrupts. This 'inXucfonfe

HLT: Halt and Enter W ait State

Opcode O perand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
HLT None 2 or more 5 or
more
Description:
• The MPU finishes executing the current instruction and halts any further
execution. The MPU enters the Halt Acknowledge machine cycle and
Wait states are inserted in every clock period. The address and the
data bus are p la c e d in the high impedance state. The contents of the
registers are un affected during the HLT state. An interrupt or reset is
necessary to exit from the Halt state.
flags:

flags are a ffected .

IN ,ln Put Data to Accumulator from a Port with 8-bit

Opcode O perand Bytes M-Cycles

8-b it port 2

D
ad dre ss
> ST hi P , iO n : . t d the operand are read and
I e in t e n t s of the input port designs e
° a deci into the accum ulator.
Flags:
♦ No flags are affected.
gTbiTaddress; therefore, port a d d re s s ^
T he ^p era nd^sa n
?rom OOH to FFH. While executing the instruction, a
',0 can range I . s- is duplicated on low -order (A - A ) and high.
7 o
port address is
A ) address buses. Any one of the sets of address
order (A 1 5 -^ _ . _ _______ tho inm it nort
lines can be de
------ - ------------- - -------
f Register/Memory by 1
INR: Increment Contents o
Bytes M -Cycles T-States
Opcode Operand
1 1 4
INR Reg-
1 3 10
Mem. .
Description:
. The contents of the designated register/m em ory are incremented by 1
and the results are stored in the same place. If the operand is a memory
location, it is specified by the contents of HL register pair.

Flags:
• S, Z, P, AC are modified to reflect the result of the operation. CY is not
modified.
INX : Increment Register Pair by 1
Opcode Operand Bytes M -C ycles T-States
INX Reg. Pair 1 1 6
Description:
• The contents of the specified register pair are increm ented by 1. The
instruction views the contents of the two registers as a 16-bit number.
Flags:
• No flags are affected.
JM P: Jump Unconditionally
Opcode Operand Bytes M -C ycles T-States
JMP 16-bit 3 3 10
Description:
enO e
' S t r a n s f e r r e d to the m em o ry location specified
soecffies thP o^ h S J h iS * a in stru ction ; the second byte
specifies the low-order byte and the third byte s p e c ifie s the high-order

o rd e rth e is e n t e r e d in m em ory in reverse

 AHANDBOOKo n el ect r onics engineer ing
: L° a d A c c u iy l a tor Direct
Opcode O p e ra n d Bytes
^ -C y c le s
l da 16-bit T-States
3
address 4
13
Description'-
, The contents of a m em ory Ioc a t j

ad d re ss and .he ,h i r d s p X

[n e high-order address.
Flags:
, No flags are affected.

tDAX: Load Accumulator Indirect

Opcode O p e ra n d B vtes u
M «
LDAX B/D reg. j ’ C y c le s T-States

Pair 7

Description:
. The contents of the designated register pair point to a memory location
This instruction co p ie s the contents of that memory location into the
accumulator. The contents of either the register pair of the memory location
are not altered.
Flags:
• No flags are affected.
LHLD: Load H and L Registers Direct
Opcode O p e ra n d Bytes M -Cycles T-States
LHLD 16-bit 3 5 16
address
Description:
• The instruction c o p ie s the contents of the memory location pointed out
by the 16-bit a d d re s s in register L and copies the contents of the next
memory location in register H. The contents of source memory locations
a re not altered.
Flags;
* No flags are a ffe cte d .
^'■•Load Register Pair Im m ediate
Opcode O p e ra n d B y te S
M -C ycles T-States

LXI Reg. pair. 3 3 10

16-bit d a ta
J J J -■ ——

Description: d a t a i n t h e register pair designated ir >lh

. The instruction l o a d ® ' t r u c t ion; the second byte specifies th e
eW
operand. This is a 3-by j f j e s t h e high-order byte,
order byte and the third byte sp

Flags:
• No flags are affected.

This is the only instruction that can directly load a 16-bit ad d r e s s

in the stack pointer register. __----------------------------

MOV: Move - Copy from Source to Destination

Bytes M-Cycles T-States
Opcode Operand
Rd, Rs 1
MOV
2 7
MOV M, Rs
MOV Rd, M

Description:
• This instruction copies the contents of the source register into the
desination register; the contents of the source register are not altered. If
one of the operands is a memory location, it is specified by the contents
of HL registers.
Flags:
• No flags are affected.
M VI: Move Immediate 8-Bit
Opcode Operand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
MVI Reg., Data 2 2 7
Mem., Data 2 3 10
Description
• The 8-bit data are stored in the destination register or memory. If the
operand is a memory location, it is specified by the contents of HL
registers.
Flags:
• No flags are affected.
NOP: No Operation

Opde
ON “ NTnr M‘CyCleS
Description: 1

■ ’ "a
 AHANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (337

f 8 No fia9s a r e a lfe c le d '

or to delete and insert

A-
oR Lo9
V-
ic a ,ly 0 R w lth Accumulator
Opcode Operand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
ORA Reg,
1 4
Mem. 1 2 7
Description:
• The contents of the accumulator are loaicallvORnH
the operand (register of memory) a^d t h / R e d W lth th e contents of
accumulator. If the operand is a memory lorar S p l a c e d in t h e

by the contents of HL registers. IO n ’ ' S a d d r e s s is specified

Flags:
* Z '- 'r L T m ° d lf ie d t 0 r e f l e c t t h e r e sults of the operation. AC and CY
are r6S6l.
ORI: Logically OR Im m ediate
Opcode Operand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
ORI 8-bit 2 2
data
Description:
• The contents of the accumulator are logically ORed with the 8-bit data in
the operand and the results are placed in the accumulator.
Flags:
• S, Z, P are modified to reflect the results of the operation. CY and AC
are reset.
OUT: Output Data from Accumulator to a Port with 8-Bit Address
Opcode O perand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
OUT 8-bit port 2 3 10
address
description: ... .
• The contents of the accumulator are copied into the output port specified
by the operand.
Flags;

flags are affected.

A m e n ts :
T h e operand is an 8-bit address; therefore, port addresses can range

from OOH to FFH. While executing the instruction, a port address is

 . r artdress bus (Ay —Ag) as well as the hiqh.n r ^
p 'a c, e d °" '^ a0 W ' a ) Any of the sets of address lines can be d e c o ^ '
address bus (A 15 j etj
to enable the output port. ________ _
Counter with HL Contents
PCHL: Load Program
Operand Bytes M -C ycles
Opcode
None
6
PCHL

Thecontents of registers H and L are cop ie d into the program counter.

The contents of H are placed as a high-order byte and of L as a low-

order byte.
Flag:
• No flags are affected.
C — This instruction is equivalent to a 1-byte unconditional Jump"
instruction. A program sequence can be changed to any
location by simply loading the H and L registers with the
cotHMtentg appropriate address and by using this instruction.

POP : Pop off Stack to Register Pair

Opcode Operand Bytes M -C ycles T-States
POP Reg. Pair 1 10
Description:
• The contents of the memory location pointed out by the stack pointer
register are copies to the low-order register (such as C, E, L and flags)
of the operand. The stack pointer is increm ented by 1 and the contents
of that memory location are copied to the high-order register (B, D, H, A)
of the operand. The stack pointer register is again increm ented by 1.
Flags:
• No flag is modified.

Operand PSW (Program Status W ord) represents the contents

of the accumulator and the flag register, the accum ulator is
COMfWitt the high-order register and the flags are the low-order register.

|* ? * j th n m ? ” ,8 O f th e S o u r c e ' s t a c k iocations, are not altered after

the POP instruction.

PUSH : Push Register Pair onto Stack

Opcode Operand Bytes
PUSH Regi. p a ir M-Cycles T-States
1
3 12
 0 1 ^ ------
A^ANPBQOKOhLELECrRgNlCS ENGINEERING [339]
tio n :
)ScriP
The conten s o r ®9 , s e r Pa ’ r designated in the operand are copied
into the stac i n ® 0 o w , n 9 sequence. The stack pointer register is
decremented and the contents of the high-order register (B, D, H, A) are
copied into that location. The stack pointer register is decremented again
and the contents of the low-order register (C, E, L, flags) are copied to
♦wot location.

ags:
No flags are m odified.

< O perand PSW (Program Status Word) represents the contents

- of the accum ulator and the flag register; the accumulator is high-
- order register and the flags are low-order register

L: Rotate Accumulator Left through Carry

Opcode O perand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
RAL None 1 1 4

iscription:
Each binary bit of the accum ulator is rotated left by one position through
the Carry flag. Bit D 7 is placed in the bit in the Carry flag and the Carry
flag is place d in the least significant position Do .

lags:
CY is m odified a c c o rd in g to bit D 7 . S, Z, AC, P are not affected.

The in stru ction effectively provides a 9-bit accumulator. The

_ original contents of the accumulator can be restored by using
<____ in stru ction RAR (Rotate Accumulator Right through Carry).
However, the contents will be modified if the instruction RRC
(Rotate A c c u m u la tor Right) is used to restore the contents.

R: Rotate Accumulator Right through Carry

Opcode O perand Bytes M-Cycles a es

RAR None 1 1

'ascription: r ' ' is rotated right by one position through

Each binary bit of the accum ulator is
it D o is p la c e d in the Carry flag and the bit in the Carry
the Carry flag. B
the m ost significant position D 7 .
tiag is p la ce d in
kgs:
S, Z, P, AC are not affected.
CY is m odified a c c o rd in g to bit Do -
 [3401 MICROPROCESSORS4CPMPUTEROH6ANIZA..ON

RLC : Rotate Accumulator Left

Opcode Operand EM 0 8 M-Cyolea I Hlttttitj
RLC None 1 4
Description:
. Each binary bit of the accumulator is rolala. l lull by Olis poaiimn |) l l ( i
is placed in the position ol D„ as woll as In the Garry [lap,

Flags:
• CY is modified according to bil D?. S, Z, I , AC m u nul ntltn.InH

The contents of bil D 7 are placed in bit I )(J, and Ilin Cany flnq
modified accordingly. However, the co n le n tso l the Cniry nrci
placed in bit 0 D as In instruction RAL.

RRC : Rotate Accumulator Right

Opcode Operand Bytes M C y c lo e T-Stfltos
RRC None 1 1 4

Description:
I
d
• Each binary bit of the accumulator Is rotated right by one position Bit
Do is placed in the position of D7 as well as In the Carry ling, I
5?
Flags:
3
• CY is modified according to bit Do . S, Z, P, AC are not affected,

y /’ The contents of bit Do are placed in bit D 7 , and the Carry Hag le
modified accordingly. However, the contents ol th© Carry are not
placed in bit D 7 , as in the instruction R A R , J v
(!

R ET: Return from Subroutine Unconditionally

■

Opcode Operand Bytes M -C yclea T-States

RET None 1 3 10
Description:
• The program sequence is transferred from the subroutine to the calling
program, The two bytes from the top of the stack are copied into th0
program counter and the program execution begins at the now addrosseS' %
The instruction is equivalent to POP program counter.
Flags:
• No flags are affected.

This instruction is used in conjunction w ith C ALL or condition^1

call instructions,
 „ c a 5Y A HANDBOOK ON
1341]
Read interrupt Mask
<Lnde o p e ra n d Bytes M-Cycles T-States
None
plM 1

This is a multipurpose instruction used to read th» ,

' pits
7 5 in
6.5,5.5 and to readwith
serial t ho US inl er r upt s • , °
the accumulator thedata input bit
following interpretations-° n '° a d S

u 7 u 6 o 5
d3 D, D. Dn
0
SID 17 16 15 IE 7.5 6.5 5.5
— r---- 1 -----
—J , ___1
Serial in p u t <
data b it
L—►Interrupts

m asked if
bit = 1
In te rru p ts —
* Interrupts
p e n d in g if
enable
b it = 1 flip-flop is set
if bit = 1

Flags:
, No flags are affected.
5BB: Subtract Source and Borrow from Accumulator
Opcode O perand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
SBB Reg. 1 1 4
Mem. 1 2 7
Description:
» The contents of the operand (register or memory) and the Borrow flag
are subtracted from the contents of the accumulator and the results are
placed in the accumulator. The contents of the operand are not altered;
however, the previous Borrow flag is reset.
Flags
’ All flags are altered to reflect the result of the subtraction.
SBI: Subtract Im m ediate w ith Borrow
Opcode O perand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
SBI 8-bit 2 2 7

data
Ascription:
’ 8-bit data (operand) and the borrow are subtracted from the contents
of the accumulator, and the results are placed in the accumulator.
F|ags:

’ AH ’lags are altered to reflect the result of the operation.

[342] MICROPROCESSORS & COMPUTER ORGANIZATION mA De
S H LD : Store H and L Registers Direct
Opcode Operand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
SHLFD 16-bit 3 5 16

address
Description:
• The contents of register L are stored in the memory location specify
by the 16-bit address in the operand, and the contents of H register are
stored in the next memory location by incrementing the operand. The
contents of registers HL are not altered. This is a 3-byte instruction; the
second byte specifies the low-order address and the third byte specifies
the high-order address.
Flags:
• No flags are affected.
SIM : Set Interrupt Mask
Opcode Operand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
SIM None 1 1 4
Description:
• This is a multipurpose instruction and used to implement the 8085
interrupts (RST 7.5,6.5 and 5.5) and serial data output.
The instruction interrupts the accumulator contents as follows:

D7 D6 ^5 d4 d3 d2 d, do
SOD SDE XXX R7 5 MSE M7.5 M6.5 M5.5
I I ----- I I L_ I' ‘.J
Serial I
0 . Reset RST 7.5 Masks Interrupts
d a la flip-flop if D4 = 1 if bits = 1
▼ ▼
Serial data enable Mask set enable
I = Enable if D3 = 1
0 = Disable
=> SOD (Serial Output Data): Bit D 7 of the accumulator is latched into
the SOD output line and made available to a serial peripheral if bit
D6 = 1 .
=> SDE (Serial Data Enable): If this bit = 1, enables the serial output
To implement serial output, this bit needs to be enabled.
=> XXX: Don't care
=> R7.5 (Reset RST 7.5): If this bit = 1, RST 7.5 flip-flop is reset. This
is an additional control to reset RST 7 5
=> MSE (Mask Set Enable): If this bit is high, it enables the function5
of bits D2 . D ,, Do . This is a master control over all the interrupt masW
 pits. II this bit is low. bits D „ D anH i a
the masks ' not have any niiwcl on
D j = 0. RST 7 5 is enabled.
UR R D I o RST f i t j n ’ a 8 k 6 d o r
M6-5. ~ o, i to I 6.5 Is correct
URR- D I o R ^ ® l i S " ’ a S k e c ) 0’ « M b W
M6.5. Do - u, RSI 5.5 is enabled
1. RST 5.5 is masked or disabled.
Qorrwnants:
, This instruction does not affect TRAP Interrupt.
$PHL: Copy H and L Registers to the Stack Pointer
Opcode O p e ra n d B ytes M -Cycles
T-Statos
SPHL None 1 i 6(8085)
5(8080)
Description:
• The instruction loads the contents ot the H and I. registers Into the stack
pointer register, the contents of the H register provide the high order
address, and the contents of the L register provide the low-order address.
The contents o f the H and L registers are not altered.
Flags:
• No flags are affected.

i7 This instruction perform s the same function as MOV A, M except

I — ■ this instruction uses the contents of BC or DE as memory pointers.
I. *—■<»____________________________ -- ——z

STA: Store Accumulator Direct

Opcode O p e ra n d B ytes M -C ycles T-States
STA 16-Bit 3 13
Description:
* The contents of the accum ulator are copied to a memory location specified
by the operand. This is a 3-byte instruction; the second byte specifies io
low-order ad dre ss and the third byte specifies the high-order address.

No flags are affected.

: Store Accumulator Indirect

Opcode M -C ycles T-States
O p e ra n d B ytes
STAX 1 2
B/D reg.
pair
 [3441 MICROPROCESSORS aCOMPyTERO RCANIZATtON MA g E ^

Description: .
• The contents of the accumulator are co p ie d into the memory fo c a ^
specified by the contents of the operand (register pair). The c o n te n t^
the accumulator are not altered.

Flags:
• No flags are affected.

