Topic 1: What is ethics, and morality?

Welcome! Are you familiar with ethics and morality? Probably yes, in fact, most of what we do in life deals with ethics and morality. But
before we delve into the complex world of ethics, it is only proper to know its basic concepts.

Topic one unfolds the fundamentals of ethics. This serves as the key to understand the deeper meaning of Ethics. Watch and learn from
the discussion on the general concepts of ethics on the youtube video provided here. Ethics | Ethics Defined - YouTube

By default, the video talks about moral principles and moral behaviors that human beings should act in order to live a good life. Ethics
can be classified as behavioral and applied.Behavioral ethics pertains to how we behaved when confronted with ethical dilemmas. For
example, an employee should show acceptable behavior such as showing respect, taking responsibility, and accountability, and
communicating clearly in the workplace in order to contribute quality output.
Applied ethics, sometimes called practical ethics is concerned with practical problems that coincide with moral philosophy which includes
subfields such as medical, social, legal, and business ethics.

ETHICS AND MORALITY DEFINED

Ethics is derived from the Greek word Ethicos which means relating to one’s character, customs, or manners. It is a science of character
of an individual expressed as right or wrong conduct or action.

Ethics is also related to moral principles that prescribe codes and explain what is” good or bad, right or wrong or evil. It tells us how
choices are to be made and what the consequences it will yield.

In other words, ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, virtue and vice, or justice
and crime.

What is Morality?

Morality comes from the Latin word mos (normative and Moris (genitive) meaning customs or conduct. It refers to what a person ought
to do and not to do and are shared and widely accepted as the standard for himself in a wider environment, that is the community or
society.

Various concepts as to how we live morally arise from various ethicists, including how they look at the meaning of morality. To start with,
let’s take Rachels definition and example of what morality is. James Rachels, a Philosophy professor (1941-2003) proposes a theory
called “minimum conception” of morality. He explains that the core of every moral theory should accept at least a starting point. Rachels
(1999) further argued that for a person to be moral, his judgment should be backed up with sound reasoning - a minimum requirement
for morality.

Here's the story of baby Theresa that demonstrates one's judgement and moral action. Let us try to read and analyze the case of “Baby
Theresa” as follows.

Baby Theresa was born with a disease called “Anencephalic” meaning no cerebrum, cerebellum, and the top skull is missing but has a
brain stem that keeps her from breathing. In Florida, where Theresa’s parents lived, most babies who are detected to have this kind of
disease while in the mother’s womb are aborted because even if they are born, babies will usually die in a few days. Theresa’s parents,
being aware of their daughter's situation and the law, decided and volunteered to donate baby Theresa’s organs to baby’s who are in dire
need of organ transplants. But it is the law that prohibits the removal of organs while the donor is still alive. The law further states that
taking organs will kill someone. Baby Theresa died after 9 days, and her organs had deteriorated and were worthless.

Now, do you think Theresa’s parents' decision is moral? According to the argument from “Wrongness of Killing” it says that it is wrong to
kill a person just to save another. In baby Theresa’s case, taking her organs would be killing her and saving other people's lives, therefore,
taking organs is wrong. However, Rachels’ argued on this theory. Here are his arguments:

· Shouldn’t there be an exception to the rule?

· That baby Theresa is not conscious; in fact, she will never have a life, and she is going to die soon; that is from the medical point of
view.

· Should we regard baby Theresa as already dead?

Topic 2: Ethics And Philosophy

Ethics and Philosophy

One might ask, are ethics and philosophy related? If yes, what is the connection between these two terms?

In your previous lesson, you've learned that ethics serves as the guideline for human beings to lead a life that follows moral standards.
But the question is, how sure we are that what we do is always right? This question will lead us to the fundamental nature of knowledge,
reality, and existence- called "philosophy".

Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are the three major figures in ancient philosophy who considered ethics as a philosophical engagement.
They were the ones who were able to see the possibility of thought and action or theory and practice that exist in dynamic unity.

