Mineralium Deposita (2002) 37: 117–136
DOI 10.1007/s00126-001-0234-7
A RT I C L E
Peter J. Pollard Æ Roger G. Taylor
Paragenesis of the Grasberg Cu–Au deposit, Irian Jaya,
Indonesia: results from logging section 13
Received: 10 June 2001 / Accepted: 20 July 2001 / Published online: 20 December 2001

Springer-Verlag 2001
Abstract The Grasberg Cu–Au deposit is hosted within
the Grasberg Igneous Complex (GIC), a Pliocene vol-
canic and intrusive complex situated in the highlands of
Irian Jaya, Indonesia. The GIC is composed of intrusive
and volcanic rocks that were disrupted by formation of
the Dalam Diatreme and intruded by later, multistaged
Grasberg and Kali intrusions. Each intrusive phase is
overprinted by extensive hydrothermal infill and alter-
ation. Based on drillcore logging on section 13, 35
separate stages of alteration and infill have been recog-
nized, and their spatial distribution mapped in 14
drillholes that represent approximately 1.8 km of verti-
cal section. Using intrusions as timelines, the hydro-
thermal stages can be timed as post-Dalam–pre-MGI
(Main Grasberg Intrusion), post-MGI–pre-Kali, and
post-Kali, and linked into seven groups that are inter-
preted as separate hydrothermal systems. Pre-Kali sys-
tems include ten of the recognized stages, and are mostly
high-temperature alteration (K-feldspar and/or biotite)
devoid of sulfide mineralization. Sulfides are restricted
to post-Kali time and, excluding early quartz–anhy-
drite ± sulfide and molybdenite veins, can be grouped
into three main stages: (1) Heavy Sulfide Zone (HSZ)
mineralization, (2) Grasberg copper–gold stage, and (3)
late copper mineralization (mixed copper sulfides,
covellite–enargite–pyrite and pyrite–covellite–marca-
site). The HSZ is dominated by fine-grained replacement
pyrite and distributed mainly towards the periphery of
the GIC, with only minor occurrences towards the
central zones. It is suspected that a high proportion of
the copper and gold content of the HSZ is due to
overprinting by the Grasberg copper–gold stage and late
copper mineralization.
P.J. Pollard (&) Æ R.G. Taylor
School of Earth Sciences,
James Cook University,
Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
E-mail: Peter.Pollard@jcu.edu.au
Tel.: +61-7-47815050
Fax: +61-7-47251501
The Grasberg copper–gold stage is a major chal-
copyrite–bornite±pyrite±gold±hematite event occur-
ring as a centrally focused fracture system that has
been traced from the surface to the limits of drilling
(>1,800 m). It is considered to also have a minor
focus in peripheral zones, where it overprints the HSZ.
The Grasberg copper–gold stage exhibits no obvious
vertical or lateral changes in mineralogy. Late copper
mineralization comprises several stages and is domi-
nantly disseminated in character. The early stages are
dominated by chalcopyrite, bornite, digenite–chalco-
cite, covellite±nukundamite, and colusite, with the
later stages containing pyrite, marcasite, covellite, and
enargite±minor chalcopyrite. Late copper mineraliza-
tion is essentially a high sulfidation system, and is
associated with zones of mild acid leaching, develop-
ment of small-scale vugs, andalusite alteration, and
abundant intermediate argillic alteration (illite, kaoli-
nite). Rare pyrophyllite is reported. Hydrothermal
alteration/infill stages within the GIC are controlled
dominantly by oriented fracture arrays and major
brittle–ductile fracture systems. These are focused
around pre-existing igneous or igneous–sediment con-
tacts, with the margins of the Kali intrusions being a
prime focus of fracturing linked to the Grasberg cop-
per–gold stage. The pattern of repetitive introduction
of fluid and magma from deeper levels is compatible
with the presence of an evolving magma chamber at
depth. No significant quantities of sulfur-bearing min-
erals were precipitated until formation of the purple
anhydrite–quartz veins that preceded the major sulfide
stages. This suggests that the early hydrothermal fluids
had temperature and oxygen fugacity characteristics
that precluded precipitation of sulfur-bearing phases,
and/or that a model involving late-stage addition of
sulfur to a deeper level magma chamber, perhaps by
intrusion of more primitive magma, may be applicable
to Grasberg.
Keywords Grasberg Æ Porphyry copper–gold Æ
Irian Jaya Æ Indonesia
118
Introduction
The Grasberg Cu–Au deposit is situated in the Ertsberg
mining district of Irian Jaya, Indonesia (Fig. 1) and is
the world’s major copper–gold mine. Grasberg was
discovered by P.T. Freeport Indonesia in 1988 when
the first vertical drillhole (GRS-4) encountered 600 m
averaging 1.65% Cu and 1.4 g/t Au (Van Nort et al.
1991; MacDonald and Arnold 1994). Current recover-
able reserves are 51 billion pounds of copper,
62.4 million ounces of gold, and 135.5 million ounces
of silver (see also Table 1; Freeport McMoRan Copper
and Gold Inc. 2000). The Grasberg deposit comprises
Fig. 1 Simplified geological
map of the Ertsberg district
the present open pit that is being mined at a rate of
approximately 240,000 t of ore per day, and the
downward extension of mineralization that is planned
as a future underground mine.
The Ertsberg mining district forms part of the Central
Range Mobile Belt of Irian Jaya that contains Miocene–
Pleistocene magmatic rocks formed in response to the
partial subduction of the northern margin of Australia
beneath a south-facing island arc located on the south-
ern edge of the Pacific Plate. Mineralization in the
Ertsberg district appears to be related to a suite of
high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic intrusive rocks
(McMahon 1994a, 1994b) that were emplaced during
the Pliocene (McDowell et al. 1996). The strontium
 119

Table 1 Aggregate proved and

probable mineral reserves in the Tonnage (tonnes · 106) Copper (%) Gold (g/t) Silver (g/t)
Ertsberg district at 31 Decem-
ber 2000 (Freeport McMoRan Grasberg
Copper and Gold, 2000) Open pit 1,081 0.99 1.20 2.32
Underground 743 1.09 0.79 2.77
Kucing Liar 320 1.41 1.41 5.3
Deep Ore Zone 185 1.19 0.82 5.83
Ertsberg Stockwork Zone 101 0.55 0.80 1.75
Big Gossan 37 2.69 1.02 16.42
Dom 31 1.67 0.42 9.63
Intermediate Ore Zone 16 1.09 0.42 7.76
Total reserves 2,515 1.1 1.04 3.4