STC: Set Carry

Opcode Operand Bytes M -Cycles T-States
STC None 1 1 4

Description:
• The Carry flag is set to 1.
Flags:
• No other flags are affected.
SUB: Subtract Register or Memory from Accumulator
Opcode Operand Bytes M -Cycles T-States
SUB Reg. 1 1 4
Mem. 1 2 7

Description:
• The contents of the register or the mem ory location specified by the
operand are subtracted from the contents of the accum ulator, and the
results are placed in the accumulator. The contents of the source are not
altered.
Flags:
• All flags are affected to reflect the result of the subtraction.
S U I: Subtract Immediate from Accumulator
Opcode Operand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
SUI 8 -b itd a ta 2 2 7
Description:
• The 8~bit data (the operand) are sub tracted from the contents of the
accumulator, and the results are placed in the accum ulator.
Flags:
• All flags are m odified to reflect the results of the sub tractio n.
XCHG: Exchange H and L with D and E
“ ° ^ ra n d Bytes M-Cycles T-States
xuhu None i t /I
 EASY 1345]

contents of register H ar© exrhann^rj .x,

p and the contents of register L are t t ? ' h t h e c o n t e n t s o f r e 9's t e r
e exchanged with the contents of
r c

No flags are affected.

Exclusive OR w ith A ccum ulator
Opcode Operand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
XRA Reg. 1 1 4
Mem. 1 2 7
Description:
. The contents of the operand (register or memory) are Exclusive ORed
with the contents of the accumulator, and the results are placed in the
accumulator. The contents of the operand are not altered.
Rags:
• Z, S. P are altered to reflect the results of the operation. CY and AC are
reset.
XRI: Exclusive OR Im m e d ia te w ith Accum ulator
Opcode O perand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
XRI 8-bit data 2 2 7
Description:
• The 8-bit data (operand) are Exclusive ORed with the contents of the
accumulator, and the results are placed in the accumulator.
Rags:
• Z, S, P are altered to reflect the results of the operation. CY and AC are
reset.
XTHL: Exchange H a n d L w ith Top o f Stack
Opcode O perand Bytes M-Cycles T-States
XTHL None 1 5 16

Description:
• The contents of the L register are exchanged with the stack location
Pointed out by the contents of the stack pointer register. The contents of
the H register are exchanged with the next stack location (SP + 1);
however, the contents of the stack pointer register are not altered.
Rags:
Ro flags are affected.
 11461 MICROPROCESSORS & COMPUTER ORGANIMATION

COUNTER AND TIME DELAYS___________________________

• Counters are used primarily to keep track of events.
• Time delays are important in setting up reasonably accurate timing
between two events.
• 1ime delay can be introduced using a loop and total delay =
execute instructions outside loop + time to execute loop instructions
pl = f -r- f - 1 where TD = Total delay
I..P 2 L 51— l a | = T i m e t 0 execute instructions outside loop

T u\ =Time to execute loop instructions.

• Normally To is very small and neglected in most of the cases.
• The accuracy of time delay depends on the accuracy of the system's
clock.
• Intel 8254 is a programmable timer chip that can be interfaced with
microprocessor and programmed to provide with considerable accuracy

STACK AND SUBROUTINE__________________________________

• Stack is a set of memory locations used to store binary information
(byte) temporarily during execution of a program.
• By using these PUSH and POP instruction we can change the flag status
without performing any arithmetical or logical operations.
• Higher address data is copied to higher byte register and lower order
data is copied to lower byte register.
• Stack and stack pointer are two different things.
• It follows the principle of last in-first out (LIFO).
• Subroutine is also a program written outside main program .
CALL and RET instructions are used for execution of subroutine and
after execution, return to main program.
RSTO -> Call 0000H
RST1 -> Call 0008H
RST2-> Call 0010H
RST3->Call0018H
RST4 Call 0020 H
RST5 -> Call 0028 H
RST6-> Call 0030 H
RST7 -> Call 0038 H
 Interrupts

ExCep'
'V ' . Except INTR, all are vectored interrupts.
*-**-** • In interrupts priority order is
TRAP > RST 7.5 > RST 6.5 > RST 5.5 > INTR
• Hold has higher priority than TRAP.
— ________ /
■
» INTA <s used only with INTR.
► INTR is used to increase the number of interrupts.
RST 7.5 -» Call 003C H
RST 6.5 -> Call 0034 H
RST 5.5 -> CallOO2CH
TRAP -> Call 0024 H
. input pulse to INTR must be higher atleast for 17.5T-states and for 3
MHz clock frequency it should be high atleast for 5.8 psec.
• Interpretation of the accum ulator bit pattern for the SIM instruction

SOD SDE XXX R7.5 MSE M7.5 M6.5 M5.5

Serial O,P
data iQnored <
rfSDE = O RST 7.5 Mark t q _ available
Ignored
RST 6.5 Mark 1 1 = Mark
If 1 bit D- is Q/P ▼ RST 5.5 Mark
to serial 0 T 4— Reset Mark
data latch RST 7.5 set
if this is 1 enable

• RIM and SIM instructions are not only used for interrupt
AZ' process but also used for serial I/O process.
• TRAP is level and edge triggered both

• RST 7.5 is edge triggered.

• RST 6.5. RST 5.5 and INTR are level triggered.

Interrupt signal on pin RST 7.5 can be stored.

£348] M ICROPROCESSORS & COMPUTER ORGANIZATlON j y i n n;- ^

• Interpretation of the accumulator bit pattern for the RIM instruct)

STD 175 165 155 IE M7.5 M6.5 M5.5 'on ■

<____ ______

Serial input
| Interrupt mark: 1 = marked
data if any

Interrupt enable flag: 1 = enabled

Pending interrupts. 1 = pending

8259A is a programmable interrupt controller and is used to implement
and extend the capability of the 8085 interrupt.
It manages 8 interrupt requests.
 8155 I/O & Timer and
Keyboard/Pisplay
Control word definition in the 8155

De
D<

■xO
■ 0

0
0
00 = NOP -» No effect Part A Part B
Part C
on timer
L I
00 = ALT 1 I
00 = stop -> Slop counting if 11= ALT 2
timer is running 01 = ALT 3 0 = i/p
10 = Stop after TO 10 = ALT4 1 = o/p
[terminal count]
11 = Start —> Start timer if it
IEa = Interrupt enable part A
is not running.
1 = Enable
0 = Disable

*■ IEb = Interrupt enable part

1 = Enable
0 = Disable

Pulse period
Timer c o u n t =
Clock period
The timer section of 8155 has two 8-bit registers; 14 bits are used for the
counter, tw o bits for the tim er mode.
m2 M1
0 0 -» M odeO Remains high for half of the count and goes low
for rest of count, providing single square wave.
0 1 -> M o d e l -> For generating continuous square wave.
1 0 -> M ode 2 -> |n this m ode a single clock pulse is provided at
th e e n d of the c o u n t like m o n o s ta b le
multivibrator.
1 1 M ode 3 -» This is similar to mode 2 except the initial count
is reloaded to provide a continuous wave form.
 Computer Organization
CONTENTS

1 Bas>c 351 352

2 Gtacjh 363'364

3 Ttw 355 356

4 Siac* & Queue 357 360

5 | Ma* 360% '

 Basic

High level languages are machine indeoendpnt i

Example: C, C ++, Java, Pascal. la W a g e s .

Machine specific languages are known as Inw /*., / /

Example. Machine language and assemhk 'anguages.
languages. ^ d assembly language are both low level

Compiler or interpreter converts source code into object code

interpreter reads one hne at a time and converts it into oNect code
w h |le com pter reads whole program at a time and converts it into object

code.
, Interpreter takes more time than compiler.
, Loaders one which load the program from secondary memory to main
memory. •
i LinkerwW link external files to program.
• Suppose we have given that
a
wooFTo
here, variable name is a
a= 10
& a (address of a) = 1000.
*(& a) gives the value at address 1000 = 10
* is called de-reference operator.
int a[5] = {40, 60, 80, 100, 120}
it represents continuous memory location of 10 bytes.
here a + 1 = base address + 2 x 1
a + 2 = base address + 2 x 2
a + 3 = base address + 2 x 3
*(a) = 40
* (a + 1 ) = 60
So a[i] = *[a + i] , ,
Every non zero value means true and zero value f l c u t jo n o f
a+ + -> implies p o s t in c re m e n t that is increment after execution of

9>ven line. . fi t increment then execution of

+ + a - » implies p re in c r e m e n t # ^ |S

line.
V ft k\ W W I W A N U ATIQN M APM | ASY

* A ■1V V $ A \ < t f c •V K
* 4 i‘V A< AVr xW - *» ‘*

S ist **d K*W9* v»t tXV** * 1* Mavhhw:

i\v* $4* <b»fcO H«nyt>

C V V \ X ‘ C’ M <? U ^tv I/-*

V< \X‘ e x* 0 K'
i^ C t S ^ W !■< <V ^ t k' <■<-'V'*
x J ^ X X '. X V K'
S vi-. i x s > w s'x'tt i x t?a t\'i; z
. c y fXo ^x?xx‘ v»v K ^se v\ U \4 « k \ ttkH e?, 14-'. 4 X \^ b ’

a ‘^ \ x ' x^v ‘i x^v' 0 tv 4 '.?9b

Xv-* 1
<44 1 tv xU t »■aa
xT C xO * t ‘ E W tv I ZI » 308
ex: a x .c s <?
1 w ME 4 W tO 11 BE»4932

^ e 'x rx s 'w E a - IQ 4 and t »a 10u

 Graph

G (V, E) represent a g ra p h
where v - {se t of vertices
E = {set o f e d g e s }

E = {e 1 , e2, e3, e4, e5, e 6 |

s lm
p e g ra p h e lf lo o p a n d p a r a l l e l e d g e s a re

in m u ltig ra p h se lf lo o p a n d p a ra lle l e d g e s are allowed

i
Number of e d g e s fro m a v e rtic e s is c a l |e d d e g r ee of vertices
M l g ra p h is a s im p le g ra p h having d e gre e of every vertices as zero

» II in a sim ple g ra p h d e g re e of e ve ry vertices is same then it is called

regular g ra p h .
II degree of e v e ry v e rtic e s is K, it is ca lle d K-regular graph.
If in simple g ra p h every ve rtic e s is adjacent to all other remaining vertices
then it is c a lle d c o m p le te g ra p h .
Number of e d g e s in a c o m p le te g ra p h having n vertices is

2
In a sim ple g ra p h h a v in g n-ve rtice s, m axim um degree of any vertices

is |(n —1)1.

M _ nK
In a K -regular g ra p h h a vin g n -vertice s, num ber of edges 2 •

• In u n d ire c te d g ra p h o rd e r is not im portant.

• In d ire c te d g ra p h o rd e r is im portant.
• In u n d ire c te d g ra p h

£ d e g (i) = 2 x n u m b e r of e d g e s

ii=1 ____ — —= = = = =
[354: M l r R O PROCESSORS&CO M Egg«PB- G A N ' Z A T I O N M * PEUsy
mere are two degrees in de gre e and outdegrgg
ivhose direction is tow ards a vertices.
■s whose direction is aw ay from a vertices.

For a c reeled graph

Numoer of vertices simp!'

is always even.

Maximum numcer of s mp.e graph possible with n vertices is

A connected graph is that graph n which there is a direct or indirect

path Detween any set of vertices if it is not the case then this is
disconnected graph.
 free is d ire c te d a c y lic graph.
^cylic means there is no loop.
H ere direction is always from parent to child
tfe can start only from root element.
in a given tree if each node has degree 2 or less rh=.n o ,k
I e s s t h a n 2 t h e r >« is called
b i n a ry tree.

in a strict b in a ry tre e every node degree is either 2 or 0

If m a given binary tree all the elements present in left subtree are less
or equal to all he elem ent present in right subtree plus root elemen
then this is called b in a ry s e a rc h tree.
The number of binary search tree possible with n-vertices is

2n

If at every level num ber of children to parent vertices is either 2 or zero

then it is called c o m p le te b in a ry tree.

If there is / levels then number of nodes in a complete binary

noit

tree is N n = 2 Z - 1

height of tree = number of levels - 1

•0J« • Height of a co m plete binary tree having n - nodes is

h = lo g 2 (n +1) - 1

If there are n-nodes then m axim um height possible for a binary tree is

max n

There are three type s of tree traversal

Inorder (Left sub tree, Root, Right subtree)

.. p °st order (Left subtree, Right subtree, Root)__________ _
can c o n s t r u S t t ^ f P ^ ^ p 0 S t ° rd e r

and inorder is given. n ^ m n Q tm rt

• If preorder and post order is given then we can not construct

exact tree.
- ^ I J n o r d e r traversal -------------------
[356] MICROPROCESSORS & COMPUTER ORG A N IZA TIO N— MADEEASy

SPANNING TREE____________________________________
A connected subgraph H of a given graph G is said to be spanning tree if
(i) H contains all the vertices of G.
(ii) H should contain ( n - 1 ) edges if G contains n vertices.

• Complete graph having n-vertices has Ns = n n-2

where Ns -> number of spanning trees of given graph.

• Number of rooted spanning trees NR = nn-1

Operates and their priorities —

Operator Priority Associativity

(from higher to lower)
1. T 1 R -» L
2. */ 2 L -R
3. +- 3 L -R

/vora
( ) -> has highest priority and associativity is from L-R.
 Stack & Queue

5tacJL-—----------------- --- -------- --------------------

side is open and other side is closed.
' follow LIFO or FIL O.
Top is a variable which contains position of newly inserted element.
If top = ~ 1 ~ i m p l i e s that there is no element in the stack.
program for Inserting an Element in the Stack
S - stack,
push N TOP,
(S. N, - number
x) of element
ent
s ’ X~ ‘
S new s c e n t s to be inserted.

if (T 0 P = = N -1 )
{
printf("stack is full");
exit (1);
}
else
{
TOP = TOP + 1;
S[TOP] = x;

}
Program for D eleting an Elem ent from Stack
• Deletion of an element means over writing.
POP(S, N, TOP)
{ int y;
if (TOP = = - 1 )

printf(“stack is empty”);
exit (1);

else
{
y = S[TOP];
TOP = T O P - 1;
return (y);
}
}
 (358J MICROPROCESSORS &l COMPUTE^RGANLz A T | ON MADg EA s y
• Stack finds application in infix to postfix, prefix to postfix convurs^
• It also finds application in postfix evaluation, in recursion and solving
problem of towers of Hanoi.
* Inorder to evaluate infix and prefix expression many scan7>

•
a •
are required.
Inorder to evaluate postfix expression one scan is enouqh
Recursive program takes more space as compared to non recursive
prog ram.
For every recursive program there is anon recursive program a n j
vice-versa.________________ _ ___________________
Important Points:
For static variables memory will be created only once and initialization
is done only once.

QUEUE_________________________________________________
• One side insertion and other side deletion.
• Follow FIFO.
• Frontis a variable which contains position of the element to be deleted.
• Rearis a variable which contains position of the newly inserted element.
Operations Insertion () -> [Enqueue]
Deletion () -> [degree]
Program for Insertion of an Element to Queue
Q -> Queue
F -» Front
R -» Rear
N -> number of element in Queue
x -> new element to be inserted.
Enqueue [Q, N, F, R, x]

if(R = = N - 1 )

printff'Queue is full”);
}
else
I
if(R = = - i &&F = = _ n
{
F = 0;
 R tA R NUBO O K O N ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING l1 5 ,l

1
else
I
R • R + I;
Q (R )« x;

fo r
ra m Deletion of an Element from Queue
Pr° Deque (Q .N .F .R )

printff'Q ueue is empty");

exit (1);
I
else
I
y = Q[F];
if (F = = R)
F = R = -1
else
F = F + 1;
} •
return y;
1
• In a queue input is given from one side but deletion is possible from
both the sides if is called in pu t restricted queue.
• If input can be given from both the sides but deletion is possible only
from one side then it is called output restricted queue.
• If insertion and deletion can be done from both the end then it is called
double ended queue.
• If insertion and deletion can be done in anyway then it is called priority
queue.

■■■
 Memory M a n a g e r^

I/O TRANSFERRING MODES

1. Programmed I/O goal -> transferring data from I/O

2. Interrupt initiated I/O to main memory orvice-versa.
3. DMA (direct memory access) J
• In programmed I/O, we are not using CPU efficien y.
• It is not suitable for multiprogramming.
. In interrupt initiated I/O we are using CPU more efficiently as compared
to programmed I/O.
• It is suitable for multiprogramming.
• It is difficult to implement.
• DMA is fastest data transfer mode among above three.
• It does not use CPU for data transfer.
• To transfer one word data from I/O to main memory, I/O is stealing one
cycle of CPU is called cycle stealing.
Types of Memories
□ Secondary storage device (GB, cast is cheaper).
□ Main memory (MB) - middle.
□ Cache memory (KBs) cast is more.
Note: Cache is used to increase the speed of operation.
Access Time Calculation for Secondary Storage Device
• Average seek time is time required to bring read-write head into
required track.
• Rotational latency is the amount of time required to bring read-write
head into required sector which is already present in required track.
• Transfer time is time required to transfer the data.
Avg. acess time = avg. seek time + rotational latency + transfer time]

Calculation of Avg access time for Main Memory

[Avg.acess time = HTC + (1 - H)TM j
where H — hit ratio in cache memory.