1. Socrates -On a day in 399 BC, the philosopher Socrates stood before a jury of 500 of his fellow Athenians who accused of "refusing
to recognize the gods recognized by the state" and of "corrupting the youth." If found guilty; his penalty could be death.
2.Plato - He was Socrates’ student who took over the task when He (Socrates) was executed for allegedly “corrupting the minds of the
youth of Athens. Plato discussed every kind of philosophical idea, including Ethics wherein he enhanced the ethical orientation of
philosophy by presenting human life as a struggle and what life is ought to be.

3.Aristotle - A student of Plato is a towering figure in ancient Greek philosophy, who made important contributions to logic, criticism,
rhetoric, physics, biology, psychology, mathematics, metaphysics, ethics, and politics. His works include the necessity of finding one’s
purpose and practicing moderation in life in order to achieve what we call eudaimonia which means happiness.

Now, you might ask "why ethics is philosophical?", The answer is that ethics emerges from our basic desire to make sense of the
complexities of human conditions. Questions such as “Who Am I?”, “What Am I To Do With my Life?”, and “Who Do I Want To Be?” are
all but expressions of the human need to understand oneself and be able to use such knowledge as a guide for actions.

Topic 3: The Importance of Rules to Social Beings

Are you familiar with the Golden Rule (GR) that goes: "Treat others as you want to be treated". This adage becomes part of global ethics
today. Let me share with you a well-known story about the Golden Rule. Here it goes:

There was once a family whose Grandpa was also living with them. Because of old age he can no longer
hold things the way he used to do. While eating he dropped and broke his plate spilling the food, and was
scolded and given a cheap wooden plate instead. Grandpa was so unhappy.His grandson saw what happend and made
two wooden plates. His parent saw what their young son was doing and asked him: "Son what are you doing?" The
son replied: "I'm making two wooden plates so that when you two grew old and must eat alone". His Mom and Dad
looked sad and realized how they were mistreating Grandpa.So, they decided to let grandpa eat with them once
more even Grandpa will spill his food again.
The story is an example of Golden Rule. But be cautious of this Golden Rule because this does not apply all
the time. As a social being, we need to abide by the rules in a community where all of us belong in order to achieve
a harmonious relationship. Rules are a clean set of guidelines for what we can do and we cannot do.
Ethical standards serve as the guiding principles of human conduct. Doing what is right is the mantra in Ethics.
But how sure we are that these actions are acceptable, especially to the people around us?
What are the different kinds of rules?

As social beings, we have to act in accordance with the rules being imposed in the community where we belong. Rules come
in different faces.

Rules serve as the foundation for any healthy society. They tell us what is or what is not allowed in a specific situation or context.

Say, a mother tells her son the proper way of crossing the street by means of following the road signs in order to avoid accidents.

On the other hand, school rules help the stakeholders, employees, the faculty members, and the students to maintain a harmonious
relationship among them. Rules refer to explicit regulations governing conduct within a specific activity. (“Rule”,n.d.)

Rules tell us what is or what is not in a particular context. Social rule systems include institutions such as norms, laws, regulations, taboos,
customs, and a variety of related concepts and are important in the social sciences and humanities.

What do you think would happen if rules do not exist? Without rules, society would likely fall into anarchy.

Rules are established to protect the weaker class in society since they are at a disadvantage if such regulations are broken.
When rules are properly set and followed, they provide a stable environment and human co-existence in a community, resulting in peace
and order.

Rules benefit man in various ways:

 Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior - rules build boundaries that limit man’s behavior. The rule is a means of
imposing consequences on those who violate them.
 Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and freedom. Rules serve as frameworks for society. Rules on a division of
power and checks and balances further protect individuals' freedom and liberty.
 Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings. Rules are needed to keep the strong dominates the weak. In other words,
they prevent exploitation and domination.

Therefore, rules and regulations are crucial and necessary to protect the people in a society. These rules are needed to avoid exploitation
and tyranny while upholding man's common welfare.

Topic 4: MORALS AND NON MORAL STANDARDS

Watch this video and be able to see the distinction between moral and non-moral standards by giving examples. Be ready for a graded
discussion during our consultation schedule.