Fig. 2 Simplified geological map of the Grasberg Igneous Complex

showing the location of section 13 Fig. 3 Cross section 13 showing simplified geology and the
distribution of drillholes used in this study

(87Sr/86Sr = 0.70626 to 0.70707), neodymium (Nd =

–13.7 to –15.3) and lead isotopic characteristics of the
Ertsberg district intrusions suggest that the parental
magmas were mixtures of components derived from a
depleted mantle reservoir, 2–3% from an ancient en-
riched mantle reservoir, and a substantial component of
lower crust of probable Proterozoic age (Housh and
McMahon 2000).
The Grasberg deposit is hosted within the Grasberg
Igneous Complex (GIC; Figs. 1, 2, 3), and mineraliza-
tion has been delineated from the original surface at
4,200 m and is still open below 2,500 m. As part of
ongoing exploration in the Ertsberg district, a detailed
paragenetic study of alteration/mineralization within the
GIC was initiated by P.T. Freeport Indonesia. The aims
of this study are to determine the nature and controls of
Cu–Au mineralization within Grasberg and ultimately
to correlate alteration/mineralization events at the dis-
trict scale. This paper reports results of the paragenetic
study based on detailed logging of drillholes on section
13 (Figs. 2 and 3), supplemented by observations and
sampling of pit exposures and drillcore from other parts
of the deposit.
The alteration and mineralization history of the GIC
has been previously described by MacDonald and Ar-
nold (1994), who recognized three major episodes of
alteration and Cu–Au mineralization linked to succes-
sive Dalam Diatreme, Main Grasberg Stock and South
Kali Dyke phases of intrusion. The results of the present
study (Table 3) are broadly consistent with those of
MacDonald and Arnold (1994) in that they indicate the
presence of several distinct alteration systems, some of
which were separated in time by intrusion of (mon-
zo)dioritic magmas. However, they differ significantly in
detail since we recognize numerous overprinting stages
of alteration/infill with two main episodes of Cu(–Au)
mineralization, both of which post-date intrusive rocks
within the GIC. The major Grasberg chalcopyrite–bor-
nite–gold vein system is best developed towards the
centre of the GIC, while the later disseminated copper
mineralization (mixed copper sulfide, covellite–enargite–
120
pyrite, etc.) is best developed towards the periphery of
the GIC. Results of this study place significant con-
straints on potential genetic models for Grasberg min-
eralization and suggest that magmas and fluids were
derived from an evolving, deeper level magma chamber.
Geology of the Ertsberg mining district
Cu–Au mineralization in the Ertsberg mining district is
associated with Pliocene intrusive rocks that were em-
placed into Cretaceous and Tertiary siliciclastic and
carbonate rocks that belong mainly to the Kembelangan
and New Guinea Limestone Groups (MacDonald and
Arnold 1994). The intrusive rocks are quartz dioritic to
quartz monzonitic in composition (Katchan 1982;
MacDonald and Arnold 1994; McMahon 1994a, 1994b;
Pennington and Kavalieris 1997), and K–Ar ages for 15
biotite separates range from 4.4 to 2.6 Ma (McDowell
et al. 1996). The presence of remnant volcanic rocks
overlying the intrusions (Fig. 2), together with apatite
fission track analysis of the intrusions, suggests emplace-
ment depths of 2 km or less (Weiland and Cloos 1996).
The Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments in the Erts-
berg district contain a number of Cu–Au deposits
(Fig. 1), including the Ertsberg East Skarn System
(Rubin and Kyle 1998; Coutts et al. 1999), Big Gossan
(Meinert et al. 1997), Kucing Liar (Widodo et al. 1999),
and Dom (Mertig et al. 1994). The Grasberg deposit is
hosted within the GIC, a pipe-like body approximately
950 m in diameter that flares above 3,400 m, reaching
approximately 2.4 by 1.7 km at surface. In its upper
part, the GIC is composed dominantly of diatreme
breccia that is referred to as the Dalam Diatreme
(MacDonald and Arnold 1994). MacDonald and Ar-
nold (1994) noted that most fragments below 3,500 m
are intrusive (diorite or monzodiorite porphyry) while
those above 3,500 m are dominantly volcanic (andesit-
ic). The two rock types were interpreted to be cogenetic
(MacDonald and Arnold 1994).
The GIC is overlain by remnants of a volcanic edifice
that includes volcaniclastic rocks and (trachy)andesitic
flows or domes. The volcaniclastic rocks are well to
poorly bedded and sorted, and include tuffaceous com-
ponents with eutaxitic textures and accretionary lapilli,
carbonized wood fragments and bomb and splash
structures that indicate in part, a surficial aqueous en-
vironment of deposition (MacDonald and Arnold 1994).
Blocks of the volcanic debris have been found in the
upper parts of the diatreme breccia (MacDonald and
Arnold 1994), as have fragments of banded clay (Fig. 2)
that are interpreted to be surficial lake sediments that
were incorporated downwards into the diatreme breccia
(Prendergast 2001).
The Dalam Diatreme is intruded by a series of quartz
monzodiorites whose precise timing and distribution are
yet to be fully resolved because intense hydrothermal
alteration commonly prevents recognition of the nature
of the original rock. MacDonald and Arnold (1994)
divided the intrusive rocks into three main types: (1)
fine-grained diorite which is a late dyke phase of the
Dalam intrusion, (2) early, middle, and late intrusions of
the main Grasberg stage, and (3) early and late stages of
the South Kali dyke system. Pennington and Kavalieris
(1998) divided the intrusive rocks into: (1) Dalam, (2)
Grasberg, and (3) Kali quartz monzodiorites but, while
recognizing the multistage character of the intrusions,
did not further subdivide these units.
Geology of Grasberg section 13
Seven holes drilled from the Ayam Hitam drift (upper
section) and seven holes drilled from the Amole Drift
(deep Grasberg; Fig. 3) have been logged in detail in
order to determine the paragenesis and spatial distri-
bution of infill and alteration stages on section 13. All
igneous rock types encountered in the drillholes are
considered to be intrusive in origin, and possible dia-
treme breccia material was observed only in GRS-37-
111. The rock types proved difficult to identify due to
intense hydrothermal alteration and the similar ap-
pearance of some rock types. The distribution of rock
types shown in Fig. 3 is simplified from the current mine
interpretation. In the drillholes examined, the GIC is
composed of Dalam intrusive rocks, with MGI and Kali
intrusions located towards the centre. The rocks have
been divided into nine types based on mineralogical/
textural characteristics (Table 2) and, where possible,
crosscutting relationships.
Dalam intrusive rocks
The most abundant rocks within the GIC on section 13
are Dalam intrusive rocks that can be divided into five
main textural/mineralogical types based on observations
of the least altered samples. The distribution of each
rock type is unknown because pervasive alteration has
destroyed the texture in most places.
The dominant rock type on section 13 is porphyritic
diorite (Dalam I; Table 2, Fig. 4A) with approximately
80% phenocrysts of plagioclase, amphibole, and biotite,
generally around 5 mm (rarely 10 mm) in size occurring
in a microcrystalline matrix. Amphibole and biotite
comprise approximately 20% of the rock. Next in
abundance is fine-grained porphyritic diorite (Dalam II,
Table 2, Fig. 4B) containing approximately 50% phe-
nocrysts of plagioclase, amphibole, and biotite in a
microcrystalline matrix. A few per cent of larger phe-
nocrysts of amphibole (to 1 cm) and plagioclase (to
5 mm) occur with the predominant phenocryst popula-
tion (1–2 mm). The texture is very commonly obscured
by intense biotite and/or K-feldspar alteration. Amphi-
bole and biotite comprise approximately 10–15% of the
rock. A third type of intrusive rock (Dalam III; Table 2,
Fig. 4C) was observed in AM96-43-05 from approx-
imately 270 m. This is distinguished by a relatively low
 121