Tc -4 access time from cache memory.

Tm -> access time from main memory.

 MADe.EASY----------------- D B O
OKON^LECTRONICS ENGINEERING [361 ]
■Herno'y M apping Technique
, Direct m apping
♦ Less comparisons
♦ Problem of overwriting
* Associative m apping
♦ Maximum comparisons
♦ Less overwriting problem
• Set associative m apping
♦ Medium comparisons
♦ Medium overwriting
Page Replacement A lgo rithm
□ FIFO
♦ Used when page fault is less.
♦ if frames are increased, page fault also increases, this is called
B e lo d y ’s Anomaly.
__; ~
FIFO is suffering with Belody’s anomaly.
'
Optimal Page Replacem ent
• Less page fault as com pared to others.
• Not possible to implement practically.
j^«j It does not suffer with Belody’s anomaly,
k_________________________________________
Least Recently Used [LRU]
• It is most frequently used.
• Give less page fault as compared to FIFO.
• It does not suffer with Belody’s anomaly.
 Miscellaneous
6.

STRUCTURE UNION AND LINKED LIST________________________

------------------------ --------- -------------------------
• Structure and union are user defined data type.
• Linked list is called self referential data structure.
• List means collection of more than one data type.
• In linear linked list (single linked list) we can move only in one direction.
• In circular linked list we can come back.
• Drawback of circular linked list is that it may go to infinite loop more
often.
• In double linked list, advantage is that if we loose one pointer, we will
get it back using second pointer.
• Array, Stack, Queue all are linear data structure.
• Graph and tree are self referential data structure.
• In call by value modification is done in copy not in original file.
• In call by reference modification is done in original file.

C - language by default support the call by value.

• int*a[10] — represents array of integer pointers.

• in t(* b )[5 ]
• int * f ( )
• int *f (int, int)
• in t ( * f ) ( )
• int *(* f) ( )
• in t(‘ f[1 O ])()
• int * (* f) (int *, int *)
— b contain an address which indicate the
address of array (base address) which
contains five elements.
— is function which return address of an
integer value.
— return address of integer variable.
- f is a pointer pointing to a function which
will return integer.
_ f is a pointer pointing to a function which
will return address of a integer value.
-
array of 10 pointers pointing to a function
which will return integer
— f is a pointer pointing to a function which
will return integer pointer and take two
integer pointer as input.
 O N ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [363]

Possible
■pointer - Pointer
Not possible
pointer + Pointer
Not possible
Not possible
pointer x Pointer
Possible
pointer + integer constant
Possible
pointer - integer constant
ki an e x f r a T 1
ta n g
internal
Externalsorting
sortingisisso
Ortin
r tingg without
by taking

Internal sorting q u ic k sort, i n s e r t i o n k ay '

arf
ay size is sm all. bubble s o rt is a p p lie d w h e n

erge so rt is applied
is la r 9 e
sorting m -------------------
vernal --------------

Complexity of bubble sort for average case and worst case is

J • Best case com plexity of bubble sort is O(n).

• Com plexity of q u ic k sort for average case is O(n log n).
Complexity of q u ick sort for worst case is O(n2 ),
• Complexity of insertion sort is O(n 2 ) for average and worst case and
for best case it is O (n) bu t it is more efficient than bubble sort.
• Complexity of m erge sort is O(n log n).
 A Handbook on
Electronics Engineering

10
Electrical Materials
CONTENTS
i Dielectric P ro p e rtie s o f In su lato rs in S tatic Field .......................366-369

2 Dielectric B re a k d o w n .................................................................... 370-371

3 Magnetic P ro p e rtie s o f M a te ria ls 372-376

4 Conductive M a te ria ls ..................................................377-379

- Semiconductors ............................................. 380-380

381-382
isolating M a te r ia ls ..........

Structure of M a te r ia ls ...... 383-383

 Dielectric Properties of Insulators in Static fj^j

DIELECTRIC PARAMETERS

Dielectric Constant
Also called permittivity
where, e r = Relative permittivity
e 0 = Permittivity of vacuum
e 0 = 8.854 x 10’ 12 farad-m etre -1

Dipole Moment
-Q +Q
p = Qd D ebye
M---------d --------- H
1 Debye = 3.33 x 1O-3 0 coulomb-metre

Dipole moment points from the negative charge to the positive

charge. It is vector quantity.

Polarization
P P = Np C oulom b/m 2
Volume ’ -----------
where, N = Number of dipoles per unit volume

Polarizability
p = aE where, a = Polarizability, farad-m 2
E = Electric field intensity, V/m
p = Dipole moment, coulomb-m

Electric Flux Density D= e E (for isotropic materials)

In isotropic materials g is independent of the direction.

□ E le ctric flux density when an e le ctric fie ld is a p p lie d .

D = e0 E + P

□ P olarization |P = € 0 (e, -1)E = 6o X ag |; e

Ze = r -1
where. x e = Susceptibility of the dielectric m edium

% _ Bound c h a rg e d ensity
Gn(er — 1)
e Free c h a rg e density 1
(X — \ r l
N N
 □ The stored energy per unit volum e ^i E NGINEERING [367]

ln a dielectric medium due

to polarization W = ^ P E Pnianc

pol ar izat ion _____________________

^ ^ i T o r l n d u c e d Polarization

, Observed in all types of materials

□ Electronic polarization
Pe = N a e E where, a Q = Electronic polarizability
a 0 = 4 tc e Q R3
where, R = Radius of atom

— N
a rare gas)
Ionic Polarization
□ Ionic polarization

R = Na) E where, a, = Ionic polarizability

Orientational P o larization
□ Orientational Polarization
L _ N p p2 E where, N = Number of permanent dipoles
0 3kT Pp = Permanent dipole moment
E = Electric field intensity
= Boltzmann constant
= Temperature

□ O rientational p o la riz a b ility Pp

= Curie law
“° 3kT
a Total p o la riz a tio n of a po lya to m ic gas

f Pp 1
P = P e + P !+ P o
1
P=N Oe + “ l + 3kT E
Relation for e r in terms o f molecular properties

Plot of e 0 (e, - 1) as a function of 1/T

 ma d s
[ 3 6 8 ) ELECTRICAL MATERIALS

INTERNAL FIELD IN SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

□ The internal field

E. - . in thine dimension

where P = Dipole moment per unit volume

Y = Proportionality constant which is inferred to as the
internal constant.

When the atoms in a solid are surrounded cubicalk by otliei

atoms, y - 1/3 and internal field is called I oienL* internal held

Ei(lorentz) 1 o

CLAUSS1US-MOSOTTI RELATION

N a e _ e f -1 where, N = Number ol molecules per unit volume

3€q er +21 _ Electronic polarizability
□ Maxwell’s theory for materials

e re - n? (assuming p « p0 )

where e re = Dielectric constant at optical frequencies

n = Refractive index
P = Magnetic permeability of material
p0 = Magnetic permeability of vacuums
In Clausius-Mosotti relations, for gases at low pressure
e r = 1 or e, 4- 2 =3

Na e
So, €0
= s . - 1 =X 9

Debye's Generalization of Clausius-Mosotti Relation

□ Polarizability per kilogram molecule
NA a _ er -1 M where, jt = Molar polarizability
3 e0 ’ e, +2 p Na = Avogadro’s numbei
= 6,023 x 1 0 2ti
a = Polarizability which includes effect of orientational polarization
M = Molecular weight of material, kg
p = Density, kg/m3
 _ - A HAND B OQK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 1369]
Maxwell's relation for optical frequencies
or Lorentz-Lorentz equation

N _ n2 - 1 M
n
where, n = Refractive index
~ 3 e0 n2 + 2 p

|slote: Lorentz-Lorentz equation will apply only for the case a = a Q.

Condition for sp o n ta n e o u s p o la riza tio n
r j^ Y " where, N = Number of molecules per unit volume, m- 3
—— = 1 a = Polarizability, Farad-m 2
— ------- Y= Internal field constant

-
cURie weiss l aw
where, C = Curie constant
6 = C h a ra cte ristic tem perature w hich is
usually a few degree smaller than the
ferroelectric Curie temperature 0f .
T = Temperature

Above temperature 0, the spontaneous polarization vanishes and

i the material becom es paraelectric.

PIEZOELECTRICITY___________________________________________
» Direct Effect: The ap plica tion of stress to a crystal produces a strain
which results in a net polarization.
• Inverse E ffect: The ap plica tion of an electric field produces a strain
whose sign depends on the field direction
• These are both linear effects. Such materials obey the following equations:

T = cS
S = sT

P = dT .
* A stress T results in a strain S in a m aterial and c is an elastic stiffness
constant; s is reverse of c. The stress T will produce a polarization; d is
cal| ed piezoelectric strain constant.
(
dielectric displace m e nt, in the presence of stress.
D = e E + dT
aric* the inverse e ffe ct is given by the relation

S = ST + dE
 Dielectric BreakdoW h
2.

DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN OF GASES_________________

□ Average velocity of the charge carrier in a gas
v '= '| I e] where, H = M o b i l i t * o f t h e c h a r 9 e c a rn e r
----- E _ Applied electric field
Condition of Ionization
EX= v where, v ] = Ionization potential
a = Mean free path
□ Electron ionization coefficient
a = l e - t ’ .'EM where, a = First townsend coefficient
or ionization coefficient of electrons

1
at constant temperature
Pressure
□ Secondary ionization coefficient
where, n = Total number of electrons arriving
npe°d
at the anode
1 -r(e a d -
n0 = Number of primary photoelectrons
per second emitted from cathode
d = Distance between anode and cathode
y = Townsend’s second coefficient

Townsend criterion for spark breakdown

DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN OF LIQUIDS

Colloidal Theory
where, r = Radius of insulating particle
e+2e 4 e = Permittivity of insulating material
e ' = Permittivity of oil
E = Field strength fc = Boltzmann's constant
T = Absolute temperature
Bubble Theory
where, Et = Electric fie ld in a gas bubble which i
_ 2 6 Eq
’ 2 €+1 immersed in a liquid
e = Permittivity of liquid

Eo = Electric field in the liquid in absence of the bubble

 [371]
k Down Due to Liquid Globules
where, E = Critical field at which the globule
E = 487.7 looses its stability
L- ” e 1 - Permittivity of the liquid medium

_ pressure due to surface tension, dyne/cm

p Radius of g lo b u le

oiel ect r ic br eakdo w n o f sni m-

Theory o f Von H ip p e l ------

where, Ec - Critical field at which the

breakdown occurs
v = Optical frequency of lattice
= The index of refractio n for infinite wave length
e = Dielectric c o n sta n t m = Effective mass of electron
e = Electron c h a rg e h = Plank’s constant

Thermal Breakdown
□ Heat g en erated p er unit volume in unit time
where,
e ta n 8 3
: * = E , t 8 x i o i 5 w a tts /c m
2 r E = Uniform electric field
f = Frequency of applied voltage
8 = Loss angle
e r = Relative permittivity

For direct voltage

E2
W= — w here, p = Resistivity of the insulation, ohm-cm
P
□ Power loss
e tan 3 = e ' tan Sz • e
I---------------------------------------------
where, e tan 8= Loss fa c to r of the dielectric at a temperature
e ' tan 8 ' = Loss factor of the dielectric at the initial temperature T
c = C o e fficie n t depe nd in g on the properties concerned
 Magnetic Properties of Materials

MAGNETIC FIELD ____ ______ _

□ Force on a current Element

where, B -F lu x density, wb/m 2

dF = Force on conductor, Newtons
d/ =Length of current carrying
conductor, metres
I ^C urrent in conductor

uniform field B F = I (7 x B)
For linear conductor of length I in a

□ Biot savart law

dB = -£-
4n r3

where,
= Magnetic flux density produced by a current carrying element

r = Radius vector

□ Flux density produced by a infinitely long current carrying wire

at a distance R Bp - 2nR

Torque on a current carrying loop

Axis of rotation
T = BINAsina
D,
^0ASY ahand^ ^ r3n i
where. A - Area of the loop = /q
ot - Angle between normal tn th« i
direction B h p la n e o f th e l o °P a n d

N = Num ber of loops

□ Magnetic dipole moment ip .T Z lX

□ Torque T = Pm x B

magnet ic par amet er s

permeability o f th e M e d iu m
(jT=~Hr Ho | where, = Relative permeability
Mo = Permeability of vacuum
= 4n x 10~7 henry-metre-1
Magnetic M o m en t
□ Magnetic dipole moment
Pm = C urrent x area of the coil ampere-metre2

For a perm anent bar magnet the dipole moment is defined as

the product of pole strength and distance between them.

Magnetization

M=-± h1— •M = Np m where, N = N u m be r of m a g n e tic

Volume ’ dipoles per unit volume
Magnetic Flux D ensity

B = gH where, H = Magnetic field intensity

The above equation is valid for the materials in which factor m is

constant.

□ Magnetic flux density when a magnetic field is applied

B = |1q H + gpM = HoP-r N|

□ Magnetization M = (|i r - 1)H = x m H|

□ Magnetic susceptibility Xm ~ M-r H

• For diam agnetic materials %m is negative

. For param agnetic materials Z m is very small and positive
• For ferrom agnetic materials Xm is large and positive
 ELECTRICAL MATERIALS
374

mag net ic mo ment _____ _ ___

O r b ita l D ip o le M o m e n t
a Magnetic dipole moment of the orbit

Angular Momentum
□ Orbital angular moment
e
m n — =- where, m = Mass of the electron
■ 1 I■ ■ ■ — J a

• Ratio of p m to Ma is independent of the angular velocity and

A /~ the radius of the orbit.
• Atomic unit of magnetic moment is called Bohr magneton.
• 1 Bohr magneton = 9.27 x 10~24 ampere-m 2

™ 6 R
□ Larmor angular frequency l° L “ 2 m

e D
□ Angular velocity for any value of B w - coo + — b
□ Magnetic dipole moment induced by the field
P rn in d “ ” 4rn ' r 2 B

eh
□ Bohr’s Magneton P = — - ampere-metre2
__ 4nm
Electron Spin Dipole Moment
• Generated due to spin of electron

Pm.spn = ( N o -o f unpaired e~s) x 0

Pm, spin Pm, orb

Dia Magnetic Materials

• Do not have permanent dipole moment ^ m ~ Pm, orb + Pm,spin

 For perfect diam agnetic material, 1x77=-1
in
In general, com es out to the order of -1 0 6 lo -1 0 0

Na 2 2
0 Magnetic susceptibility Zm = - - - r n0
n e t ’c M a t e r i a l
pir> Ma<J
Spontaneous m agnetization for para magnetic material Is zero

NP2 H0
□ Magnetic susceptibility x m =
kT
, The magnetic field inside the material, when the elfect of internal field is
considered
JA7 H + y M ] where, y = Internal or molecular field constant

CURIE LAW___________________ _____________

□ Magnetic susceptibility
7cl where, C = Curie constant
__ L T = Temperature

CURIEWEISS LAW
□ Magnetic susceptibility

where, 9 = Paramagnetic curie temperature

FERROMAGNETISM
* Ferromagnetism is chracterized by the presence of parallel alignment of
magnetic dipole moment.
* Ferromagnetism occurs in Fe, Co, Ni, Gd and Dy.
1 Common characteristic of these materials is partly filled inner electron

shells.
They follow C u rie W eiss Law.
Below Curie tem perature they exhibit ferromagnetism but above curie
temperature they behave as p a ra m a g n e tic materials.
internal field w hich exists in these materials is
+ yM ) where, y = Molecular field constant
----- *1 m = Magnetization
t
H = A pplied field
Spontaneous m agnetization dies out as temperature increases.
 ’ X X k e »on magnetic properties depends on the *
!„ Z h the, are measured, this phenomenon rs nailed m s g „£

anisotropy.
“ ’ w n e n T iZ m a o n e fc material rs magnetized, its physical dlm e „ s im

changes; this phenomenon is called magnetos nc ion.

Villari Effect
• This is converse of magnetostriction, that is when strain is applied there
is change in the magnetic property of the material.

ANTIFERROMAGNETISM_______________________________
• These materials have a small susceptibility at all temperatures.
• As the temperature decreases increases but at a critical temperature
Tn called Neel temperature goes maximum and if temperature is further
lowered it further decreases.
• The variation of susceptibility with temperature of an antiferromagnetic
material above critical temperature TN is given by
C ~I where, C = Curie constant
= T -o 6 = paramagnetic curie temperature

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Type S u s c e p tib ility X m V .T Examples
Xm re la tion

1. Diam agnetic — negative) In d e p e n d e n t Atoms of solids having

closed shells and some
metals Au, Ge, etc.