Moral standards keep everyone to act in the right way, for you and me to show an acceptable manner or behavior. Moral standards are
norms that we have about the kinds of actions believed to be morally right or wrong. It also involves our values in promoting the welfare
and well being of humans as well as animals, and the environment.

Non-Moral standards, on the other hand, refer to standards. Study the table below and be able to differentiate moral from non-moral
standards
Moral Standard
 Moral standards are norms that individuals or groups
have about the kinds of actions believed to be morally
right or wrong, as well as the values placed on what we
believed to be morally good or morally bad.
 Moral standards normally promote “the good”, that is, the
welfare and well-being of humans as well as animals and
the environment.
 Moral standards, therefore, prescribe what humans ought
to do in terms of rights and obligations.
Non-Moral standard
 Non-moral standards refer to standards by which we
judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in a non-
moral way.
 Examples of non-moral standards are standards of
etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad,
standards we call the law by which we judge something
as legal or illegal, and standards of aesthetics by which
we judge art as good or rubbish.
 Hence, we should not confuse morality with etiquette, law,
aesthetics, or even religion.

Topic 5: Dilemma and Moral Dilemmas

 What is dilemma? How does this apply in ethics? The dilemma is a term used for a situation when a tough decision is to be made between
two or more options. A dilemma refers to conflict, a problem, or situations that have two possible choices.

 A moral dilemma also known as an ethical dilemma pertains to an agent/person who faces a tough moral decision. For example,

These examples show the conflict between two moral norms which is (1) repaying one’s debt, (2) protecting others from harm. In simpler terms, a
person who faces a dilemma is required to do two or more actions, but cannot do both of the actions. Quite intriguing! Now, let’s ask some ethics
experts about moral dilemmas.

Ethicists propose that when one conflicting moral action dominates another moral action, the case is not a genuine dilemma.

The three levels of Moral Dilemma

1. Personal dilemmas - are dilemmas that are experienced on a personal level. Here’s an example of a personal dilemma from Jean-Paul Satre (1957).

Nearly twenty-four centuries later, Jean-Paul Sartre described a moral conflict the resolution of which was, to many, less obvious than the resolution
to the Platonic conflict. Sartre (1957) tells of a student whose brother had been killed in the German offensive of 1940. The student wanted to avenge
his brother and to fight forces that he regarded as evil. But the student’s mother was living with him, and he was her one consolation in life. The
student believed that he had conflicting obligations. Sartre describes him as being torn between two kinds of morality: one of limited scope but certain
efficacy, personal devotion to his mother; the other of much wider scope but uncertain efficacy, attempting to contribute to the defeat of an unjust
aggressor.
2. Organizational dilemmas -refer to ethical cases encountered by people in an organization.

The organizational dilemma is all about how to reconcile inconsistency between individual needs and aspirations on the one hand, and the collective
purpose of the organization on the other. Organizational dilemmas can take may different forms; from ethical through to toxic workplaces, it is
important to be able to specifically define what the dilemma is and what is the root cause.
3. Structural dilemmas - is wider in scope that involves cases of a network of institutions that encompass multi-sectoral organizations. Finding a
satisfactory system of roles and relationships would be an on-going universal struggle. Therefore, managers should create clear-cut solutions instead
of confronting enduring structural dilemmas/tough trade-offs without easy solutions or answers.

Other Examples of Moral Dilemmas

1. Accounting

Your supervisor enters your office and asks you for a check worth $150.00 for expenses he tells you he incurred entertaining a client last night. He
submits receipts from a restaurant and lounge. At lunch, your supervisor’s girlfriend stops by to pick him up for lunch and you overhear her telling
the receptionist what a great time she had at dinner and dancing with your supervisor the last night before. What would you do?

2. Bank Teller

You have worked as a bank teller for several months when one of the other tellers who has become a good friend tells you that her daughter is extremely
ill and that she must have an operation to survive. She also tells you that she has no insurance and the operation will cost $10,000. She then confides
in you that she took $10,000.00 from a dormant account at the bank to pay for the operation. She assures you that she has already started paying it
back and will continue to do so until it is already returned. What would you do?