Table 2 Textural and mineralogical characteristics of intrusive rocks from Grasberg section 13
Rock type Texture Phenocrysts Comments

Dalam I Crowded porphyritic texture with
approximately 80% phenocrysts
in a microcrystalline matrix
Dalam II Porphyritic, with approximately
50% phenocrysts in a
microcrystalline matrix
Dalam III Porphyritic, with approximately
80% phenocrysts in a fine-grained
to microcrystalline matrix
Dalam IV Porphyritic, with approximately
50% phenocrysts in a fine-grained
to microcrystalline matrix
Dalam V Porphyritic with approximately
30% phenocrysts in a
fine-grained matrix
MGI Crowded porphyritic texture with
approximately 50% phenocrysts
in a microcrystalline matrix
Kali I Porphyritic, with 40–50%
phenocrysts in a microcrystalline
matrix. Phenocryst alignment
commonly observed
Kali II Seriate texture, with crystals
ranging from 1 to 8 mm, but
generally 1–2 mm. Rarely porphyritic
Kali III Microcrystalline matrix,
commonly porphyritic, with
phenocrysts of plagioclase and
K-feldspar to 2 mm
Amphibole (5%) mostly
<5 mm, rarely to 10 mm.
Plagioclase (75%) up to 5 mm
Plagioclase (45%) to 8 mm,
commonly tabular to rounded.
Amphibole (5%) to 5 mm
Plagioclase mostly <5 mm,
rarely to 8 mm. Mafic phenocrysts
less than 2 mm and interstitial to
plagioclase
Amphibole (10%) 1–8 mm,
commonly euhedral. Plagioclase
(40%) 1–5 mm, commonly elongate
to tabular
Plagioclase (30%) up to 5 mm,
commonly euhedral
Plagioclase (40%) up to 2 mm,
amphibole, biotite, and
magnetite (10%) to 5 mm
Phenocrysts typically 5 mm or
less. Phenocryst assemblage is
variable, includes clinopyroxene,
amphibole, biotite, magnetite,
and plagioclase. Rare quartz
phenocrysts (0.5 mm) in some
samples
Rare plagioclase phenocrysts to
1 cm
Phenocryst content variable
includes plagioclase and K-feldspar
to 2 mm and magnetite to 0.5 mm
Dominant intrusive rock type on
section 13. Invariably strongly altered
Essentially a less crowded and slightly
finer grained version of Dalam 1.
Invariably strongly altered
Only observed in AM96-43-05 towards
the edge of the GIC. Invariably
strongly altered
Dykes intruding DalamI in AM96-40-
07. Invariably strongly altered
Part of Dalam intrusive suite,
invariably strongly altered
Invariably strongly altered
Contains mafic enclaves,
generally <1 cm diameter
Contains mafic enclaves,
generally <1 cm diameter
Associated with pegmatitic
K-feldspar–quartz veins

abundance of mafic minerals compared with the por-
phyritic diorite and consists of approximately 40–50%
of sub-equant plagioclase phenocrysts to 5 mm (rarely
10 mm), together with 5–10% primary biotite generally
<1 mm in size, and approximately 40% microcrystal-
line matrix. Thin section examination reveals that
original amphibole (5%) has been entirely replaced by
fine-grained, pale-brown secondary biotite. Dykes of
porphyritic microdiorite (Dalam IV; Table 2) were
observed in AM96-40-07 (393.3–393.5 m and 394.3–
399.0 m), where they crosscut Dalam I. The dyke rocks
are composed of approximately 60% microcrystalline
matrix and 40% phenocrysts of amphibole and plagio-
clase to 10 mm. The amphibole content is around 10%.
The Dalam diorite (Dalam V, Table 2, Figs. 2, 3, 4D)
has a relatively coarse porphyritic texture with approx-
imately 30% plagioclase crystals. Characteristic features
include the presence of pale-green plagioclase pheno-
crysts up to 5 mm, and small hexagonal plates of biotite
(1 mm). The Dalam diorite is noted as being always
strongly K-silicate altered and mineralized (Kavalieris,
personal communication 2000). The Dalam diorite has
been logged in several holes in the upper part of section
13 (e.g. GRS-37-39, GRS-37-161 and GRS-37-128,
Fig. 8), but is difficult to distinguish from other Dalam
intrusive rocks with confidence.
Main Grasberg Intrusion (MGI)
The MGI is present in several of the holes on section 13,
but also proved difficult to identify with certainty due to
successive stages of intense K-feldspar, biotite and
magnetite alteration. MacDonald and Arnold (1994)
described the Main Grasberg stock as a medium- to
coarse-grained monzodiorite porphyry containing 35–
50% plagioclase, 2% hornblende, and 3% biotite phe-
nocrysts. The example shown in Fig. 4E contains a
higher proportion of ferromagnesian minerals.
Kali intrusive rocks
Intrusive rocks in the centre of the GIC on section 13
form part of the South Kali dykes and have been divided
into three types. Kali I is by far the most abundant, and is
a fine-grained porphyritic rock containing approximately
40–50% phenocrysts that are commonly partially aligned
(Fig. 4F). The phenocryst content is variable, and
includes plagioclase, amphibole, biotite, and clinopy-
roxene. Kali II is a medium-grained, seriate-textured and
weakly porphyritic rock (Fig. 4G). The grain size is
generally <2 mm, but plagioclase phenocrysts range up
to 10 mm. Amphibole, biotite, and magnetite are the
122
main ferromagnesian minerals and comprise 10–15% of
the rock. Kali II occurs as metre-scale dykes that crosscut
Kali I and its associated fine-grained magnetite alteration
(see below).
Kali III (Fig. 4H) is an aplitic granite phase composed
dominantly of quartz (30–35%), K-feldspar (30–35%),
and plagioclase (30–35%), with 1–2% of dark minerals
that include biotite, amphibole, and magnetite. Kali III
typically occurs as centimetre to decimetre-scale dykes
that crosscut Kali I and Kali II and extend into the MGI
and Dalam rocks. Kali III dykes are commonly closely
associated with the coarse-grained K-feldspar veins de-
scribed below. Kali III is the youngest intrusive rock type
recognized on section 13 and is overprinted by all the
hydrothermal stages of Packages 4–7 (except the mag-
netite veins with magnetite alteration borders, see below).
Alteration and mineralization
The paragenesis of alteration and mineralization on
section 13 (Table 3) has been established through careful
observation of crosscutting and overprinting relation-
ships in drillcore (e.g. Figs. 5, 6), and each 3-m assay
interval has been logged for the presence and intensity of
development of each stage of the paragenesis (e.g.
Fig. 7). For the purposes of description and discussion,
the 35 alteration/infill stages (Figs. 8 and 9) have been