2. Param agnetic ~ 1 0 ’ 5 (positive) Zm = C/T Atom s possessing odd

Curie law or num ber of electrons,
or x m = c / r - e ionic crystals etc
Curie Weiss law

3. Ferrom agnetic Very large & positive (Xm” * * ) Iron, cobalt, nickel.
godolinium._______ _
4. Antiferromagnetic Small and positive S a lts a n d oxides of
Xm decreases
with temperature transition metals, eg
N iO - MnF a . ____
5. Ferrim agnetic Large and positive Ferrites, e g F e / h ^
 Conductive Materials

fl f ct r ical c o nduc t ivit y

Ohm'sLaW
where, R
iR = p .-Q
P = Resistivity of the material,
. ____ — Q-m
I «• ■*

j = ctE = — A /m 2 = Length of conductor, m

A A = Area of cross-section, m2
= Current density, A/m 2
o = Conductivity of the material, Q -1 n r 1
E = Applied electric field, V/m

□ Conductivity = Current, A

ne - r
ct = --------c = n e g Q " 1m~1 where, n = No. of electrons per unit
0
m
volume,
r = Collision time, sec.
e = Charge of electron
m = mass of electron
ji e = Mobility of electron, m 2
volt-1 sec -1
v d = - f - E = UeE
□ Drift velocity of electron
m , m/ sec
□ Mean free path

I
__ = V - TV
r- where, v = Average electron velocity

□ Velocity of an electron

v - M
p V m where, W F = Fermi energy
r r ? ------------------- ;------- ------ ^ r ^ ^ T i ^ i T b e l o w a certain value WF

^ re la x a tio n time. ------------ -------- J

 H ECTRICAL MATERIALS
[378]

Matthiessen's Rule
• In pure metals and dilute alloys, the total resistivity is the S UfTI r j f
terms. The thermal component plh , which arises from lattice v ib r a t ^

and residual resistivity p, caused by impurities i.e. p - Pth + prJ

• This rule becomes less accurate at high temperature.

JOULE'S LAW_______________________
□ Volume density of heat developed per second

W = oE 2 = JE watts/m 3

This is the energy which the electrons transfer to the lattice in the
collision process and is converted into heat.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

□ Flux of thermal energy

watts/m 2 where, K = Therm al conductivity,

watts m -1 degree
dT
Tem perature gradient,
dx
degree C per metre
□ Thermal conductivity
where, n = Num ber of conduction
k 1 n n 2 k2 i T
K = —-------------, watt/m.k electrons per m3
3 m
T = Temperature
k = Boltzmann's constant
Note: t varies as T~1 above Debye temperature.

Weidemann-Frenz Law

□ Lorentz number

. _ K _ 1 n2k2 K
oT 3 e2 aT - universal constant for all metals

• Lorentz number L = 2.45 x 10"8 wa tt ohm degree" 2

SUPER CONDUCTIVITY
It is possible to destroy superconductivity by the application of
sufficiently strong magnetic field y m e dppncdiiun
 rftSV A HANDBOOKQNELEC
TRON1CS ENGINEERING [379]

Normal
H 0 Superconducting state
f TV] "" ' stale
Hc t = H co 1 - jJ ]

where, Hqq - Critical at absolute zero c

Hc t = Critical field at any temperature T

Tc = Transition temperature

A super conductor exhibit perfect diamagnetism. That is H = - M

Above equation is also called M eissner effect.

Super conductivity is observed at low frequencies but absent at higher
frequencies.
Entropy increases on going from super conducting state to normal state.

SILSBEE'S RULE_____________
, In a long superconductor wire of
radius R, the super-conductivity
may be d e s tro y e d w h e n a
current I exce ed s the critical
current value lc

C-
lc ~ 2tcRHc t
» Magnetic s u s c e p tib ility in a
superconductor is negative. This
B= 0
is re fe rre d to as p e r fe c t
diam agnetism . T his
phenomenon is called Meissner
effect.
□ Transition temperature

C ~ r=

where M is th e m a s s o f
isotope Flux lines in a sphere under different
conditions of temperature and field.
 Semicond U c t0 rs

CONDUCTIVITY____________ _____ _________

□ Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor
2 where, n = d e n sity of co n d u c tio n electron
ne t
a = ----- -
m t = relaxation tim e

The current flowing through a pure se m ico n d u cto r is c a i t ied by two kinds
of carriers (electrons and holes).

a - e2 +
□ Conductivity of semiconductor

v^ erex r = Relaxation tim es for e le ctro n s a n d h o le s respectively

e
m = Effective m a ss of e le ctro n s a n d h o le s respectively
n r? = Num ber of conduction electrons an d holes respectively
e' h
MOBILITY

6T
□ Mobility of electron Ue = — ”
me
e T h
□ Mobility of hole Uh =
mh
HALL EFFECT
□ Hall coefficient

RH = — = — = - — w here, E y = A p p lie d e le c tric field in

BzJx ®Qh
y-d irection
B z = A p p lie d m ag n etic field in z-d ire ctio n
J x = C urrent d en sity in the x -d ire ctio n
□ Current density
J = ne vd w here v d = Drift v e lo c ity
□ Einstein relation
w h e re D h , D e = D iffu sion constant
fo r h o le s and electron
re s p e c tiv e ly
2h = P ^ = kT
Uh Ue ®
 Insulating Materials

' V" v ' v ' * H n lp G U o

- ’ N e l l i e constant

- imaginary pai l of dielectric constant

yyhen a time \ a i\ in g eleeinc held is applied to a diolocliic '
a dielectric
nxueual the response is not entirely Instantaneous. |d = e ‘ E I
i
pgYE EQUATIONS
where, _ dielectric constant al infinite
i* ■
U tO ’- v
t s - dielectric constant under static
- e
field
1 + W2 T'
r = relaxation time

DIELECTRIC l osses

□ Energy absorbed per m3 W(t) = -- coe0 er" E§

X; The absorption of energy is proportional to the imaginary part of

T the dielectric constant and is termed as dielectric loss.

tan 8 = ^7
□ Loss tangent Gr

LOSSY CAPACITOR
Equivalent Circuits
|3 8 2 ] ELECTRICAU^TERIALS---------------------

For parallel circuit =

For series circuit

1 + (coCp RP ) 2
Rs l + ((oC pR p) 2
<o2 Cp R?

Loss Tangent
For series circuit tan 6 = io Cs Rs
1
ta n 5 = mCpRp
For parallel circuit
Q UARTZ______________ __________________________________
• Quartz is a piezoelectric material, used for high frequency oscillation

□ Q.factor

□ Series resonance frequency

□ Impedance at series resonance frequency

□ Parallel resonance frequency

□ Impedance at parallel resonance frequency
______N

( 1
CM CO
CE
+

®pL s - —
1 w pCs .
II

!® = ®p Rs
. ------------------ Structure of Materials
r --

p i s tance between adjacent atom

gr=2r=ai
where, r = Radius of an g
a = Edge length of c u b e

0 recking fraction
, Example = Polonium " '

pody Centered Cubic (BCC)

. The distance between adjacent atom

d
acc = 2r =
- ------— 2
Effective number of atom in unit cell
«
^BCC = 2 1

, Packing fraction [PFB C C = 0.68

♦ Example = Li, Na, K, Fe

Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

i The distance between adjacent atom

dpcc = 2r = -y=

Effective number of atom in a unit cell

^FCC -

Packing fraction PFf cc - 0-7404

I Example = NaCI, Cu, Silver, Gold, Al, Ni

Milter index = edge length

Length of intercept
 A Handbook on
Electronics Engineering

Measurement & Instrumentation

CONTENTS

1. Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems.. 386-389

2. Circuit Components (Resistors, Inductors,Capacitors)......... 390-392

3. Galvanometers............................................................................. 393-394

4. Analog Ammeters, Voltmeters and Ohmmeters.................... 395-400

5. Instrument Transform ers............................................................. 401-403

6. Measurement of Power & W attm eters..................................... 404-406

T Measurement of Resistance......................................................
8 A.C, B rid g e s ................................................................................. 410-414
9 Magnetic M easurem ents............... ............................................ 415- 415

Electronic Instrum ents................................................................ 416- 416

11- Cathode Ray O scilloscope......................................................... 417- 418

High Frequency M easurem ents................................................ 419-420

Transducers............ ....................................................................... 421-423

 Characteristics of Instruments a
Measurement Systei

ERRORS

□ Static error | 8A = Am _ A ~

where, Am = Measured value of quantity or Actual value

A t = True value of quantity or Nominal value

SA
□ Relative static error e' = A?

□ Static correction 8C = A t - A m - -8A

□ Static sensitivity
where, Aq 0 = Infinitesimal change
Static sensitivity = — output
APj
Aq, = Infinitesimal change
input
(Max. deviation of output from
.. .. .. the idealized straight line)
Non-lmeanty = ----------------------------- ---------— x 100
full scale deflection

COMBINATION OF QUANTITIES WITH LIMITING ERRORS

Sum or Difference of More than Two Quantities
Let X = ± x 1 ± x2 ± x3 ± x4

&X _ f x-| 8x1 + x 2 8x2 x38x 3 x 4 8x4

X I X X! X x2 X x3 X x4 J

where ±8x 1 = Relative increment in quantity x 1

±8x2 = Relative increment in quantity x 2
±8X = Relative increment in X
3x
— 1 = Relative limiting error in quantity x 1
xi

= Relative limiting error in quantity x9

x2
8X
— = Relative limiting error in X
X
 w here, xv x2 ,
x n = Readings or samples
n = Number of readings

deviat ion

Note: Algebraic sum of deviation is zero.

CL

+
“O

di
OJ

□ Average deviation D = —n n

Var iance_________________________________
Q Variance

For n > 20

2 Sd2
For n < 20 V = s' " n -1
 [388] MEASUREMENT & INSTR y M E N T A T IO N „ ^

NORMAL OR GAUSSIAN CURVE OF ERRORS---------------------------

where x = magnitude of deviation from mean,

y = number of readings at any deviation x, (the probability
of occurrence of deviation x)
a = standard deviation

□ Precision Index

0.4769
□ Probable error (RE.)
h

Average deviation 0.8453 hVit

□ Standard deviation

r 1
0.6745 hV2 P.E. = r = 0.8453 D = 0.6745 g

For Finite Num ber of Readings

For n > 20 P.E. = r = 0.6745

For n < 20
 -A'«.engiNeer ing
□ Standard deviation o f the

standard deviation standard deviation

0
°’ = $
q Variance of Combination of Components
X = f(x v x2 , x x x.n)
Let

where VX1, VX2 ••• = Variance of x,, x2<- • • xn

□ Standard Deviation of Combination of Components
Let X = f(x r x2 , .........xn )

where o X l ,o X2 , - - = Standard deviation of x p x2 , xn

□ Probable Error of Combination of Components
Let X = f(x r x 2 ...........xn )

where = Probable error of x r x2 , •••, xn

□ Uncertainty of Combination of Components
Let X = f(x p x2 ,...... xn )

where w x , ,w Xz . ■ = Uncertainties of x „ x2 . ■■ xn
 Circuit Components
(Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors)

FREQUENCY ERRORS IN RESISTORS

(Equivalent circuit of a resistor al low and medium frequencies)

R
□ Effective resistance = i+ 2 c(CR 2 -2 L )
(0

□ Effective Inductance or residual inductance

L -C R 2
e ft" 1+ co2 C(CR 2 - 2 L )

tan $ = CR
= = co —- C R
______ Reff Reff_______ R lR

where 0 = Phase defect angle

L eff _ L - C R 2 _ L _ -
Time constant T -
Reff R R
□ Condition for resistance to remain independent of frequency
CR2 = 2L

Condition for resistance to show no inductive effect is

CR2 =
□ Effective resistance for zero effective inductance
p _ R
"eff - ------- K—
1 - CO2 LC

□ Quality factor or storage factor inductance Q = —

 15211
|ir1 |ieNCV ERRORS IN INDUCTORS

, Effective resistance R
=- - R -'_
(i-tAc?
j Effective inductance |l 6„ - L fi + ^ C L )

CAPACITOR-----------------
...Ltel Representation
F*1

□ Dielectric loss |PL = co CP V 2

□ Dissipation factor

i)= ta n 5 = — — —
co C P Rp where S = loss angle of the capacitor.

NoterThe value of 6 is very small for capacitor.

Series Representation

(Phasor diagram)

Dielectric loss PL = - v r t a n S
toC s
Dissipation fa cto r |D = tan 5 = co C s rs |

c
 E qu’ja ie r i Circuit zf a Capacitor
Foe Medium Freq uency

□ Effective capacitance = LCjj

□ Effective series resistance

Anere r —res stance c* lead

□ Loss angle

For Low Frequency

□ Effective capacitance + ^2

□ Effective series resistance - 2

□ Loss angle (Low frequency) r+

■■■■
 Galvanometers

r 5ONVAL g al v an o met f r
p' a
Permanent

□ Deflecting torque [ L ^ I j N a T ^ i]

^here B - Flux density in air gap; Wb/m2

i = Current through moving coil; A
N = Number of turns in coil
A = /d = Area of coil; m2
1' d = ^ n g t h of respectively vertical and horizontal side (width)

G = Displacement constant of galvanometer

□ Controlling torque Tc = K 0 (
where K = Spring constant of suspension; Nm/rad
8( = Final steady deflection of moving coil; rad

_ (N B A Y J G V
□ Final steady deflection I k J (k J

DYNAMIC B E H A V IO U R O F GALVONOMETERS

Torques in Galvonometers

□ Inertial torque
where, J = moment of inertia of moving system
about the axis of rotation; kg-m2 ,
8 = deflection at any time t; rad.

where, D = damping constant

Q Damping torque

Q where, K = control constant

Controlling torque Tc -
 MEASUREMENT*INSTRUMENTATION MADE easy
|3W)

Deflecting Torque | l d * Gl|

. < • H l> • 4 kJ. galvanometer is underdamped

1 I • if i y a 4 i<J, galvanometer is critically damped

• if n ? > 4 kJ. Galvanometer is overdamped.

‘ — — - ■ ■■

□ Total resistance of galvanometer circuit for critica l damping

□ External series resistance required for critical dam ping

where, Ry = Resistance of galvanometer

SENSITIVITY_________
Current Sensitivity

S( « « 5 ra d /A ,
scale divisions/pA
I K

2000G
KxlO® = mm/fiA

S ' ” IRg X 10“ scale dlvIsion/pV

Voltage Sensitivity

q d
Megaohm Sensitivity 5 o = ixio* MW/scale division

Sensitive galvanometer is one which produces a large deflection

for a small current.
*• Voltmeters and Ohmmeters
Analog Ammeters,

< ^ ^ ^ mag net MOVING COIL (PMMC)

□ Final steady deflection

Ammeter Shunts

Basic ammeter circuit

where, I= Current to be measured;

lm = |fs = Full scale deflection current of movement; A
Rm = Internal resistance of movement; f l
Rgh - Resistance of the shunt; f l
a Shunt resistance
Rfn

where, m = —■ Rfih
•h = —
m - 1T •m
= Multiplying power of shunt
 MADEEAsy

Universal or Ayrton Shunt

Im

v < Rs
□ Multiplying factor for multiplier — =1 + —§-
V Rm

□ Resistance of multiplier |~RS « (m - 1)R^

where Rs = Multiplier resistance
Rm = Internal resistance of meter
 where, Ri = Resistance between point a and b
R2 - Resistance between point b and c
R3 - Resistance between point c and d
R4 = Resistance between point d and e

□ Sensitivity of a voltmeter
where, l)s = Current required for full scale
Sv = 7~ = ;— Q / V
’f» 'm deflection

ohmmet er s
SeriesType O h m m eters

A/WVW <x
A

Unknown
resistor

<4
B

R2
R „= R i +
□ Half sc a le re s is ta n c e R2 Rm

ER2
□ M eter c u rre n t lm = (RT+KW+EnL
er 2
l,S = Rh (R 2 + Rm)
□ Full s c a le d e fle c tio n cu rre n t
H 98l _ MEASUREMENT&INSTRUMENTATION

□ Friction of full scale reading

ShuntType Ohmmeter

(Make-break
switch)

□ Half scale reading of the meter

□ Half scale reading of unknown resistance Rx is

where, Rm = Internal resistance of meter
R1 = Adjustable resistor (as shown in fig.)
E = Supply voltage

RATIOMETER

□ Deflecting torque acting on coil 1 T - N-|B d 1 cos 0

d1

□ Deflecting torque acting on coil 2 Td 2 = N2 B / 2 d 2 12 cos 6

where l v l2 = current in coil 1 and 2

Nv N2 = number of turns in coil 1 and 2
l v l2 = length of coil 1 and 2
 ASY _
(399}
d r d? = width of coil 1 and 2
B ~ f l u x d e n s i t Y of magnetic field

0 Deflection at e q u ilib riu m ® = k -1

L
ROVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

T Tii
n Deflecting to rq u e Td = _ p
_____ 2 de
x. "ft 1 I2 dL~
□ Deflection | e - ~ d a