3. Computers

In your spare time at work, you have developed a new spreadsheet program on the personal computer in your office. It is even more
powerful, yet easier to use than anything on the market. You share your new program with a friend who encourages you to market it on
your own because could probably make an incredible profit in a short period of time. This is a very attractive option, yet you developed it
using the company equipment and during the time that you are at work. What would you do?
Topic 6: What is the minimum requirement for Morality?

Minimum Requirement for Morality: Reason and Impartiality

Reason and impartiality are the minimum requirements for a person to be considered moral. Reason in terms of morality tells us that
human feelings may be important but sound reasoning helps us to evaluate whether our feelings and intuitions are correct and defensible.

Impartiality, on the other hand, refers to the idea that each individual’s interests and points of view are equally important.

Impartiality is a principle that deals with our decisions that should be based on the criteria of being just or objective, rather than bias or
has a prejudice. Impartiality is a requirement for being moral. Some ethicists argued that we have to strive impartiality because it promotes
our well being, therefore, earning respect and appreciation of others.

The principle of impartiality is central to both deontological and utilitarian ethical theories, both of which call for an impartial appraisal of
a situation, followed by the morally appropriate response. These impartial moral theories require an individual to set aside personal
interests and considerations, that is, they require us to make decisions based on objective criteria, rather than personal bias.

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Topic 1: Culture in Moral Behavior

Culture is all around us. It is our way of life. Generally speaking, culture is the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs,
values, and attitude among many others, that is acquired by a group of people making up a community in the course of their generations.
It includes practices, beliefs, and perceptions in a given society. Culture is said to be a part of our social life as well as our personality, in
which one might say “ that person is cultured” - meaning that person is seen to have a culture based on some factors such as status,
class, education, taste in music and speech habits.
Culture is the way of life, such as the Filipino principle of “mano” as a sign of respect for elders, which is part of the Filipino culture.
Culture as a way of life naturally follows the moral values and behaviors that are deemed right and wrong in said community. This set of
rules is what the community approves of and is thus passed on to later generations of the same culture and community.

Summing it up, culture includes all the things that an individual learns while growing up in a particular group namely: attitudes,
standards of morality, rules of etiquette, language, ideas about how the world works, and many more - and called them all cultural
knowledge.

Topic 2 - Moral Standards as social convention & social theory

What is a moral standard?

In your previous learning, you come up to a realization about ethical standards- doing the right thing, and avoiding wrongdoings. But
how do we really say that what we do is always the right thing? In this lesson, you will study moral standards as a social convention.

Moral standard in its simplest term refers to norms in which people do and is believed to be morally acceptable and/or unacceptable.
By theory, the moral standards are social conventions agreed upon by people, or simply means the usual belief of how people do and
believe, without having a second thought. In line with this, you will be learning more about moral standards as a social convention and
social conditioning theory.

Among the popular notions which attempt to give account for basic concepts in Ethics are the so-called “Social Convention” and
“Social Conditioning” theories. These theories are the consequence of the fact that we can gain knowledge regarding morality through
culture and socialization.

Social Convention Theory

By this theory, it is claimed that the rules and moral standards that are in place are actually merely inventions of man. Convention refers to the usual
or customary ways through which things are done within a society or community. Since these rules are supposedly made by man, it is believed that the
rules could have been different if a man wanted them to be different.

An example of this would be the rule that people must keep on the right of the road. This is true in the Philippines, but maybe different in other
countries where the norm would be to keep on the left.

Social Conditioning Theory

By this theory, on the other hand, it is claimed that the rules people follow only echo social approval or disproval. This may be compared with peer
pressure, where the decisions of one may be influenced by the people around him.

An example of this would be the decision to engage in pre-marital sex. Although many people around us may believe that engaging in such
activities is neither immoral nor moral, one may think that it is ethically wrong despite potential influences around him. This, in turn, refers to the sense
of moral obligation, wherein where a person feels that an action is morally wrong, he is morally obliged to disobey or deviate from society’s
conditioning or insulations.