b and feldspar phenocrysts. Narrow, linear zones of
Fig. 4A–H Intrusive rocks within the Grasberg Igneous Complex.
A Dalam I intrusive rock composed dominantly of phenocrysts of
plagioclase and mafic minerals (black). Dark K-feldspar alteration
(centre) is overprinted by secondary biotite which forms a network
linking original mafic phenocrysts now composed dominantly of
secondary biotite. Late quartz veins (grey at centre) are cut and
offset by minor sulfide veins. AM96-43-05 166.5 m. Width of field
7.5 cm. B Dalam II intrusive rock. Probably a finer grained variant
of Dalam I, contains prominent phenocrysts of plagioclase mafic
minerals. Crosscut by MGI quartz vein (white, lower left) which is
overprinted by minor sulfides. AM96-43-05 182.6 m. Width of field
7.5 cm. C Dalam III intrusive rock. Note the fine network of dark
biotite in the matrix. Crosscutting quartz-anhydrite vein (centre),
and sulfide spot alteration controlled by microfractures throughout
the matrix. AM96-43-05 316.4 m. Width of field 6 cm. D Dalam V
(Dalam diorite). Porphyritic diorite with elongate white plagioclase
phenocrysts and interstitial dark mafic minerals (amphibole and
biotite). GRS-37-128 7.0 m. Width of field 5 cm. E Main Grasberg
Intrusion (MGI). Porphyritic to seriate-textured diorite with
amphibole (upper right and lower left) and plagioclase (white,
centre) phenocrysts. AM96-56-01 375.0 m. Width of field 7 cm.
F Kali I intrusive rock (quartz monzodiorite) containing prominent
phenocrysts (amphibole, biotite) with a weak flow foliation. AM96-
43-05 57.3 m. Width of field 7.5 cm. G Kali II intrusive rock
(quartz monzodiorite). Equigranular to seriate texture with rare
plagioclase phenocrysts (e.g. centre right). Note contrasting texture
and higher abundance of mafic minerals compared with Kali I.
AM96-40-05 40.3 m. Width of field 6.5 cm. H Kali III intrusive
rock. Porphyritic to seriate-textured monzogranite with pheno-
crysts up to 3 mm in size of quartz, plagioclase, and alkali feldspar.
Contains rare biotite and magnetite. AM96-43-07 15.3 m. Width of
field 6.5 cm
separated into seven packages (Table 3) whose overall
mineralogical associations suggest that they may repre-
sent individual, evolving fluid systems. Packages 3 and 6
probably represent several different fluid systems, but
additional data from elsewhere in the GIC are required
before these can be subdivided with any confidence. Two
vein types whose timing is poorly constrained, together
with the late gypsum veins, have not been assigned to
any package of stages.
Package 1
In AM96-43-5 fragments of altered Dalam intrusive rocks
are contained in an igneous matrix interpreted to be MGI
(Fig. 5A), and this allows the distinction of K-feldspar
and biotite alterations within the Dalam intrusive rocks
prior to intrusion of the MGI. This is the earliest package
recognized and is restricted to the Dalam intrusive rocks,
although overprinting by numerous later stages makes the
overall distribution difficult to evaluate.
Dalam K-feldspar alteration
Dalam K-feldspar (Fig. 4A) alteration is fracture con-
trolled and texturally very destructive, resulting in fine-
grained, granular pale-brown alteration. This obscures
original rock textures, and at hand specimen level the
prominent feldspar phenocrysts are obliterated. Petro-
graphically, the alteration can be observed as the de-
velopment of very fine grained K-feldspar in the matrix
123
coarser-grained feldspar may represent infill channel-
ways. Although not totally clear, the original mafic
components seem diminished or absent.
The alteration has been traced from the lowest point
of section 13 (approximately 2,500 m) to around
4,160 m, a vertical distance of 1,700 m. It was not re-
corded in the mid to upper regions of the southwestern
flank (Fig. 8b), although the very strong MGI K-feld-
spar, MGI magnetite, MGI biotite, black spot biotite-K-
feldspar, and late K-feldspar stages occurring as later
overprints would effectively mask earlier stages in this
area. Dalam K-feldspar alteration is also present in
fragments within the Dalam Diatreme in GRS-37-111.
Dalam biotite alteration
The distribution of Dalam K-feldspar alteration is
paralleled by an overprint of dark, fine-grained biotite
(Fig. 8c). This varies considerably in intensity, and at
hand specimen level ranges from crack-style veinlets to
irregular blotches and zones of fine-grained dark rocks.
Thin section observations suggest that the fine grain
size relates to the preceding fine-grained K-feldspar
alteration. The overprinting biotite variably alters the
fine-grained K-feldspar grains, creating even finer
grained biotite flakes. A few areas of slightly coarser
biotite may represent remnants of original mafic
minerals. The biotite ranges from pale to deep yellow-
brown in plane polarized light, with some of the smaller
grains exhibiting tinges of green. Dalam biotite altera-
tion has been traced vertically for 1,500 m on section 13
(Fig. 8c).
Package 2
MGI K-feldspar alteration
MGI K-feldspar alteration is best observed within the
short sections of MGI intrusion that occur adjacent to
the Kali system. It occurs as irregularly distributed pale
brown-pink K-feldspar alteration of the igneous matrix.
In more intensely altered samples, K-feldspar has also
replaced the phenocrysts and destroyed the original
texture of the rocks. In thin section, very fine grained,
granular K-feldspar can be seen as an alteration of the
matrix, and extending into the plagioclase phenocrysts
via small cracks and cleavage planes. No infill could be
discriminated and it is surmised that the alteration is
controlled by systems of small cracks, grain boundaries,
and mineral cleavages/dislocations.
MGI K-feldspar alteration can be traced for over
1,100 m vertically on section 13. At depth it is relatively
minor and virtually confined to the small section of MGI
that is present on the southwest side of the Kali. How-
ever, in the upper sector (Fig. 8d) it is much more ex-
tensive and occurs in 200–300 m core intercepts affecting
124