A dL
Note: For linear scale, 0 de ~ constant

Shunts for M oving Iron Instrum ents

in order to the division of current through two parallel branches

S meter and the shunt shall remain the same for all frequencies,
Lsh/R sh must be equal to L/R i.e. time constants of meter and
shunt should be s a m e . ,

Multipliers fo r M o vin g Iron Instrum ents

 [400J MEASUREMENT & INSTRUMENTATION

□ Voltage multiplying power

Errors in Moving Iron Instruments

Shunt capacitor
□ Shunt capacitance C

C = 0.41-^

□ Eddy currents

Supply
„ o)z MLe l
when (o is small 6
= ---------- —
Re

when cois large

where Re , Le resistance and inductance of eddy current path

 Instrument Transformers

,NSTRUMENT t r ansf or mer

.^nshxmrtton Ratio "----------------
* tMSC* » .V\ phasor ' ' m a 9Mu<i0 of the pi unary

t« I PPm a r y phasor) 1
seconds: \ phase;

primary winding current

secondary winding current

r - Pn m a r Y b inding voltage
secondary winding voltage

t Nominal Ratio (K^) It is the ratio of rated primary winding current tor
.Ottawa -to the rated secondary winding current (or voltage).

winding current
rated primary-----------------------
Kn
rated secondary winding current

rated primary winding voltage

l\ ry ““ ”

rated secondary winding voltage

Turns Ratio (n):

For C.T.
number of turns of secondary winding
number of turns of primary winding

a Ratio Correction Factor (RCF)

Fc f -<
'^te. The ratio marked on the transformers is their nominal ratio.
 ma dee
[402]
MEASUREMENT & INSTRUMENTATION
Asyj

where rs , xs = resistance, reactance of secondary winding

r x = resistance, reactance of external burden
6’ e
E , E = primary, secondary winding induced voltage
N ,N = number of primary, secondary winding turns
lp , ls = primary, secondary winding current
0 = working flux of transformer
9 = phase angle of transformer
8 = angle between secondary winding induced voltage and
secondary winding current
A = phaseangleofsecondary winding load circuit
10 = exciting current
lm = magnetizing component of exciting current
le = loss component of exciting current
a = angle between exciting current and flux
 NPB ^ 9 j ^ j g R Q N ! C S ENGINEERING (4031
£

Phase angle

degree

_JL'e
a Ratio error

Ratio error = nominal ratio----------------------

------------------ (K n ) - actual ratio (R)
-
actual ratio (R)

pot ent ial t r ansf o r mer ________

□ Actual transformation (voltage) ratio

□ Phase angle

■ ■■■
 Measurement of Power & Wattmeters
6

POWER_____________ __ ______
D.C. Circuits
Ammeter connected between load and volt motor

□ Power consumed by load

where, V = Voltage across voltmeter

I = Current through ammeter
Fta = Resistance of ammeter
Volt meter connected between load and ammeter
□ Power consumed by load

V2
P = V I- —
_______ R v

where, V = Voltage across voltmeter

I = Current through ammeter
Ry = Resistance of voltmeter
A.C. Circuits
□ Instantaneous power

IP= vi = V m lm s i nCDt-Sin(0)t~(|))

where, v = Vm sincot
i = lm sin(cot - 0)
□ Average power

[P = Vicos

where, V, I = Rms values of voltage and current

COS0 = Power factor of the load
 □ Deflecting to rq u e

where, Rp = resistance of a pressure coil

circuit
□ Controlling to rq u e
TC = KG where, K = spring constant
0 = final steady deflection
□ D eflection
7 where, P = power being measured
®= V 1 d fjj P ~ Vl cos^

K, = - L
RpK
Errors in Electrodynamometer Wattmeters
Correction fa c to r (K )
• The correction factor is a factor by which the actual wattmeter reading is
multiplied to get the true power.

where 0 = A n gle between qurrent coil and pressure coil

p = A n gle between current and voltage of pressure coil
True power = C orrection factor x actual wattmeter reading
 MEASUREMENT&INSTRUMENTATION
[406]

For 0 very small

[ Actual wattmeter reading = true power (1 + tan 0 tan^T

Error = tan 0 tan 0 x true power = VI sin 0 tan 0

where, V = V o lta g e a p p lie d to
%error = tan 0 tan 0 x 100^ pressure coil
| True power = VI co s V ] I = Current in current coil

POW ER IN POLY-PHASE SYSTEMS

Blondel's Theorem
• If a network is supplied through n conductors, the total power is
measured by assuming the reading of n wattmeters so arranged that a
current element of a wattmeter is in each line and the corresponding
voltage element is connected between that hne and a common po.nU
the common point is located on one of the lines, then the power may be
measured by (n - 1 ) wattmeters.
Two W attm eter Method
Vi V 13
Wattmeter
W1

To- 30

90:
<-v3
30°
3o-

W2 V 23
2 i>2 V 2

Wattmeter

□ Reading of ?! wattmeter

□ Reading of P2 wattmeter
□ Total power consumed by load | P = Pi + Pg

□ Power factor

P i-P 2
1 r 2 J

where = Angle between phase current and phase voltage

 of Resistance

* ^ d iu m resistances: Resistances from w 1 ° b e lo w '

: High resistances: All resistances of order o“ “ '

aeasureme n t o f M e d , u m Resistance
□ Ammeter voltmeter method

_ voltmeter reading v
where, Rm = measured value of
m ~ ammeter reading = T
resistance
Circuit for Higher Resistance
i - --------------- (A)---- r - » — ,
□ True value of resistance
V M VR R-
'a

a w here, R ^ = Measured value of resistance

Rm ~
ml /
FLQ = Resistance of ammeter

■ml
□ Relative error er -

Circuit for Higher Resistance

□ True value of resistance

1 ^ = M easured value of resistance

1 *0021 *V Where,
R v " Rmg r = Resistance of voltm eter
V

R - Rm?
‘m2

_ Rm2 ~ R. - 5 _ —
€ r " R Rv
□ Relative error
R
e " Rv
□ Approximate relative error
 MEASUREMENT AINSTRUMENTATjON------------- ^ADEEAsy
[408]
Relative e rro rT fo a b o vT tw o ^a se s are equal when t r u e ^ i ^ p

resistance, R = ________________________

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
At Balance

• Sensitivity of Wheatstone bridge

S - Q _ $v ESR
B ~ A R /R " (R + S)2

where, Sv = Voltage sensitivity of galvanometer

E = Bridge voltage
P, Q = Branch resistances

For a bridge with equal arms

Equivalent Circuit of W heatstone Bridge

□ Galvanometer current

where Eo = Thevenins or open circuit voltage appearing between

terminals b and d with galvanometer circuit open circuited.
G = Resistance of the galvanometer circuit deflection of the
galvanometer for a small change in resistance in the unknown
arm.

as AR « R

AR = Change in resistance R
 ft HANDBOOK ON E L E C rn ™ .,,
- r ^ k Ae^ neer ing_ [409

□ Thavenin equivalent resistance of bridge Rq = -

R+S P +o

□ Galvanometer deflection 6 = S, ESaR

------ £_+ _s ) (R0 + G)(R+S)a
where. S, = Current sensitivity of galvanometer

□ Bridge sensitivity
_1_ = S.ESR
AR/R (R^ghr TsF
measurement of Low Resistance

Kelvin Double Bridge Method

For zero galvanometer deflection

Accuracies by Kelvin double bridge method

• From 1000 jiQ to 1.0 Q : 0.05%
• From 100 |i£2 to 1000 p.Q : 0.5% to 0.05%
• From 10 |1Q to 100 pJD : 0.5% to 0.2

Measurement o f H igh Resistance

* Loss of charge method
 8 A.C. Bridge s

INTRODUCTION___________ _________ ____________________

Used to measure self inductance, Mutual inductance, capacitance, an^
frequency
□ General equation for bridge balance

Magnitude condition

Angle condition
zo, +ze4 = ze2 + ze^
Note: Both the above condition must be satisfied for the bridge to be balanced.

MEASUREMENT OF SELF INDUCTANCE

Maxwell's Inductance Bridge

R, = ^ ( R where, L , = Unknown inductance of resistance R,

2 + r2 )
L., = V a ria b le in d u c ta n c e of fixed
resistance r2
= Variable resistance connected in
series with L>
R }< R 1 = Known non-inductive resistances
 F orQ > 10

L i - Rp ^3 C4

coL1 _ 1
Rj to C4 R4

where, L 1 = Unknown-inductance having a resistance Rv R2 , R3 ,

R4 = known non-inductive resistance
C4 = Standard capacitor
[412) MEASUREMENT & INSTRUMENTATION--------------

Anderson's Bridge

R _ ^2 ^3 r 1 =
^ 3 [r(R 4 + R2 ) + R2 R „]
R’ - - r T r’ n4

where L, = Self-inductance to be measured

R, = Resistance of self-inductor
r, = Resistance connected in series with self-inductor
r2 , R2 , R3 , R4 = Known non-inductive resistances
C = Fixed standard capacitor
Owen's Bridge

(Phasor diagram)

n
where, L 1 = Unknown self inductance of resistance R!
t-1 — n 2 3 ^4
R2 = Variable non-inductive resistance
Ri = R3 ^ R3 = Fixed non-inductive resistance
C2 = Variable standard capacitor
C4 = Fixed standard capacitor
 [413]
OF INCREMENTAL INDUCTANCE
x ^ c r e m e n ta i inductance

L 1 - Rg R3 C 4

incremental permeability

tvhere N = Number of turns

A = Area of flux path
I = Length of flux path
R2 = Variable non-inductive
R3 = Fixed non-inductive resistance
C4 = Fixed standard capacitor

MEASUREMENT o f c apac it an c e
DeSauty's Bridge

where C1 = Capacitor whose

capacitance to be measured
C2 - A standard capacitor
R R. = Non-inductive resistors E
J

Schering Bridge

Dissipation factor
D 1 = 0C1R —coC4^4 j
[4141______ MEASUREMENT & INSTRUMENTATION__________MADE EAsy

where Cj ■ Capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined

r, ■ A series resistance representing the loss in th
capacitor C,
C? = A standard loss-free capacitor
R3 x A non-inductive resistance
C4 = A variable capacitor
R4 = A variable non-inductive resistance in parallel with
variable capacitor C4

MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY
Wien's Bridge

□ Frequency

2n^R^ R2 C, C2

For R 1 = R2 = R and C, = C2 = C

2rtRC
 Magnetic Measurements

□ Flux density
0 ^ RKgS, whero 0 Flux linking search coil
B A, 2NA, n Cross-socllonal area of specimen
R ’ ^ ‘s ta n c e of b a llis tic

% « '* Charge Indicated by balflsttoS a T m ™ '

N = Number of turns in tho search coil

□ Hysteresis lo ss p e r u n it volum e
where r| = Hysteresis coefficient
Ph» nt Bm
f = Frequency; Hz
Bm = Maximum flux density; Wb/m 2
k = Steinmetz coefficient
Note: The value of k varies from 1.6 to 2.

□ Eddy c u rre n t lo ss p e r unit volum e for lam inations

4k? f 2 B2 t 2 where, k( = Form factor
Pe 3p t = Thickness of laminations; m
p = Resistivity of material; Q-m

□ Total iron loss p e r u n it volum e

4k? f 2 t2
Pl = Ph + Pe = nf B j , .
__________ 3p
T
□ Maximum flux density m ” 4k f A N2
f s

□ For sinusoidal supply

where, E2 = Voltage induced in secondary winding
E2 E2 = 4k f f 0m N 2
4.44 fA s N2 k f = Form factor (= 1.11 for sinusoidal
supply)

f = Frequency
As = C ross-sectional area of specim en
N2 = N um ber of turns in secondary winding

0m = M axim um flux linkage

10. Electronic Instruments

□ Average current through vacuum tube diode

I = ^ o v - ____^rms _ = 0 4 5 ^ rm s -
av 2R 2 x 1 .1 1 x R ___ R

where Em s = rms value of applied voltage

Eav = Average value of applied voltage
R = Load resistance

□ Difference amplifier type of electronic voltmeter

□ Thevenin’s voltage across terminal X-Y

—
rd Rp
Wh 9m Vi
rd + Rp ,

Thevenin’s resistance looking into terminals X-Y

_ 2 r d Rd
Th--------- r-
r d + Rp

□ Current through ammeter

j —__ __ 9m r d Rp /(r d + Rp)

___ R Th + Rm 2rd Rp 7(rd + RD ) + Rm
when Rd « rd
 0. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

□ Electrostatic Deflection

^ e re, y = D is p la c e m e n t in
y-direction; m
e = Charge of an electron;
Coulomb
Ey = Electric field intensity in
y-direction; V/m
m = Mass of electron; kg
v ox = Velocity of electron when entering the fields of deflecting
plates; m/s
x = Displacement in X direction; m

□ Deflection
Q_ Ed where, L = Distance between screen and the
2d Ea centre of deflecting plates; m
/d = Length of deflecting plates; m
Ed = Potential between deflecting plates; V
d = Distance between deflecting plates; m
Ea = Voltage of pre-accelerating anode; V

S = £ . = lA m /V
□ Deflection sensitivity Ed 2dEa

2d Ea
V/m
□ Deflection factor L/d

^wtooth Generator
[418]________MEASUREMENT & INSTRUMENTATION ____ MADE EASY

Vq = V c c [1 - exp(-tZRC)] where, Vo = Instantaneous voltage

across the capacitor at time t ; V

□ Rising time of vertical amplifier

_ 0.35
r where, BW = Bandwidth
BW

(number of intersections of the

f y _ horizontal line with the curve)
fx (number of intersections of the
______ vertical line with the curve)
where, fy = Frequency of signal applied to Y plates
fx = Frequency of signal applied to X plates
 High Frequency Measurements

q -met £5_-----
j^ r e m e n to fQ

□ Resonant frequency of Q-Meter

□ Measured value of Q =
J£oJL

□ True value of Q

where R= Resistance of coil

L= Inductance of coil
Rsh = Shunt resistance
C= Tuning capacitance
Cd = Distributed or self-capacitance

Measurement o f In d u c ta n c e

Measurement o f E ffe c tiv e R esistan ce

Q Effective resistance
( 4 2 0 ) MEASUREMENT* INSTRUMENTATION

Measurement of Self-capacitance

□ Resonance frequency

1
2 n ^ I ( C 1 + Cd)

Where f2 = 2f,

D istributed or self-capacitance
rC d _ - 4C where, C, = Tuning capacitance at frequency
-------- ~ 2
13. Transducers

st r ain g aug e

□ Gauge factor of strain gauge

G( = 1+ 2v + ^ P where, = Per unit change in resistivity

_____________ e
v = Poisson’s ratio
e = Strain

For — -> 0 Gf « 1+ 2v
P
□ Poisson's ratio

Poisson's ratio (v) = - l a t e r a l s t r a i n ___

__________________ longitudinal strain 3L/L
□ Strain

Strain (e) = — Where, = Per unit change in length

THERMISTOR

□ Resistance of thermistor Rt , = RT2 exp

Where RT) = Resistance of thermistor at absolute temperature T r °k

Rt = Resistance of thermistor at absolute temperature T2 ; °k

2
P= A constant depending upon the material of thermistor

□ Steinhart-Hart equation
y = A + B /n R + C(/n
Where,
R)3 T = Temperature; °k,
R = Resistance of therm istor; £i
A, B, C = Curve fitting constant
 i] MEASUREMENT & IN S Ig y M g E W T !g j!j--------------- mad eeas y

□ Therm istor resistance ['R7=~a R o e xp <b /T )J

Where, RT ,R0 = Resistance of thermistor at tem perature T°k and ice

point respectively

THERMOCOUPLE -______________________ _
□ E.M.F. produce jn a thermocouple E = a(A9) + b(A9)2

Where A9 = D iffe re n c e in te m p e ra tu re b e tw e e n th e hot

thermocouple junction and the reference junction of
thermocouple; °C
a, b = Constant

LVDT
o u tp u t v o lta g e
□ S ensitivity of LVDT S ensitivity =
d is p la c e m e n t

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
Capacitance
□ Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor
_ e A _ e xw Where, A = O verlapping area of plates
d “ ~ x = Length of overlapping part of plates
w = Width of overlapping part of plates
d = Distance between two plates
e = Permittivity of medium

□ Capacitance of cylindrical capacitor 2k e x

lo g e (P 2 / P i)

□ Capacitance at angular displacem ent 6

C= ^
2d
Where r = Radius of semi circular plate
6 = Angular displacem ent in radian
Sensitivity
Movable
p la te
□ Sensitivity of parallel plate capacitive transducer

Q =
S
c)C w Where, x Length of overlapping part of cylinders; m
s = 6 d
D2 - Inner d ia m e te r o f o u te r c y lin d ric a l
electrode; m
D , O u te r d ia m e te r of in ne r c y lin d ric a l
electrodes; m
 p£ EA 5Y ------- ^^ O O K onELE(;t r o
0 sensitivity of cylindrical

S = ___ 2rte
F/m
□ Sensitivity of variable
C a p a c i 'anc transducer
e

____2d
piezo-Electric Transducer
□ Voltage sensitivity of crystal

g =: Electric field e
--------- Stress p Vm/N
Where, P = Pressure or stress; N/m?
□ Charge sensitivity

d = c /n
□ Output voltage

Eq = gtp
Where t = thickness of crystal; m
 Handbook on
Electronics Engineering

0
Microwave Engineering
CONTENTS

1. Basics............................................................................................426-426

2. Waveguide and Hybrid C irc u its ............................................... 427-444

3. Microwave Transistor and Tunnel D io d e ................................. 445-447

4. Microwave Field Effect Transistors......................................... 448-449

5. Transferred Electron Devices (TEDs)........................................450-451

6. Avalanche Transit Time D evices............................................... 452-456

7- Microwave Linear Beam Tubes (O -typ e)............................... 457-464

8. Microwave Crossed Field Tubes (M -type)............................... 465 466

9 Microwave M easurem ents........................................................ 467 68

 Basic*

. Microwave range is ( 10* Hz to 10’ 3 Hz) for all applications

• Microwave are used for terrresbal range and can t be used for ground
wave communication.
. For m crowave frequences £ « I . ground behaves as dielectric, so

can t reflect back the em waves at microwave frequencies so microwave

frequencies can t be used for ground wave communication.
• Mamly used in satellite communication, line of sight communication
and radars
• IEEE bands for microwave
L 1 - 2 GHz
S ( 2 -4 ) GHz
C 4 - 8 GHz
X 8 - 12 GHz
Ku 1 2 -1 8 GHz
K 1 8 -2 7 GHz
Ka 27 - 40 GHz
> 40 GHz Milimeter bands

y e i- • At low frequency more V-l structure and less of the E-H format
A /’ and a thick conductor is used for large skin depth to guide
k—*•* electromagnetic wave
• As the frequency increases the energy transfer is more in E-H format
and hence a thin conductor is sufficient to guide the wave
• EM waves in common are dispersive in nature and have spherical
wave front.