Topic 3 - Culture Relativism in Ethics

Topic #3: Culture Relativism in Ethics

Cultural Relativism is the most known form of moral relativism. Moral Relativism holds that no act is good or bad objectively. Thus it believes that the
morality or immorality of every action must be seen and evaluated depending on different situations. Cultural Relativism dictates that an act is moral if
the cultural society approves of it, and an act is therefore immoral if the cultural community disapproves of it.

Valuable Lessons

Cultural Relativism discourages being judgmental. It reminds us that different cultures have different
standards that must be respected by all. It further teaches us that tolerance is necessary for a peaceful
world. Tolerance is needed so that different cultures with a different set of rules may co-exist in this
world. Figure 4: All cultures must be respected.

Ethical Faults

Cultural Relativism discourages analytical thinking and independent decision-making. Because it is taught that any act that society approves is correct,
it is required that an act be done without suspicion. Society is the only basis, regardless of the morals stand of an individual.

Topic 4 - Asian Moral Understanding (Filipino Moral Character) and Universal Values

Topic 5 - Moral Characters and Disposition

Topic 5 - Moral Characters and Disposition

Topic 6 - Kohlberg’s Six Stages of Moral Development

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Topic 1: Feelings and Moral Decision-Making

The Act - Most of the time we tend to respond to a moral dilemma without understanding why we reacted that way. Sometimes we are highly emotional
as we express our approval or disapproval of various acts. Our feeling can be an obstacle in becoming ethical. Thus, it is important to understand the
role of feelings on morality.

Feelings and Moral Decision-Making - There are at least two theories in ethics that give focus on the role of feelings on morality. They are (1)
Ethical subjectivism and (2) Emotivism. But before the discussion of these theories, let us first deal with the view that feelings are instinctive and
trained response to moral dilemmas.

Feelings as Instinctive Response to Moral Dilemmas - Some ethicists believe that ethics is also a matter of emotion. They hold that moral judgments
at their best should also be emotional. Feelings are seen necessary in ethical judgment as they are even deemed by some as instinctive and trained
responses to moral dilemmas.

2.1. Feelings as Instinctive Response to Moral Dilemmas

2.2. Feelings as Obstacles to Making the Right Decisions

2.3. Emotivism
One way to look at Emotivism is to view it as an improved version of subjectivism. Considered by its proponents as far more subtle and
sophisticated than subjectivism. Considered by its proponent as far more subtle and sophisticated than subjectivism. Emotivism is
deemed invulnerable to many objections. This theory was developed chiefly by the American Philosopher Charles L. Stevenson (1909-
1979) has been one of the most influential theories of Ethics in the 20th Century.

The theory basically states that moral judgments express positive or negative feelings. “X is right” merely means “Hooray for X! and “X
is immoral” just means “Boo on X!” Since ethical judgments are essentially commands and exclamations, they are not true or false; so
there cannot be moral truth and moral knowledge. Emotivism is actually the most popular form of non-cognitivism, the meta-ethical
theory that claims that ethical sentences do not convey, authentic propositions. Moral judgments, according to Emotivism, are not
statements of act but are mere expression of the emotion of the speaker, especially since they usually feelings-based.
To understand how the theory views moral judgments, it would help to note that language is used in a variety of ways. Principally
language is used to state facts or what we believe to be facts. Thus, we may say, Marcos was president of the Philippines”, Gasoline
cost Php 50 per liter,” and Jose Rizal is the author of Noli Me Tangere.” In each case, we are saying something that is either true or
false, and the purpose of our utterance is typically, to convey information to the listener

But there are other purposes for which language may be used. Suppose one says, “Close the door!” This utterance is neither true nor
false. It is not a statement of any kind but a command. Its purpose is not to convey information but to get one to do something. In giving
you a command, I am not trying to alter your beliefs; instead I am trying to influence your conduct.

Emotivism claims that they have two entirely different purposes: First, they are used as a means of influencing others behavior. If
someone says “Stealing is immoral,” Emotivism interpret it as an attempt to stop you from doing the act. Thus, the utterance is more
like command – it is equivalent to saying, “Don’t do that!”

Second, moral sentences are used to express (not report the speaker’s attitude. Accordingly, saying “Fair play is good is not like
saying approve of fair play, but it is like saying “Hurrah for fair play!”.