Table 3 Paragenetic sequence of alteration/infill stages in the in upper Grasberg (4,100–4,300 m), l increase in lower Grasberg
Grasberg copper–gold deposit from the early post-Dalam/pre-MGI (3,300–2,500 m), t no obvious vertical change, present throughout.
stage to the post-Kali stage. v veins, a alteration, sp semi-pervasive, * Paragenetic position not well-constrained, + could involve more
m massive. c central, m middle, o outer parts of the GIC. u increase than one stage
Timing Package Number Stage Style Distribution

Lateral Vertical

Post-Kali 35 Gypsum veins v c, m, o t

34 Pyrite veins with clay borders* v, a m l
33 Sphalerite–galena veins* v o l
7 32 Sulfur veins v c, m, o u
31 Covellite–pyrite–marcasite– v, sp m, o u?
sericite–chalcopyrite veins+
30 Covellite–enargite–pyrite v, sp m, o l
veins/alteration
29 Quartz–carbonate veins* v m l?
28 Mixed copper sulfide stage v, sp, l m, o l
27 White clay–illite alteration sp, l c, m, o l
26 Vuggy quartz veins v m, o l
25 Andalusite alteration m t
Leaching event
6 24 Grasberg copper–gold veins v c, m, o t
23 Heavy Sulfide pyrite v, a, sp, m c,o l
22 Dark sericite–silica alteration v, sp o l
21 Quartz–sericite alteration v, a, m o l
(silicification)
5 20 Molybdenite veins v c, m, o l
19 Anhydrite–quartz veins v, sp c, m l
(minor sulfides)
4 18 Chlorite veins and alteration* v, sp c t
17 Amphibole veins v c l
16 Coarse-grained magnetite veins v c, m u
15 Biotite veins v c l
14 Quartz veins v c t
13 Quartz veins–K-feldspar v, a c l
alteration borders
12 Coarse-grained K-feldspar veins v c l
11 Magnetite veins (with v, a c t
magnetite alteration borders)
Post-MGI –pre-Kali 3 10 MGI quartz veins v c, m, o t
9 Late K-feldspar (creamy sp c, m, o t
white) alteration
8 Green sericite alteration sp m, o t
7 Brown biotite alteration sp m, o l
6 Biotite–K-feldspar (black v, a, sp c, m, o t
spot) alteration
2 5 MGI magnetite alteration v, a, sp, m c, m u
4 MGI biotite alteration v, sp c, m t
3 MGI K-feldspar alteration sp c, m u
Post-Dalam –pre-MGI 1 2 Dalam biotite alteration v, sp c, m l
1 Dalam K-feldspar alteration sp c, m l

a range of pre-Kali stage intrusive rocks. Although not
logged to the northwest, the rocks in this region have
been largely obliterated by succeeding magnetite, late
K-feldspar, and quartz vein overprinting.
MGI biotite alteration
MGI biotite comprises some 10–15% of the altered
rocks, and occurs as discontinuous, ragged veins, and
as relatively coarse-grained, diffuse edged clusters
interpreted to be alteration of original mafic pheno-
crysts. Within the altered porphyry matrix, MGI biotite
occurs as micrometre-scale crystals that occur as vaguely
spotted zones and selectively within feldspar (plagio-
clase?) phenocrysts. The biotite is inclusion free, and
varies from colourless to dark orange-brown in plane
polarized light.
The distribution of MGI biotite alteration (Fig. 8e) is
difficult to discern accurately, as it commonly merges
with very similar, but earlier alteration within Dalam
units. However, a distinction can be made in deep
Grasberg, where fragments of biotite-altered Dalam ig-
neous rocks were found within MGI (igneous breccia).
The distribution at depth is thus judged to be restricted
to within the MGI and the immediate surrounds, where
it overprints MGI K-feldspar alteration. The latter cri-
terion was utilized to ascertain the distribution in the