Dispersive nature of EM wave has advantage of that it can be used for

one to multipoint communication.
EM waves strength decreases with increase in distance of propagabon
due to dispersive nature
 Waveguide and Hybrid Circuits

Waveguide

* , ^-nere, 7 -> propagation constant of EM wave.

--------------- t . H —> are electric and magnetic fields.
“ nere a'e Jour conductors a: x = 0. x = a, y = 0 and at y = b, so there
*' be kxz boundary conations when will be used for solving Helmholtz

Boundary cor e t o r at a conductor is

where. —>tangential component of electric field on
conductor surface
normal component of magnetic field at
conductor surface
• =’ x a g a :c < constant y is given by

Arere y —> propagation constant along guide axis.

TE j _> p ropagaton constant along x-axis

v a ‘

I— I propagation constant along y-axis

‘ D /
mt n are integers.
 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING----------------------- M A -D LEASY
1428]
. if y will be real quantity then wave will not propagate through
waveguide rather it attenuates.
. If y will be imaginary quantity then wave will propa g a t 6
through waveguide.

• Cutoff frequency fc is given by

for free space

.— • if frequency for a particular mode will be greater than cutoff

| frequency then wave will travel through wave guide.
• If frequency will be equal to cutoff frequency then wave will
oscillate between the walls of waveguide.
• If frequency will be less than cutoff frequency then wave will not
propagate through waveguide.

• Number m and n stands for the number of half cycles completed by the
wave between the guide walls or number of maximas between guide
walls or number of K-phase completions.

is called the c u to ff w ave num ber.

Cutoff frequency for waveguide where m edium is perfect dielectric is

1/ \2 / \2
given by Tq --f _ c
f " ■
1
f
i/l
rm ] (—nn A
' | • I “ |
2n7Mre r V a ' \ 07
Phase Velocity (v )

• Phase velocity vp is given by

v p > c | for waveguide medium to be free space.

Phase velocity is actually phase rate change which is greater

than C.

where. 0 -> is called wave angleot tilt angle

 A H A N D 800K 0 h lELEcy

W °' 7 he
nce
~~- ng ’neer(ng 142
" « * wave a n ^ ' S «« J

^ r a ig h ^ lin e p a t h i n ^ ^ ' ^ v e h e d ,s greater* * i

Group Velocity -- ----- — vp -* C,

, Group velocity v g is the velocity by w h ir h
g| v e n b V Ch g ro u P of waves travel 3 n d te

fo r waveguide medium to
be free space.

energy transfer along

TE/TM Modes

or feed po in ts a n d the position of feed p d n t ^ nU m ber °*c o n n e c to r e

Transverse M agnetic M ode (TM mode)

• This is ca lle d TM m o d e because m agnetic field is perpendicular to the
direction of w ave p ro p a g a tio n that is for TM mode Hx and H exist but
Hz will be zero. y

TM Wave Solution
• For TM w aves (H z = 0 )

Ez = E(x, y, z, t)z = Ez0 S i n t i c

e- 7 ^ az
V a
Ex = E(x, y, z, t) = E cos mrcx
x x0 sinl 2 ^ le '^ e ^ a
‘X
a I b J
Ey = E(x, y, Z, t)y = E y o s i n t n ^ c o s f ^ J e - ^ a , ,

Hx = H(x, y, z, t)x = H x o S in fI™ )c o s (^ )e -’ zej“ 'a x

V a ) \O 7
H r = H(x, y, z. t) = h ^ c o s f ^ j s i n ^ l e - ’ ^ a y
y

\ a z \ z
 (430) MICROWAVE E N G IN E E R IN G M A D E EA$y

• If any ol th© in and n will bo zero Ilion Ez will bo zero and wave will not
oxtsl ho in and n can no! be zoio
I i^ J j I M i m and I M „ 1( mode does not exist Inside a rectangular wave '
I L_J guide.

• The modes which does not exist inside a wave guide are called
Evanscent modes
• TM01i and 1Mi i h , are evanscent modes for rectangular wave guide.
• Phase constant |it| inside waveguide for TM modes is

• Guide wavelength Xo is given by

where,

where p, and € f are relative permittivity and relative dielectric

constants of medium of waveguide.

• Group velocity v y is given by

• Wave impedance inside the

TE Mode
• These are called TE modes as electric field is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of wave.

TE Wave Solution (Ez = 0)

• For TE modes Ez = 0
Ex =Ex 0 cos[—
\ a J Vb / x

Ey “ ^yo sir* ^ ) cos( ^ ) e - ?^ ' a y

Ez = 0

H, =H x 0 s i n ^ ^ j c o s ^ ^ j e ' ‘, z el“ l ax
 0Y A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 1431)

I a J \ b J 1

Hz =HX)cos( jc o s (®

,. IlSoisTclear
E ^ and if m modes
thatTE or n any of them
exist k W '" e X i8 ‘
r|0 i n s id e r ^ t a n T ? -
. both m and n can’t be zero at the same t“me W a V ®9 U i d e
But
, A mode having lowest cutoff frequence ®_
---------- __ 1 be called dominant mode.
1*^1 * T E io fflode is dominant mode <-> ♦ >
e a rectangular waveguide I
j J if a > b

: : s : ; —

• ~Cutoff frequency for TE m odels " -------- -----------------

Phase constant p inside wave guide for TE mode is given by

y

Group velocity v winside waveguide for TE mode is

Phase velocity v p for TE mode is given by

• Characteristic impedance Z„ inside waveguide for TE mode is g.ven by

. , L - ^ 7 m T s a m e cutoff frequency, then they

J
When two or more modes have
are said to be degenerate modes.
 ( 4 3 2 } M K ROWA V E ^ E H G I N E E R I N G M A D E E A S Y

< • te a n d T M ~ modes are always d e g e n e ra te m odes

| • if frequency of operation is less than the cutofl frequency q|
dominant mode then no m odes travel through wave guide
• If frequency of operation is less than cutoff frequency of a mode
(other than dominant mode) then modes higher than that mode will
not propagate through waveguide but modes lower than that mode
will propagate through wave guide

Some Modes Diagram

TEM (transverse electric magnetic) mode does not exist inside the
waveguide because when both E, and H. will be zero then no
com ponent of E or H-fieid will exist inside waveguide

Cylindrical Waveguide

In case of cylindrical waveguide there is only one boundary condition

that is at p = a, . 0 and = o.
. f ^propagationconstant a io n q 0 „ , jjy j
■>direction then y is g iv e n b y and |J, l s p h .) s e

f = .iff- where, |J r4r~ .

I . 6 PhaSe constant in the
_ ^ X s e c ju ld e w h c n ,h e 'c
gt T

fl) but solution will be O f he t? 6 ' " 0 ' U n C " O n S ( " k e ’ 8 i " * c °s
(3i n e ) .c o s ( c o s e ) J X X h ' n n 9 ) ° r S i n ( C O S e >'COS

TEWave Solutions
, For TE mode Ez - 0

Ep= Ep0 j J ^ pR s in n ^ e - ^ ^ L
v a /

H ,= K g > 4 ^ ]s in r ty e
a )

^ = H z o 4 i^ ^ £ jc o s n 0 e “ yz eju>t a
z

Mode propagation constant is given by

2 where, X„p -> is solution of n,h order

Xnp I -co2 ne derivative of bessel function.
a
— 1 r
C ., X np
———
Cutoff frequency for TE mode is 9 ,v e V 2*Jv^'__ L
( 4 3 4 ] MICROWAVE ENGINEERING WADEEASY

• Phase velocity v p is given by

• Guide wavelength for IE mode is given by

where,

• Characteristic impedance z g inside waveguide for 1 E mode is given by

w here, in trin s ic im p e d a n c e in a

unbounded dielectric.

TM Wave Solutions
• For TM waves H . = 0

Ep = Ep0 Jn ^ P p |cos n<|>e Yz ei<ot a

p

E* = E^q Jr i ^^£^sinn<|)e"Y2eiwt a*

cos(n0)e Y2e*w t a
z

1^ = Jn cosn^e^L
la 7 p

where, Xnp is solution of nth order bessel function actually pth root of nth
order bessel function.
Propagation constant for TM mode is given by

where, a - is radius of cylindrical waveguide.

^peEASY_— A H A N D B O O K O N E U C T R O N ^ ^ ^ [A35J

CutoH frequency for TM mode is given by - _X

2na €

Phase velocity v p for TM mode is given by

Guide wavelength is given by

; where, =
fVjiG

Characteristic impedance Zg for TM mode is given by

where, is intrinsic im pedance of

z
unbounded dielectric.

,5 • TEM mode does not exist inside cylindrical waveguide.

|] • Cutoff frequencies in case of cylindrical waveguide for TE and
TM mode is different while it is same in case of rectangular
waveguide.
TMn0 modes does not exist inside the waveguide called evanscent
mode but TMOp for p = 1, 2, 3 .... exist inside cylindrical waveguide.
TEOp modes exist inside waveguide but TEn0 modes does not exist
inside waveguide.
TEn mode is dominate mode inside cylindrical waveguide notTM 01 .
Dominant mode signifies the range of frequencies that waveguide can
support, any frequency supported by a mode will be supported by
dominant mode.
In single mode operation mode used is dominant mode only.______

and TM Field in Circular or Cylindrical Waveguide

(436] MICROWAVE ENGINEERING MADE Ea sy

Power Transmission in Rectangular Waveguide

• Power transmitted through a rectangular waveguide is given by

where, H* is complex conjugate of H.

For a lossless dielectric, the time-average power flow through a

rectangular guide is given by
Ex Ev
where, Z_ = r r = “ rr
tr 2Z J
^9 a a

X y
IH I 2 = IH X I2 + IH y l2
For TEmn modes, the average power transmitted through a rectangular
waveguide is given by
2

Ptr = - ^ f o W +l ^ ) ^
2 E

For TMmn modes, the average power transmitted through a rectangular

waveguide is given by

Ptr = ==^O 0W +N2)^y

Power Transmission in Circular/Cylindrical Waveguide

• The time-average power transmitted through a cylindrical waveguide is
given by

P tr 2 z jo

where Z = — = - for particular given mode

hp
a — radius of waveguide
For TEn p modes, the average power transmitted though a cylindrical
waveguide is
2

tr ~
n r - C l oa (iE p ^ ^ i 2 )pdpd0
2, =■
 ----crcuiN
m odes, the average pow er transm itted tbR IN G circular/
though [4371
' f yiindricPa' w a veg uide is given by

Ptr =
2
'c

Cavi^ Resonators
, Cavity resonator is a closed, confined conducting structure operating
at Y - 0 conditions. The wave does not travel along the guide axis but
resonates between the walls of waveguide with E and H sustaining
each other.

Rectangular C avity R esonator

• For TE m ode Hz is given by

F t^ c o s W c o s M s in M
v a ) lb / Id /
where a, b, d are dim ensions of cavity.
m = 0, 1, 2 ........ n = 0. 1, 2, 3 .........p = 1, 2, 3
• For TM m ode Ez is given by

E7 = E7 0 sin ----- Isinl —— cos ——

la / lb / Id /
where m = 1, 2, 3 .......
n = 1, 2, 3 .......
P = 0, 1 , 2 , 3 .......
• For a lossless dielectric and for both TE and TM modes resonant frequency
is. given by

* For a > b < d, the dom inant mode is TE 101 .

a *

•
TE mno a n d
the resonator.
TM oop o r TM onp o r TM m0p m odes do n

A rectangular cavity is a rectangular waveguide closed at both

° t exist inside

the ends.
 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING MADE EASY
[4381

Circular Cavity Resonator

• A circular cavity resonator is a circular waveguide with two ends closed,
• For TE mode. H. is given by
H. - H o J ^ E ^ c o s ( r ^ ) s in ^ - ]

where a — i adius of cylinder

d height of cylinder
q m 1, 2, 3 ......
• F a TE mode resonant frequency I, is given by

where, q = 1 . 2 . 3 ......

For TM mode. E. is given by

wfiere q = 0. 1. 2. 3 ......
• For TM mode resonant frequency fr is given by

• TM 1W mode is dominant mode if 2 a > d and that the TEi n

mode is dominant when d > 2a,
• T E ^ or TEnp0 on TEnOq modes does not exist inside circular cavity
resonator,
• TMnoq m °des does not exist inside circular cavity resonator.

Q - factor o f a Cavity Rasonator

• Quality factor Q is a measure of the frequency selectivity of a resonant
or anti-resonant circuit and is given by

0 - 2 ^ m a x i m u m energy stored toW

______energy dissipated per cycle ~ ~P~
where W is the maximum stored energy.
P is the average power loss.
Q of cavity resonator can be expressed approximately by
Q = “ H. where co operating frequency in rad/sec
2R S Rs surface resistance of the resonator.
^ lA lY A H ''N, ’ h0<,HO NftKT«QNICI|N<JIIUIMIN9 puuj
, f t * * * * * " ' " « ' " * * ’** « ’«........ ........................ ....................... „ M v w

wlIMHJ, I |J (C h|Muqi(|vr t |t1((| | t ,h |h |U ()i tf

mid GttpmJImiGn g I g h /H/

IWBOIlHliif.
Il il 1e> cttvlly h‘ oouplod py
inminti ol an ld « a l N ; 1
nanalonnni and a noikm
Inductance I a Io n ganemlm
having Internal Impedance z
0)011 coupling circuit and Itti
equivalent am aa

Coupling Circuit
» iis equivalent circuit la
• The loaded Qo of the ayaiom la given by

f o r lN % l« I R + N^ZJ

• Coupling coefficient of the system la given

by

• Value Q(1 would become

where, Q 0X1
n y l= = ~ ~ Is the external Q.
rx rxn

?jX ' • if resonator is matched to generator then Qo ■ Qoz( and

T 1 1
Q = - Q = - Q„ X| and K = 1 and called critical coupling.
2 2
• If K > 1 then Q = — - where p is standing wave ratio and K « p is
M 1+ p
called over coupling.

• If K < 1, then Q , = - 2 - - Q n and K = ~ and is called under coupling.

p+ 1 ’
 [440J __________ MICROWAVE ENGINEERING________ MADEjA $ y

Microwave Hybrid Circuits

• The interconnection of two or more microwave devices may be regarded
as a microwave junction.
♦ Commonly used microwave junction include such as waveguides, tees,
directional coupler, circulator etc.

S-parameter of a Network
• S-parameter of two port network is

b-| = S-f ■)a 1 + S 12a 2 where, a 1, a2 — correspond to incident waveforms

b 2 = S21a-| 4- S22 a 2 | b 2 , b 2—correspond to reflected waveforms

Tee Junction
• A short circuit may always be placed in one of the arms of three port
junction in such a way that no power can be transferred to the other two
arms.
• It is impossible for a general three port junction of arbitrary symmetry to
have matched impedance in all three arms.