So there lies the difference between Emotivism and Subjectivism

2.4. Ethical Subjectivism

2.5. Emotivism vs Subjectivism

2.6. Evaluating Emotivism

2.7. Feelings and Decisions

3.1. Reason and Impartiality Defined

Reason. Humans have not only feelings but also reason, and reasons plays a vital role in Ethics. In fact, moral truths of reasons; that is,
a moral judgment is true if it is espoused by better reasons than the alternatives.

If someone tells us that a certain action is immoral, we may ask why it is so, and if there is no reasonable answer, we may discard the
proposition as absurd. Also, if somebody utters that a particular act is wrong and explains that is because it does not happen to fit his
taste, then we also do not count his claim as a legitimate ethical judgment. Clearly thus, reason is a necessary requirement for morality.

At least in Philosophy, reason is the basis or motive for an action, decision, or conviction. As a quality, it refers to the capacity for logical,
rational and analytic thought; for consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, applying common sense and logic,
and justifying and if necessary, changing practices, institutions, and beliefs based on existing new exiting information.
Actually, reason spells the difference of moral judgments from mere expression of personal preference. If after eating, someone says, I
like a sweet cake,” he is not required to support it with good reasons for that is a statement about his/her personal state and nothing
more. But in the case of moral judgments, they require backing by reasons. In the absence of sensible rational, they are merely capricious
and ignorable.

Moral deliberation is a matter of weighing reasons and being guided by them. In understanding the nature of morality, considering reason
is indispensable. Truth in ethics entails being justified by good reasons. That is the rightful moral decision involves selecting the option
that has power of reason on its side.

Impartiality. On the other hand, impartiality involves the idea that each individuals interest and point of view are equally important. Also
called even handedness or fair-mindedness, impartiality is a principle of justice holding that decisions ought to be based on objective
criteria rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person another for improper reasons.

Impartiality in morality requires that we give equal and or adequate consideration to the interest of all concerned parties. The principle
of impartiality assumes that every person, generally speaking, is equally important; that is no one is seen as intrinsically more significant
than anyone else.

Humans have not only feelings but also reason, and reasons plays a vital role in Ethics. In fact, moral truths of reasons; that is, a moral
judgment is true if it is espoused by better reasons than the alternatives.

If someone tells us that a certain action is immoral, we may ask why it is so, and if there is no reasonable answer, we may discard the
proposition as absurd. Also, if somebody utters that a particular act is wrong and explains that is because it does not happen to fit his
taste, then we also do not count his claim as a legitimate ethical judgment. Clearly thus, reason is a necessary requirement for morality.

At least in Philosophy, reason is the basis or motive for an action, decision, or conviction. As a quality, it refers to the capacity for logical,
rational and analytic thought; for consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, applying common sense and logic,
and justifying and if necessary, changing practices, institutions, and beliefs based on existing new exiting information.

Actually, reason spells the difference of moral judgments from mere expression of personal preference. If after eating, someone says, I
like a sweet cake,” he is not required to support it with good reasons for that is a statement about his/her personal state and nothing
more. But in the case of moral judgments, they require backing by reasons. In the absence of sensible rational, they are merely capricious
and ignorable.

Moral deliberation is a matter of weighing reasons and being guided by them. In understanding the nature of morality, considering reason
is indispensable. Truth in ethics entails being justified by good reasons. That is the rightful moral decision involves selecting the option
that has power of reason on its side.