Fig. 5A–H Infill and alteration stages. A Fragments of biotite-
altered Dalam intrusive rock (dark, lower left, centre right)
contained within an igneous matrix (MGI) and crosscut by an
MGI quartz vein (white, top) with later infilling sulfides. AM96-43-
05 146.7 m. Width of field 6 cm. B Magnetite-altered MGI (right)
with crosscutting MGI quartz veins intruded by Kali I (left).
AM96-43-06 75.0 m. Width of field 7 cm. C MGI with pervasive
K-feldspar alteration (pale) of the matrix overprinted by fine-
grained MGI magnetite alteration (black matrix), MGI quartz
veins (grey–white), coarse-grained magnetite (veins and black spots
in MGI quartz), and chalcopyrite vein (dark grey, centre). Grasberg
pit sample. Width of field 6 cm. D An original Dalam intrusive
rock overprinted by late K-feldspar now converted to illite (white,
lower right), silica–sericite alteration (dark grey to black), and thin
HSZ pyrite veins (pale). Width of field 7 cm. E Vuggy quartz veins
containing coarsely crystalline quartz crosscut fine-grained, mas-
sive quartz which is interpreted as MGI quartz stockwork
125
material. The vuggy quartz veins are interpreted as quartz–
anhydrite veins from which the anhydrite has been leached. AM96-
40-07 469.2 m. Width of field 7 cm. F Altered Dalam intrusive
rock from a zone of sericite–illite alteration and anhydrite
leaching. Dark areas are andalusite–sericite alteration, while paler
areas contain relict K-feldspar and muscovite. Crosscut by a vein
with a white alteration halo composed mainly of quartz and
carbonate (right) and overprinted by sulfides which are dominated
by chalcopyrite of the late copper system. AM96-43-05 275 m.
Width of field 7 cm. G Molybdenite-filled veins and cracks (dark
grey and black) in a silica-altered Dalam intrusive rock, crosscut by
HSZ pyrite vein (centre). AM96-43-08 243.5 m. Width of field
6 cm. H Vuggy quartz vein which is interpreted to be a quartz–
anhydrite vein from which the anhydrite has been leached. The
void space has been partially infilled by very fine-grained quartz
and tiny sulfide grains (black). AM96-43-07 83.0 m. Width of field
5 cm
126
upper Grasberg sector (southwest flank, Fig. 8e), where
the biotite extends over widths of some 100–200 m, as
opposed to 20–50 m at depth.
No MGI biotite was recorded on the upper north-
western flank, although it may have been obscured by
intense magnetite and quartz vein development. This
impression is supported by the lack of MGI biotite in
GRS-37-128 (central southwestern flank) where major
magnetite has eliminated previous alteration styles, but
biotite alteration can be seen in the drillhole above (GRS-
37-162), particularly where magnetite intensity weakens.
Some of this distribution may be explained by the logging
technique, where small amounts of magnetite can easily
be detected with a magnet, while small amounts of rem-
nant biotite are difficult to see in hand specimen.
MGI magnetite alteration
The MGI magnetite stage occurs principally as fine-
grained alteration of various igneous host rocks and
earlier alteration styles. Fluid ingress was controlled by
numerous millimetre-scale cracks that are generally well
masked by the accompanying ragged edged alteration.
Magnetite grains also appear as disseminated spots
within the matrix of the intrusive rocks. The alteration
seems to be focused within feldspars and is noted pro-
lifically as alteration of the K-feldspar veins and felds-
pathized matrix of the MGI. The magnetite is variably
altered to hematite that occurs along fractures and grain
boundaries.
The MGI magnetite veining/alteration (Fig. 8f) ex-
hibits an upwardly expanding pattern. At depth it occurs
over an area of some 50 m adjacent to the Kali–MGI
contact. However, in mid to upper levels (Fig. 8f) the
area occupied by the maximum development is com-
monly at the 50 m scale, with the zone of magnetite
development extending some 200–250 m away from the
present Kali contact (Kali not present when MGI
magnetite alteration formed).
Package 3
Black spot biotite-K-feldspar alteration
A biotite–K-feldspar infill/alteration combination is
widespread throughout the central to inner zone of the
GIC (Fig. 8g), and is very distinctive owing to the
presence of coarse-grained flakes (0.2–0.8 cm) of dark
biotite. These occur sporadically with finer grained, pale
pink to cream feldspar and give a very characteristic
‘black spot’ effect. Intense, fine-grained alteration asso-
ciated with a network of cracks/vein channelways is
commonly three to ten times wider than the infill
channel. In thin section, the infill zones contain coarser
grained, semi-equant feldspar crystals, while the altera-
tion feldspar is finer grained. The alteration is texturally
destructive, and the prominent feldspar phenocrysts of
the Dalam host rocks have been converted to fine-
grained K-feldspar. The biotite crystals are distinctive in
thin section with birefringence ranging from colourless
to very pale green.
Brown biotite alteration
Brown biotite alteration is one the most distinctive
stages and occurs over extensive zones within the central
to outer sections of the GIC, particularly in deep
Grasberg (Fig. 8h). The lower southwestern sector has a
zone of almost 300 m in AM96-40-05, with several 100-
m-scale intercepts recorded to the northeast. The effect
of the alteration is to give the rocks a very distinct pale
brown colour where all the original mafic minerals (in-
cluding primary and secondary biotite) have been con-
verted to brown biotite. At hand specimen level it is
difficult to see any controlling channelways for this ex-
tensive alteration, with very few indications of veins, or
even the discontinuous, small-scale cracks/biotite trails
normally associated with widespread biotite alteration.
In thin section, small biotite trails and vague discon-
tinuous networks of cracks can be observed. The biotite
is inclusion free and ranges in colour from very pale to
medium orange in plane polarized light.
Green sericite alteration
Green-grey, fine-grained sericite alteration (Fig. 8i) is
commonly subtle and difficult to recognize in hand
c
Fig. 6A–H Ore minerals. A Grasberg copper–gold stage. Chal-
copyrite (white) and bornite (grey) infill cutting earlier vein quartz
(dark). Sample RP6, 3740 bench, Grasberg pit. Width of field
1.4 mm. B Grasberg copper–gold stage. Chalcopyrite (white) and
hematite (grey) infill, with earlier infill quartz (black). Sample RP2,
3835 bench, Grasberg pit. Width of field 1.4 mm. C Grasberg
copper–gold stage. Chalcopyrite (grey) and gold (white) infill in
earlier quartz (dark). Sample RP6, 3740 bench, Grasberg pit. Gold
grain approximately 125 lm across. D Mixed copper sulfide stage.
Texture of a high-grade zone. All the sulfides (dark) are infill,
reflecting a crack and dissolution pattern prior to deposition. The
porphyritic wall rock is heavily feldspathized and sericitized. GRS-
37-162 764.0 m. Width of field 4 cm. E Mixed copper sulfide stage
in vugs. The grey infill minerals are quartz (Qtz) and elongate
muscovite (Musc). The sulfides include pyrite (Py), chalcopyrite
(Cpy), molybdenite (Mo), and covellite (Cov). GRS-37-162
764.0 m. Width of field 2.8 mm. F Covellite–enargite–pyrite stage.
Covellite (dark and pale grey) and enargite (grey, centre top and
bottom) infill in earlier (Heavy Sulfide Zone) pyrite. AM96-43-7
365.8 m. Width of field 1.4 mm. G Pyrite (white) occurs in variable
grain sizes, successively infilling a cavity with associated covellite
(grey) which is also of variable grain size. Note development of
crustiform layers, and framboid-like clusters. Some fine-grained
white material may be marcasite. GRS-37-162 340.1 m. Width of
field 1.4 mm. H Covellite–pyrite–marcasite–sericite–chalcopyrite
stage. Large crystals of marcasite (pale grey–white) with interstitial
covellite (grey), minor chalcopyrite, and bornite. The texture is
interpreted as vein infill. Sample ES3745-02, Grasberg pit. Width of
field 1.4 mm