E-plane Tee (Series tee)

• E-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which axis of side arm is parallel to
the E field of main waveguide and is as

When the waves are fed into side arm (port 3) the wave appearing at
port 1 and port 2 of collinear arm will be in opposite phase but, having
same m agnitude i.e.

S13 - - S 23 - for E-plane tee

 r____A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [441]

latched junction, the s-matrix is given by

For a i" 0 §12 §13

S = §21 0 § 23

_§31 § 32 0

for the symmetry property of s-matrix.

§ 1 2 ~ § 2 1 ' § 13 ~ § 3 1 ' § 2 3 “ § 32

of s-matrix is
§12 -§12 + §32 §32 “

+ §13§13 + § 23 §23 ~
S 2 1 -§21 §31 §31 - 1| I

io r all matched junctions.

ia t
rix o fE -p la n e T e e is G iv e n B y
§11 §12 §13

§12 §11 ~§13

S =
_§13 “ §13 §33 .

Note: E-plane tee is also called series tee.

H-PlaneTee
Port 2

Port3

Side arm

Port 1 ;n which the axis ot the side arm is

■H e tp e

An H-plane tee is a w avegu a jn w a v e guide.

shunting the E-field or parallel to H held ot

For H-plane tee

S 13 = §23 . h

s-matrix of H-plane tee isgiv®____ § 12

’ §11

S = §12
 [442]_____________ MICROWAVE ENGINEERING_____________ M A D E jAsy

Hybrid Tee or Magic Tee

• Magic tee is a combination of H-plane tee and E-plane tee.
• s-matrix of hybrid tee is given by
0 0 S13 S14

0 0 -S 1 3 S24

S31 ” 831 0 0
____ _$14 $24 0 Q- I

* Magic tee is used in Radar communication.

0 * Magic tee is used in coherent SSB receiver.

Hybrid Ring or Rate-race Circuits

• A hybrid ring consists of an annular line of proper electrical length to
sustain standing waves to which four arms are connected at proper
intervals by means of series or parallel junctions.

• S-matrix of hybrid ring is given by

0 S-,2 0 S14

$12 0 $23 Q
S =
0 S32 0 S34

_$14 0 S34 0

NOW
It should be noted that the phase cancellation occur only at a
designated frequency for an ideal hybrid ring. _______„

D irectional Couplers
• A directional coupler is a four port waveguide junction consisting of a
primary waveguide 1-2 and secondary waveguide 3-4 as shown
 ’“' P ““ “ "°“ "»«««. !«»„„,„ c
of pons. M„
r

S-matrix of a directional coupler is given by

to p 6 jq l
P 0 jq 0
0 0 P where, p and q are +ve and real
Ljq Q P OJ| P2 + q 2 = 1,

The characteristic of a directional coupler can be expressed in terms of

its coupling factor and its directivity and is given by

(p/
directivity (dB) = 10log10
V3

where, P 1 = Power input to port 1

P„ = Power output from port 3
P4 = Power output from port 4

M H p _ q _ ^ ^ 2 then it is said to be an 3 dB directional coupler.

Circulators and Isolators

* Circulators and isolators, both are non-reciprocal transmission devices
that use the property of Faraday rotation in the ferrite material. Ferrite is
a family of M eO.Fe 2 O 3 where Me is a divalent iron metal.
• When a piece of ferrite is affected by a de magnetic field, the ferrite
exhibits Faraday rotation. It does so because ferrite is a non-linear

material.
(4 4 4 ] _____ MICROWAVE ENGINEERING______________MADE EASY

Circulators
• It is n-port unidirectional
waveguide.
• S-matrix of circulator is

0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0

• Propagation phase constant p+ for the forward direction differs from the
propagation phase constant p~ for the backward direction. We chose
the length of ferrite slab and de magnetic field such that

where P+ - Gq |lr+ . P “ (oJp.0 G0 Jlr

and mZ = 1+Xm and Mr’ = 1+Xm

where ur — relative permitivity in clockwise direction

Mr’ — relative permitivity in anticlockwise direction

Xm — is susceptibility

• Isolator is basically used to isolate one component from

reflections of other components in the transmission line.
• Isolator is also called uniline.
 M icrow ave Transistor and Tunnel Diode

Microwave transistor is a nonlinear

is Similar to that of low frequency device b, rt ’ P " n c i p l e o ( °Pe r a l, o n
and other parameters are different requirements for dimension
Si bipolar transistors dominate in
microwave frequencies and are often the IC a tlO n s f o r t h e lo w e r
oscillators. ,e n ,h e d e v ,c e s o f choice local

power Frequency Limitations of Microwave Power Transistors

. Voltage frequency limitation is given by

where fT - 2n T IS charge-carrier transit time cutoff frequency.

t = — is the average time for charge carrier moving at an

average velocity v to transverse the emitter - collector
distance L.
Vm = Em Lmin is the maximum allowable applied voltage.
= maximum electric field.
vs = maximum possible saturated drift velocity.
Current Frequency Limitation is Given By
where, l m = maximum current of the device
^m v s
1 1
2n X C= o>TC0 - 2>rf[ Co is the reactive impedance
Co = collector base capacitance
Power Gain Frequency Limitation is Given By
where, G r = maximum available power gain
KT
V h = — is the thermal voltage
M
K = Boltzmann’s constant
T = absolute temperature in Kelvin
Power Frequency Lim itation is Given By

where, Pm = is maximum power

 [446]____________ MICROWAVE ENGINEERING _ ________ MADEjASY

Maximum Available Power Gain of Transistors is Given By

where, Zou , = output impedance
Z in = input impedance

Hetrojunction Bipolar Transistor

• When the transistors junction is joined by two similar materials such as
silicon to silicon or germanium to germanium, it is called homojunction
transistor, The transistor junction formed by two different materials such
as Ge to GaAs is called hetrojunction transistor.
• There are four possible hetrojuncton combinations
□ p - Ge to p - GaAs junction □ p - Ge to n - GaAs junction
□ n - Ge to p - GaAs junction □ n - Ge to n - GaAs junction
Tunnel Diode
• Tunneling phenomenon is a majority carrier effect.
• Transit - time of carrier in tunnel diode is not governed by classic transit
time concept but rather by the quantum transition probability per unit
time.
• Tunnel diode are useful in many circuit application in microwave
amplification, microwave oscillation and binary memory.
• Equivalent circuit of tunnel diode is given as
.........................A where,
Rg l"S Tunnel diode ■
o----- ww— Trains Rs , l_s — denote the inductance
and re s is ta n c e of
p a c k a g in g c ir c u it of
tunnel diode.
Rn — negative resistance of
tunnel diode.
C — junction capacitance of
tunnel diode.
The input im pedance Z jn of equivalent circuit is given by

Z in = Rs + ja>L8 + - ^ 2 L
______________ - Rn - J/wC
Resistive cutoff frequency is given by

fc = — -— — -1 where, f c — resistive cutoff frequency

2jtRnCyR s

Self resonance frequency f r is given by

2%Rnc V Ls
 * H*NDB0OK0NeUCTR0N|Cs(NG1N„ RIN0 (W J

Ik™-*

„,,«»! Lo»d , n 9
pot parallel lo a d in g e q u iva le n t
circuit will be
, o/p power in lo ad resista nce Is

given by

, The gain of tunnel diode am plifier is given by

~ Rn 1 w h e re ' A ~ flain of amplifier for parallel loading
A * R11 - R] R| — parallel load

for parallel loading

Scries Loading
• For series lo a d in g eq uivalen t
circuit is given by
• The power gain for series loading
is given by

where, A — power gain for series loading

R, — series load
• The device rem ains stable in negative - resistance region without
switching if R, < Rn .

* As the power gain A approaches infinity the system goes into

*
3 oscillation and it happens when Rt = Rn ,

A tunnel diode can be connected to a microwave circulator to make a

negative resistance amplifier and in this case reflection coefficient is
given by
where, Ro — characteristic impedance of circulator
F — reflection coefficient

■■■
 4 Microwave Field Effect Transistors

• Microwave field effect transistors have several advantages ever the

bipolar junction transistor.
• Its efficiency is higher than microwave BUT
• Its noise figure is low
• Its operating frequency is up to X-band.
• Its input impedance is very high.

Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

• If the field effect transistor is constructed with a metal-semiconductor
schottky diode, the device is called metal semiconductor field effect
transistor (MESFET).
• Mainly used material is GaAs because it has higher electron mobility,
higher electric field and higher electron saturation drift velocity than Si
so its o/p power is greater and noise figure is low.

Pinch-off Voltage (Vp )

• Pinch off voltage for MESFETS is given by
_ qN d a 2 where. Nd —> electron concentration (/m3 )
P 2es a -> height of channel (m)
e s - * permittivity of the material in F-m
Velocity ratio (q) is given by
where, v s -> saturation drift velocity
L channel length
,u -> low field mobility
Cutoff frequency is given by
where, g^ -> transconductance
f = = _Ys_
2»C^ 4xL Cgs -> gate source capacitance
L -> gate length
v s - * saturation drift velocity
The maximum frequency of oscillation is given by

1/2 where, Ra —> drain resistance

2
9,r —> device transconductance
Highest frequency of oscillation for maximum power gain w,th input a rc
output network matched is given by
 |)4 J |

_ W R d Y /2 W h e re ' R d -> drain resistance

U * ~ 2 VRs + R0 + R| J Rs
Rg
~ > source resistance
~^gate m etallization
resistance
Rj - » input resistance
High Electron M obility Transistors (HEMTs)
. The basic structure of HEMT is a selectively doped GaAs - AIGaAs
hetrojunction structure. y p s A IL ,a A S

, The drain current in HEMTs is given by

Fd = qn(z)W v(z)|

where n(z) -> concentration of two dimensional electron gas

W -> gate width
v(z) -> electron mobility

[ Normally frequency of operation for HEMTs is 50 GHz - 70 GHz.

HEMT Performance Compared with Other Devices

Device Frequency Noise Power Speed
(GHz)

HEMT upto to 70 Very good V. good Excellent

GaAs MESFET 40 Good Good Good

Si MOSFET 10 Poor Very Good Very Good

Si bipolar transistor 1 Poor Poor Good

Hetrojunction (BJT) 20 Good Good Excellent

 5 Transferred Electron Devices*

• Common characteristic of all active two terminal solid slate devicas it?
their negative resistance
• Due to -ve resistance power is generated by the power supply
associated with the negative resistance.
• TEDs are bulk devices having no junction or gates
• TEDs are fabricated from compound semiconductors such as (iaAs
indium phosphide (InP) or Cadmium telluride (Cd lb)
• TEDs operate with hot electrons whose energy is very much gmatur
than thermal energy.
Gunn Effect
• When a crystal of GaAs is subjected to a high electric field of 2 3 KV/
cm, it sustains oscillatory voltages and currents across it ouch that Hie
frequency of the produced oscillations depend on the Irannil time oi
transfer time of electron over the length of crystal.
• The reason for Gunn effect is that GaAs has two conduction band tiucli
that mobility of electron is lower in conduction band at higher energy
level.
Gunn effect is properly explained according to Ridley Watkins

• a ______ Hilsum (RWH) theory.______________________

Conductivity (a) of GaAs is given by
cr = q(g / n/ -bp n nu j
where n, electron density at lower valley
nu -> electron density at upper valley
p, -> mobility of electron in lower valley
p u -> mobility of electron in upper valley
Gunn D iode: Modes of Operation
• Gunn oscillatory mode
for this mode 10 1 2 /c m 2 $ n0 L < 1014 / cm 2
where n0 L -> product of doping and length
• Frequency of oscillation is given by
Vdom where, v dom -> is the domain velocity.
Leff Le(f -> is the effective length that the domain
travels from the time it is formed until the
time that a new domain begins to form.
 ------- -- HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
451
Due to variation of drift velocity with the electric field, there are three
possible domain modes for the Gunn oscillation mode
Transit time domain mode exits when f|_ = io 7 cm /sec
In other words we can say v d = v s = fL — 107 cm/sec and oscillation
period is equal to transit time that is t 0 = -r( .
, Delayed domain mode exists when 106 cm/sec < fL < 107 cm/sec.
In this case oscillation period is greater than the transit time that is
<o > ’ >•
, Quenched domain mode exists when fL > 2 x 10 7 cm / sec
In this mode oscillation occur at frequency of resonant circuit rather
than at transit-time frequency.

• Efficiency of delayed domain mode is highest and is 20%.

• Efficiency of transit time domain mode is lowest and is 10%.
• Efficiency of quenched domain mode is 13%.____________
Limited Space Charge Accumulation (LSA) Mode
• LSA mode is simplest mode of operation and exist for
fL > 2 x 1 0 7 c m /s e c
• The efficiency of LSA mode can reach up to 20%.
• For n-type GaAs, n0 L is about 1012 cm/sec.
• Oscillation period (t 0 ) is several time larger than the magnitude of
dielectric relaxation time in negative conduction region xd .
• 2 x 104 < n ^f < 2 x 105 .
Stable Amplification Mode
•ip . 2
• This mode exist when |n0 L < 1 0 /c m
• In this mode device exhibits amplification at the transit time frequency
rather than spontaneous oscillation.
Cd-Te Diode
• It is also a crystal based diode works on same principle of transferred
electron device but used for high frequency oscillations.
*n ■Phosphide Diode
• It has three conduction band. Affinity between lower energy level
conduction band and higher energy level conduction band is high.
• Efficiency is lesser than Gunn diode.
• InP oscillators operate through a transit time phenomenon and do not
oscillate in a bulk mode of the LSA type.
 Avalanche Transit Time Devices

Avalanche transit time devices work on the principle of conduction due

to severe breakdown.
In avalanche diode oscillation are produced due to carrier impact
ionization and drift in high field region of a sem iconductor junction to
produce a negative resistance at microwave frequencies.

READ DIODE
• It is n + - p - i - p + diode.
• It consists of two regions one is p region at which avalanche multiplication
occurs called avalanche region and other is i-region called intrinsic region
or the drift region.
• For oscillations diode is biased in reverse direction and mounted in a
microwave cavity. The im pedance of cavity is mainly inductive and is
m atched to the mainly capacitive impedance of the diode to form a
resonant circuit.
• The transit time of a hole across the drift i region L is given by

where, v d -> drift velocity of holes.

Avalanche m ultiplication factor is given by

where, V applied voltage
Vb -> Avalanche breakdown voltage
n —> 3-6 for silicon is a numerical factor
depending on the doping of p + -n or
n + -p junction.
The breakdown voltage for a silicon p + -n junction is given by
where, pn -> resistivity
Ph -> electron mobility
e s -> sem iconductor permittivity
11 l o A
-> m axim um breakdow n of the
electric field
The induced current in the external circuit is
where, Q -» total charge of the moving holes
vd -> hole drift velocity
L —> length of the drift i region
 posonant frequency f is given by
,w ,
[7 SJ W h e re ' v d d r i f t velocity of hole

JJ il L le n 9th of the drift region

Output Power and Quality Factor for Read Diode
t AC power delivered is given by

where Vn -» amplitude of AC voltage

ld -> direct current supplied by de bias
• The quality factor Q of read diode has negative value in contrast to
positive Q of the cavity. At stable operating point, the negative Q of the
diode is equal to the positive Q of the cavity.
Impatt Diodes
• These diodes exhibit a differential negative resistance by two effects.
• The impact ionization avalanche effect, which causes the carrier current
l0 (t) and the ac voltage to be out of phase by 90°.
• The transit-time effect, which further delays the external current le (t)
relative to the ac voltage by 90°.
• Resonant frequency (frequency of oscillation) is given by

where, v d -> carrier drift velocity

L -> drift region length

• The efficiency of the IMPATT diode is given by

where, Vd , l d -> de voltage and current

V I _> AC voltage and ac current
a’ a
• The efficiency of IMPATT diode is around 30 /o.

TRAPATT D io d e . .
• TRAPATT stand for trapped plasma avalanche triggered t r a ^ m o d e
and is a high efficiency microwave generator capable of operating from
several hundred megahertz to several gigahertz.
• It is either n + - p - P+ or p + - n - n+ diode.
• Avalanche zone velocity v z is given y

Vz for p + - n - n + diode
*z ” qN A
where J -> current density
N -> is doping concentration of n-region
A
[454] MICROWAVE ENGINEERING_____________MADEEASV

TRAPATT diode generally exhibit a considerably h ig h e F n o ^

figure than IMPATT diode.