Topic 2: Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirements for Morality

The 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model

The following are the steps or elements of a model for making moral decision:

1. Gather the Facts. Some moral dilemmas can be resolved just by clarifying the facts of the case in question. But in more
complex cases, gathering the facts is the indispensable first step prior to any ethical analysis and reflection on the case.
2. Determine the Ethical Issues. The moral issues should be correctly stated in terms of competing interests. It is these
conflicting interests that practically make for a moral dilemma.
3. Identify the Principles that Have a Bearing on the Case. What principles have a bearing on the case? In any moral
dilemma, there are sure moral values or principles that are vital to the rival positions being taken. It is very significant value or
principles that are vital to the rival positions being taken. For Rae, biblical principles will be clearly weighted the most heavily.
But there may be other principles essentially relevant to the case that may come from other sources.
4. List the Alternatives. This step involves coming up with various alternatives courses of actions as part of the creative
thinking included in resolving a moral dilemma.
5. Compare the Alternatives with the Principles. This step involves eliminating alternatives according to the moral principles
that have a bearing on the case. In many cases, the case will be resolved at this point, since the principles will remove all
alternatives except one. As a matter, of fact, the purpose of this comparison is to determine whether there is a clear decision
that can be made without further deliberation.
6. Weigh the Consequences. If the principles do not produce a clear decision, then a consideration of the consequences of the
remaining available alternative is in order
7. Make a Decision. After deliberation, the decision should be made.

6. The 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model

6.1. The Importance of Will and Moral Courage
Both will and moral courage are important in a good rational moral decision. But we need to clarify the definition of the moral courage.

Moral courage means doing the right thing even at the risk of inconvenience, ridicule, punishment, loss of job or security or social
status, etc. Moral courage requires that we rise above the apathy or social status, etc. Moral courage requires that we rise above the
apathy, complacency, hatred, cynicism and fear-mongering in our political systems , socioeconomic division and cultural religious
differences.

One sense of the concept will refers to that faculty of the mind which chooses at the moment of making decisions, the strongest desire
from among the various desires present. Will does not refer to any particular desire, but rather to the capacity to act decisively on one’s
desires. Within philosophy the will is important as one of the distinct parts of the mind, along with reason and understanding. It is
considered important to ethics because of its central role in enabling a person to act deliberately. Commonly, we think of will in the
active sense, of self-control, of working toward attaining goals.

The German Philosopher Arthur Schoperhauer explained that when we become conscious of ourselves, we recognize that our
essential qualities are endless urging, craving, striving, wanting and desiring. He said that these are the features of that which we call
our will. According to Schopenhauer, will is the innermost essence, the kernel of every particular thing and also of the whole. He
believed that the will is the primary and uses knowledge in order to find an object that will satisfy its craving.

Having moral courage and will means doing the right thing, which may include listening to our conscience, that quiet voice within.
Disregarding that voice may lead to feeling of inadequacy, guild and diminished personal integrity.

Topic 3: Moral Courage

We have learned that reliance on feelings is disadvantageous. In resolving dilemmas, we are thus advised to guide our emotion with
reason, if not totally suppress them. But reason, for many ethicists, is also not enough in carrying out moral decisions. Moral

Courage is also as important.

7.1. Developing Will and Moral Courage

The following are tips or suggestions on how to develop will and moral courage.

Develop and practice self-discipline. One way to develop moral courage and will is to develop and practice self-discipline.
Developing will and courage involves developing self-control. It includes nurturing the ability to stick to actions, thoughts and behavior,
which lead to moral improvement and success. It encompasses endowing the inner strength to focus all the energy on a moral goal
and persevere until it is accomplished.

Do mental strength training. One of the most simple and effective methods under this mental strength training involves declining to
satisfy unimportant and unnecessary desires.

Draw inspiration from people of great courage. People usually admire and respect courageous persons who won great success by
manifesting self-discipline and will power.

Repeatedly do acts that exhibit moral courage and will. A person must strive doing the acts that manifest them whenever
opportunity allows it. The following are some examples.

1. helping someone push a car

2. picking up litter
3. do what your preach
4. becoming a company whistle blower.
5. participating in a peaceful protest.
6. Avoid deeds that show lack of moral courage and will. This involves evading acts that show irresponsibility, cowardice, apathy,
rashness, imprudence, ill will and wickedness.
7. walking away from someone in need
8. taking more than you fair share
9. laughing at someone’s misfortune or accident.
10. grabbing the spotlight from someone who has earned it
11. remaining silent in the face of wrong doing or injustice
12. rationalization or justification for action/lack of action.
13. being inconsistent or capricious with rules and standards for one’s children
14. breaking a promise
15. lying or cheating.