specimen, but is most noticeable in Dalam intrusive
rocks where it overprints rocks that were previously al-
tered to fine-grained K-feldspar and mildly overprinted
by biotite alteration. The rocks take on a pale green
tinge, and it is this feature that has been logged. Within
rocks that are brown biotite-dominated the alteration
colour is pale grey, and in thin section the brown biotite
can be seen to be partially altered to fine-grained sericite.
Late K-feldspar alteration
Late K-feldspar alteration is widespread (Fig. 8j) and
extremely texturally destructive. The alteration is com-
monly pale grey-white to cream, and may have a pink
127
tinge. In thin section the rocks are mixtures of coarser
and finer grained domains of untwinned K-feldspar.
Some of the coarser grained K-feldspar occurs in linear
domains (veins?), and the finer grained zones are prob-
ably matrix replacement. The structural controls are
only observable in areas of less intense development
where fine-scale crackle networks can be discerned. Late
K-feldspar overprints the black spot K-feldspar
alteration and is hence post-MGI in timing. The alter-
ation can be traced over a vertical interval of 1,500 m
(Fig. 8j). It occurs in both inner and outer segments of
the GIC in zones that range from around 30 to 200 m.
At mid-Grasberg level, the removal of the later Kali
igneous system suggests an original width of some
350 m. The distribution of white clay–illite should also
128

Fig. 7 Log of AM96-43-07

showing rock types, assay
data, and the distribution
and intensity of several
paragenetic stages. The
intensity of each stage is
logged from 0 to 3, and is a
relative scale for each stage,
with 3 being the most intense
development
 129

Fig. 8 Distribution of rock

types and alteration/infill stages
on section 13. Solid fill shows
distribution extrapolated be-
tween logged drillholes, dots
represent extrapolation beyond
logged drillholes

be inspected carefully as much of this material is an
alteration of pre-existing feldspathized rocks, especially
near the margin of the GIC.
MGI quartz veins
The MGI quartz veins (Fig. 8k) are one of the most
spectacular features of the Grasberg system, and,
although barren, are strongly represented over some
1,600–2,000 m vertically. The veins are commonly less
than 10 cm wide, although examples >1 m have been
observed on the southeastern side of the GIC. The
veins appear monomineralic in hand specimen, being
composed solely of quartz infill, mostly with no visible
alteration. The veins are grey-white, normally com-
pletely infilled, and with little sign of euhedral crys-
tals. This contrasts with the later anhydrite–quartz
130
veins, in which euhedral quartz crystals are more
common.
The MGI quartz vein zone is some 300–400 m across
in deep Grasberg, and slightly wider (400–500 m) in the
mid to upper levels. The veins are major sites of multiple
generations of hydrothermal vein overprinting, and have
commonly been broken along their margins, central
zones, and/or at random and may contain magnetite,
biotite, anhydrite, bornite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, etc. This
commonly gives a false impression that minerals other
than quartz are an integral part of their infilling.
Package 4
Package 4 comprises several vein±alteration stages that
occur mainly in and around the Kali intrusive rocks.
Magnetite veins (with magnetite alteration borders)
Fine-grained magnetite (Fig. 8l) occurs sporadically
within and adjacent to the fine-grained Kali I intrusion
as oriented crackle zones. The veins are associated with
intense, but patchy and irregular magnetite alteration of
the wall rocks. The finer grained rock matrix is prefer-
entially altered, although some fine-grained magnetite
spots also form in the feldspar phenocrysts of Kali I.
Fine-grained magnetite is crosscut by Kali II and Kali
III intrusions.
Coarse-grained K-feldspar veins
Coarse-grained K-feldspar veins (Fig. 8m) are relatively
rare, with a tendency to occur in the vicinity of the
fine-grained leucocratic dykes (Kali III, aplite–pegma-
tite association). The veins range up to 4 cm in width,
and in hand specimen are sharp bordered and com-
posed of flesh to creamy pink K-feldspar infill with
minor associated quartz. Individual feldspar crystals
range up to 2 cm in length, and this creates a peg-
matitic appearance. In thin section, patches of grano-
phyric quartz–feldspar intergrowths are observed, and
some veins have narrow halos of K-feldspar alteration
of plagioclase.
Quartz veins±K-feldspar alteration borders
Quartz veins with white borders are common in and
adjacent to the Kali intrusive rocks and form an errat-
ically distributed array/network of narrow (0.25–1 cm)
veins composed of grey quartz with minor white K-
feldspar. In hand specimen, the veins are easily recog-
nized owing to narrow, white alteration halos dominated
by K-feldspar. The alteration halos are very erratic, and
range from absent to >5 mm in width. In thin section,
the alteration occurs as replacement of the plagioclase-
dominated rock matrix, and partial replacement of
plagioclase phenocrysts. The quartz veins with K-feld-
spar alteration borders were recorded only in deep
Grasberg (Fig. 8n).
Quartz veins
Quartz veins (Fig. 8o) within the Kali intrusions are ir-
regularly distributed and rare. The quartz occurs as
glassy grey infill without obvious visible crystals, and
there is no attendant alteration. The veins rarely exceed
1 cm in width.
Biotite veins
Black biotite veins (Fig. 9a) occur throughout the Kali
zone and are conspicuous within the core, which com-
monly breaks along the 1–2-mm-thick veins. In thin
section the biotite is russet red-brown to pale brown in
plane polarized light. The veins are associated with mi-
nor biotite alteration where they intersect igneous mafic
minerals (especially hornblende).
Coarse-grained magnetite veins
A second magnetite stage is distinctive in that it occurs as
magnetite-only veins (0.1–0.5 cm wide) commonly with
little or no visible alteration. The magnetite is generally
about twice the grain size of the earlier fine-grained
magnetite, and tends to have an obvious granular nature.
The grains reflect the light and hence appear brighter and
blacker than the dull fine-grained magnetite. When well
developed and closely spaced, there is a minor alteration
effect with magnetite spotting in the host rocks. The
magnetite veins are tightly constrained within the Kali
and adjacent MGI and/or Dalam host rocks (Fig. 9b).
Amphibole veins
Amphibole occurs as narrow (0.2–1 cm) veins that are
easily visible in the core trays as the core commonly
breaks along them. The amphibole is pale to dark green
and occurs as infill with no apparent associated alteration.
The veins are commonly overprinted and altered to paler
green chlorite. The veins tend to overprint and be over-
printed by other veins, and hence are closely associated
with pre-existing biotite and magnetite veins, producing
mixed assemblages. The distribution is tightly con-
strained in and around the Kali contact zones (Fig. 9c).
Chlorite alteration
The porphyritic Kali I is very rarely completely fresh
and some 85–95% of the unit has been subjected to