BARITT Diodes
• BARITT diode means barrier injected transit tune diodes
• It has long drift regions like IMPATT diodes.
• This diode exhibits a negative resistance for transit angles k and Jic.
The optimum transit angle is approxim ately equal to 1.6 k
• Its advantage is that it has relatively narrow bandwidth and power output
is limited to a few milliwatts.
• Critical voltage for BARITT diode is given by
where, N -> doping concentration
qNL 2
L -> semiconductor thickness
e s -> sem iconductor dielectric permittivity

Parametric Amplifiers
• Equivalent circuit of parametric amplifier is given as

O /p frequency f0 is given by
f0 = mfp ± nfs where, m, n are +ve integer
f s -» signal frequency
fp -> pum p frequency
f 0 -4 o/p frequency
,A P X ^ ----- ^ g g O °l< P N g !^ O N IC S ENGINEERING
. « f o > , =:, h e ^ , C e i s c a l l e d Pa r a n l e tr ic u p ^ o n v e r te r a n d iff < t the
device is ca lle d param etric d o w n c o n v e rte r 0 a'

^ m e t r ic up Converter
. For parametric up converter output frequency is sum
of signal frequency
and pum p frequency.
There is no p o w e r flow in param etric devices at the frequencies
other
than the signal, pu m p and output frequencies,
power gain of param etric up-converter is given by
[ x where, f0 = f, + fp
Gam = - sr * ~-------= ~ 2
(1 + V i + X )
x =

1
• Q = 2 tr^ c R d
Rd —> series resistance of p-n junction diode.
■fQ —»figure of m erit of non linear capacitor.

• The q u a n tity -------- 2 may be regarded as a gain-degradation factor.

( l + >/l + x )

As Rd a p p ro a ch e s zero, figure of merit approaches infinity, gain

a degra da tion fa cto r becom es unity and gain becomes maximum.

Noise figu re F for param etric up converter is given by

where, Td -> diode temp, in Kelvin
1
(t Q)2 . To -> 300°K is the ambient temp.
yQ - » figure of merit for non linear
capacitor

B andw idth of u p co n ve rte r is given by

Parametric Down Converter

• In param etric d o w n converter signal frequency f s must be equal to the
sum of the p u m p fre q u e n cy f p and output frequency f0 .
* Down con version gain (actually loss) is given by
 [ j 4 5 6 ] ------ ----------------- MICROWAVE ENGINEERING______________ M ADE EASY

If the output power is taken from R, (output resistance of the idler

generator) at a frequency f, then conversion gain from fa to f( is given by
where, fs -> signal frequency
f -> pum p frequency
r*
f, = fp - f s is the Idler frequency
Rg -> output resistance of the signal generator
Rj —> output resistance of idler generator
Rt -> total series resistance at t
RTi -> total series resistance at f (

R = ^/((Og co, C 2 RT i ) is the equivalent negative resistance

Noise figure of a negative resistance parametric amplifier is expressed

• Maximum gain bandwidth of a negative resistance parametric amplifier

is given by

Noise figure of a signal sideband and double sideband degenerate

param etric am plifier are given by

c _ p. 2TaRd where, Td average diode temp, in Kelvin

T0 Rg 300°K ambient temperature
diode series resistance
e x te rn a l o u tp u t re sista n ce of
generator

It can be seen that noise figure of double sideband operation is

3-dB less than that for single sideband.
 Microwave Linear Beam Tubes (O-type)

in a linear beam tube a m aonetic fipin

(he electron beam is used to hold the be e a x l s c o " ' c l d e s w i l h , h a’ oi
” gth ol lube °“ b e a m " ’9 e t o a a « havels lhe

Classification of m icrow ave tube is

Linear beam tube (O-iype)

I
Cay”y
----- n
siow wave structure

Resonant
I- _J___ ,
I
Forward wave Backward wave
— I I
Helix TWT BWA. BWO
ICoupled cavity
O-type travelling wave tubes are suitable for amplification.

KLYSTRON
Two Cavity Klystron
• The two cavity klystron is a widely used microwave amplifier operated
by principle of v e lo c ity a n d c u rre n t m odulation.
• A high speed e - beam travels through first cavity and e_s are accelerated
or deaccelerated depending on their time of entry. These e_s of unequal
velocity form gro up or bunches and travel with various thickness of e~
beams. These bunch of e - constitute feed for second cavity and hence
second cavity has oscillations in accordance to instantaneous velocity
of entering e _ s, this process is called ve lo city m odulation.

Velocity M odulation Process

• Velocity of e" due to high de voltage Vo is given by
[458] _________ MICROWAVE ENGINEERING______ _______MADE^ASY

• Let us assume that microwave signal applied is V, = V, smart

where V 1 -> amplitude of signal and V, « Vo
• The average transit time through buncher gap distance d is given by
where. t0 —»time at which e enters in buncher
i = — = (t,-t0)
Vfl gap
t _> time at which e exit from buncher
gap
• The average gap transit angle is given by
where, 9 ; - * average gap transit angle
e (. = cot = (o(t, - t 0 ) = ~ - d -> buncher gap distance
r -4 average transit time
co frequency in rad/sec
• Average microwave voltage in the buncher gap is given by

s in [-9 | /
l o , I 0..
v^ = Vi /a
H v 9 ~s i n Hk o * —-
2

I 2 J

• Beam coupling coefficient [3 is given by

s in fM
I 2 J
%
2

Increasing the gap transit angle 0g decreases the coupling between

electron beam and the buncher cavity.

• Immediately after velocity modulation, the exit velocity from the buncher
gap is given by

x
Vo + p l V1 sin( <oto + M
v ( tl) <
/ m fc /

1+ t Y l s i n
v ( t i) » J
3

4-
o

v o
 ^ re factor is called d e p t h o f m o d u |a t jo n

Assuming f t V , « Vo

L... —, 1
? + 2 j Sin

s-------- X
V(‘ l) = V0

M U ®
«•

+
o
I

'
V ( 'l) = V0 j

'
3

1
o

----- '
Bunching Process
. Maximum and minimum velocity of e’ s exit from buncher cavity is

v max ~ v 0
L 2V0 _ 1 Vrjjfi - Vo s M i]
L 2v
• Optimum bunching will take place at a distance AL from buncher cavity
and is given by

A L = Xo^Vo
(DpjV,

Time taken by e~ to reach second cavity after exiting from buncher

cavity is given by

where t 1 —> time at which e beam exit the buncher cavity

t _> time at which e~ beam enter into second cavity
L —> distance between two cavities

T„ -> — is called de transit time

0 vo

* Now

where 0 = — = 2rtN is the de transit angle between cavities, N is

0 V0

the number of e- transit cycle in drift space.

 (4601 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING MADE EASY

X - P |V ’ 9
2V 9 °
and 0
where, X is called bunching param eter of Klystron.

Current arriving at the catcher cavity is given by

j _______ _Jo_________
2 1- X cos(cot2 - 60 - 9g/2)

t2 -> time at which beam reaches to catcher cavity

o' h “ *o + X 2l0 Jn (nX)cos[n(o(t2 - t - To )]

n=1
where l0 -> de current
Fundam ental com ponent of beam current at the catcher cavity has a

m agnitude |lf = 2 I O J ^ X )

• This fu n d a m e n ta l c o m p o n e n t lf has its m axim um a m p litu d e at

X = 1.8411
The optimum distance L at which the maximum fundamental component
3.682v 0 .V0
of current occurs is given by °P ‘ wp.V,

O utput Power
• M agnitude of fundam ental com ponent of induced current at catcher
cavity is
where, po -> beam coupling coefficient of catcher
Igind “ Po 2 l p J l ( X )
cavity if buncher and catcher cavity
are identical then p( = p0 .
Equivalent circuit at o/p is

where, Rsh -» wall resistance of catcher cavity

rDd -> beam loading resistance
rl external load resistance
F? —> effective shunt resistance
1 ’sho
 A HANDBOOK ON ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING [461 ]

Olp power delivered to catcher cavity is given by

. _(P o Ii )2 r Po W
o u t --------- --— n 3h0 =
—— ■ ____ d—
.

Efficiency of tw o cavity Klystron is given by = out _ PQ ’f v 2

Pin 2Iq V0
Mote; M axim um efficiency is 58%.
Input voltage V 1 can be expressed in terms of bunching param eter as

2Vp x
given by v i
M o
Voltage gain of a Klystron am plifier is defined as

PohRsop _ P§ e 0 j,(X )
Av = Ro X R sh°
v. Vi

assuming P o = P
Vo
where Rn = -» de beam resistance
u >o

or v ~ 'J mn sho

G m _ 2p o lo J^X) ^ e q U lV aient mutual inductance of Klystron,

where

Loaded quality factor of the catcher cavity circuit at the resonant

frequency can be written as
1 1 1 u 1 - where, Ql = loaded quality factor of whole
<v Qq Qb Q ext
catcher cavity
Qo = quality factor of the catcher walls
Qb = quality factor of beam loading
Q e x l = quality factor of external load

Four Cavity Klystron

is the de phase constant of electron beam,
Pc = ^
where, v 0 de electron velocity
Vo
®q = R(0p —>is reduced plasma frequency

R = —3. —>is the space charge reduction factor

L p
 [ 4 6 2 ] MICROWAVE ENGINEERING__ M A P I EASY

ms plasma frequency

Po -4 de electron charge density and m is mass of e

The total electron beam - current density is given by

where Jo -> de beam current density

J -> instantaneous RF beam current perturbation
Jo = PoVo
J = PV O~PoV
where p —> RF - charge density

Reflex Klystron
• If a fraction of the output power is feedback to the input cavity and if
the loop gain has a magnitude of unity with a phase shift of multiple of
2rc, the Klystron will oscillate.
• Reflex Klystron is single - cavity Klystron.
• It is low power generator of 10 to 500 mW output at a frequency range
of 1 to 15 GHz.
• Its efficiency is about 20 to 30%.

Velocity Modulation
• The e~ entering the cavity gap from the cathode at time t0 it is assumed
to have uniform velocity

v 0 —0.593 x 1 0 6 / ^

• Some e leaves the cavity gap at t = t, with velocity

Same electron beam is forced back to the cavity at t - t., by retarding

electric field E, which is given by
Vf + Vo + Vt sin<Dt where, Vf —>retarding voltage or repeller
voltage
L -> distance between repeller and
cavity
Round trip time in repeller region is given by
 — - H A N D B 0 0 K 0 N ELECTRON ICS engineer ing
[463]

2m Lv0
where To = + is round trip de transit time

T=

(K = coT'— round trip transit angle

where 0O' = wT0 ' is the round trip de

transit angle

0o is the bunching parameter of reflex klystron oscillator.

2V 0

Power o/p and Efficiency

• For maximum energy transfer the round trip transit angle must be

® (t 2 - to = c o r = O)TO = I n - —1 2n = N2n
______________________ \ 4 / _________
Assuming V 1 << Vo and n is any positive integer for cycle number.

( 1>l

N= is the number of modes.

• Induced current m agnitude (Fundamental com ponent) is given by

l2 = 2l0 p jJ i(X z) where, l 0 -> de current

• The ratio of signal voltage V 1 to de voltage Vo is given by

V1 _ 2X' ~
Vo Pj(27cn —tc/2)

_ V J 2 ^ 2V 0 l0 X z J 1 (X z)
A.C. power is given by ac " 2 (2rcn - rc/2)

2 X 'J 1 (X ') = Pae

Efficiency of reflex Klystron is given by (2nn - n/2) Pd c

T] is maximum when X' = 2.408 and at this X'

X 'J /X ') = 1.25
For n = 2 or m ode, m axim um efficie ncy is 22.7% and Mode

For a given beam voltage Vo , the relationship between the repeller voltage
and cycle number n required for oscillation is given by
 464 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

Vo (2nrc-rc/2) 2 q
(Vr + V0 ) 2 ~ 8(o2L2 m

Power o/p can be expressed in terms of repeller voltage Vr as

P VqIq X'J^(X , )(Vr + Vp) q

<oL 2mV0

HELIX Travelling Wave Tubes (TWTs)

• In case of TWT the microwave circuit is non resonant and the wave
propagates with same speed as the electrons in beam.
• Interaction of electron beam and RF field is continuous over entire length.
• The wave in TWT is a propagating wave while the wave in Klystron is not.
• TWT mainly consists of slow wave structure to reduce the velocity of
electron beam and to match with that of field inorder to improve
interaction.
» Its frequency range of operation is 3 GHz and higher.
► Bandwidth is about 0.8 GHz.
» Efficiency is 20 to 40%.
• Power o/p is upto 10 kW average.
> Power gain is 60 dB.
• Modulated velocity in case of Helical travelling wave tube is given by

v(t) = v0 1+ q*"0. cos rot where, Eo - magnitude of applied signal

m<oVo (electric field).
Gain parameter C of travelling wave tube is given by
where, l0 -> de current or beam current
Vo -> beam voltage or de voltage
Zq -> characteristic impedance of Helix
O/p power gain A p in decibels is given by
A p (dB) = -9 .5 4 + 4.73 NO where, N -> circuit length
The values of propagation constants y are given by

Yi = "PeC - ^ - + fPe 1+ 7 ^

( r 3 ')
Y4 = ~JPe 1 - ^ r
Y a = JPe(1 ~ c ) where, B = —
_____ \ 4 / e v0
 Microwave Crossed Field Tubes (M-type)

, |n crossed field lu be s de m agnetic field and de electrical field are

perpendicular Io each other while in linear field lubes lhey are parallel to
each other.
t m cross field tubes, the de m agnetic field plays a direct role In the RF
interaction process.
♦ In this m agnetic field the path of accelerated electron beam is bent by
electric field.

Cylindrical M a g n e tro n
• In a cylindrical m agnetron, several reentrant cavities are connected to
the gaps.
. DC voltage is applied between cathode and anode.
• When the de voltage and the m agnetic flux are adjusted properly the
electron will follows cycloidal path in cathode-anode space.
• Hull cutoff m agnetic equation is given by

where, Vo -> de voltage

a -> radius of cathode cylinder

b -> radius from the centre of cathode
to the edge of the anode.

If applied Bo will be greater than Boc for a given Vo , then electrons

will not reach the anode.

Cutoff voltage is given by

Hull cutoff voltage equation

B o -a p p lie d m agnetic flux

• If ap plie d voltage Vo will be less than Vo c for a given Bo , the

electron will not reach the anode.

Cyclotron angular frequency is given by

where, co, cyclotron angular frequency
c
®o = £ b m -> mass of e~
___ m 0 Bo applied magnetic flux
[4 6 6 ) MICROWAVE EN G IN EE R IN G ----------------------MADE E^jy

• Time period of one complete revolution is given by

2n 2nm
T 2 “s_15?d
• If there are N reentrant cavities in the anode, the phase shift betwee,

two adjacent cavities is given

2np where, p —> is an integer

~N

Total phaseshifTaroundthe structure must be integral multiple cf

O 2n __ ___ _______________________

• Magnetron oscillators are ordinarily operated in the n mode that is

4>n = *

In n-mode the excitation is large in the cavities, having opposite

3 _______phase in successive cavities.____________________________

• If L is the mean separation between cavities, the phase constant of

fundamental mode field is given by

2 ftp
Po = where, po phase constant
NL
9- Microwave Measurements

For frequency m easurem ent we use r v iin r i, >

adjustable dim ensions. " > C a c a v i t Y resonator of

Inside c a v ity the re is eith er n a ra iia i

reso na nce c irc u it. o n a n ce circuit or series

If we are using parallel resonance r i m .it <

i/p there will be no o/p. '° r unknow n frequency at

If we are using senes resonance circu it then for unknown frequency at

i/p there w ill be m axim um o/p. quency at

Bolometer
• It is used for lo w p o w e r m e a su re m e n t
. If we are using directional coupler along with Bolometers we can measure
even high power.

VSWR Meter
• Works w ith slotted w aveguide.
• It is also ca lle d current detecting device.
• VSWR is given by

where, V ^ , V ^ -> max. and min. voltages

'max* 'mtn “ * m ax -a n d m *n - currents

• If d 1 is position of V m a x and d 2 is position of next then

^ = (d,-d2) and

where, Xg -> gu id e wave length

Xc -> cutoff wavelength
X -> w avelength of m icrowave signal
- ■ -_____________ ___________________________ _____________ \

r" —------- —
VSWR meter can also be used to measure frequency indirectly.
*
VSWR m eter is used for measurement of reflection coefficient

■ SWR, X a n d frequency.
W a v e m e te r is used for frequency measurement. I
 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING _____________ M A D E jA$y

Mlcrow«v« Strip Lines

• Microwave strip linos support quasi TEM wave

• Characteristic impedance of microwave striplines is given by

7 87 i 5-98h 1 \
Zf) “ - r -rr-'X . - r »|n —- ----- - f l
J6r +1~41 0.8w + t

wtvjro, € f relative permittivity of material of strip line

h -* height from the microstrip line to ground in miles
w -> width of microwave strip line in miles
t -> thickness of microwave strip line in miles