Fig. 9 Distribution of altera-
tion/infill stages on section 13
continued. Symbols as in Fig. 8
semi-pervasive ‘background’ alteration which results in
the white/cream colour turning pale grey, with an
attendant loss of sharpness of the phenocryst bound-
aries. In thin section this ‘blurring’ is due to selective
carbonate and chlorite alteration focused within and
around the original amphiboles, mineral cleavages,
grain boundaries, and cracks. The feldspars are less
affected and carbonate predominates with a clear
131
microcrack structural control. Biotite remains essen-
tially unaffected, with small patches of chlorite rarely
developed along the crystal margins. There are also
chlorite veins (Fig. 9d) in 5–20-m-lengths of core
where previously formed biotite and amphibole veins
have been chloritized. It is presumed that this chlori-
tization is related to the more pervasive background
style.
132
Package 5
Anhydrite–quartz veins (± minor sulfides)
A series of anhydrite–quartz veins±K-feldspar, biotite,
apatite, chalcopyrite, bornite, pyrite are very prominent
in deep Grasberg, but much less common in the upper
levels (Fig. 9e). They extend from the central Kali zone
towards the outer edges of the GIC (Fig. 9e). The den-
sity of veining is variable, and generally low (one to four
per metre). Vein widths are similarly variable (0.5–4 cm)
and in general the veins are easily identified by the
presence of lilac/pale purple anhydrite. The veins display
a distinct lateral variation in composition. In the central
Kali region they contain variable amounts of coarse-
grained black biotite, pink K-feldspar, and chalcopy-
rite–bornite–pyrite along with quartz–anhydrite.
Beyond approximately 100–150 m from the central
zone, the veins are composed only of quartz and anhy-
drite. The proportion of quartz versus anhydrite also
varies considerably in the outer 200–300 m of the
system, with a major increase in quartz, and the lilac
anhydrite becoming white to pale green. The quartz
component is distinctive as coarsely granular to comb
textured and white in colour, and can generally be
distinguished from the finer, grey coloured quartz of the
MGI quartz veins.
Molybdenite veins
Molybdenite veins are characteristically narrow (1 mm)
and composed solely of molybdenite. The veins com-
monly occur preferentially along the margins of anhy-
drite–quartz veins and are also much more prominent in
deep Grasberg (Fig. 9f). The molybdenite veins are
crosscut by HSZ pyrite veins (Fig. 5G; see below).
Package 6
Quartz±sericite alteration (silicification)
The deep Grasberg outer Dalam zone to the northeast
contains a prominent zone of quartz veining linked to
intense silica alteration of pre-existing wall rocks
(Fig. 9g). Core intercepts of 100 m or more have been
converted to very fine grained grey-white quartz, which
is overprinted and replaced by later, dark sericite and
massive pyrite of the HSZ. The veins are generally dif-
fuse bordered owing to the accompanying silica altera-
tion, but it is apparent that veins of up to 5 cm wide are
present. In marginal zones, the alteration adjacent to
more isolated veins can be seen as dominantly siliceous
grading outwards to zones of silica–sericite. Within
zones of intense veining, the intervening rocks are
composed essentially of fine-grained grey alteration sil-
ica with very minor sericite. This quartz vein style, with
its intense silica alteration, is significantly different to the
MGI quartz veins, which are essentially quartz veining
(infill only) with little or no alteration.
Dark sericite–silica alteration
Dark, fine-grained sericite–silica alteration is prominent
in the outer parts of deep Grasberg (Fig. 9h). The
sericitization post-dates previous feldspathization and
silicification of original porphyritic igneous rocks, and is
in turn overprinted by fine-grained pyrite of the HSZ.
Heavy Sulfide Zone pyrite
The Heavy Sulfide Zone (HSZ) occurs near the margin
of the GIC (Fig. 3), and is well represented on section 13
(Fig. 9i). This consists of zones of massive, fine-grained
replacement pyrite grading into veins with less well-de-
veloped alteration in peripheral zones. The veins are
especially well developed on the Dalam side of the
contact zone. Occurrences on the southwestern flank are
dominated by veins, with no massive zones recorded.
The pyrite occurs as an alteration of carbonate, and
silicified-, sericitized-, feldspathized- and magnetite-
altered intrusive rocks. The pyrite contains minor
amounts of intergranular chalcopyrite and one gold
grain has been observed in the pyrite in polished section.
Grasberg copper–gold veins
Chalcopyrite–bornite veins contribute the bulk of the
copper and gold grades which constitute the Grasberg
deposit. On section 13 the Grasberg sulfide stage exhibits
a concentration of veins and copper and gold values
adjacent to the Kali (Fig. 9j), with a general decrease in
vein intensity towards the perimeter of the GIC (e.g.
Fig. 7). Chalcopyrite and bornite predominate, and there
are hints of more pyrite towards the perimeter. However,
this occurs in areas where the Heavy Sulfide Zone pyrite
veins extend inward from the perimeter of the GIC
(Fig. 7), and detailed study is required for clarification.
The chalcopyrite–bornite stage occurs predominantly
as infill within veins that range up to 2 cm wide (Fig. 5C,
D), although the vast majority are <0.5 cm in width.
Sulfide alteration spots are also widely developed, par-
ticularly in original mafic minerals in the intrusive rocks,
and within zones of earlier biotite and K-feldspar
alteration. Polished thin section examination indicates
that the veins are composed of chalcopyrite, bornite, and
gold, with minor, early hematite and possibly rare
quartz (Fig. 6A, B, C). The veins are essentially brittle
fractures, and exhibit little or no evidence of movement.
They overprint numerous pre-existing vein and altera-
tion stages and the fractures commonly occur along the
direction of pre-existing veins (biotite, magnetite,
anhydrite, quartz). This is especially true of the pre-
existing MGI quartz veins which formed prior to the

Kali igneous rocks. This gives a superficially misleading
impression that the quartz veins and sulfide deposition
occurred at the same time.
Package 7
Andalusite alteration
Andalusite is not recognizable in hand specimen, and
has only been documented via thin section observations.
Several areas with a thinly distributed petrographic
cover reveal occurrences of andalusite over drillcore
intervals in excess of 100 m in GRS-36-162 (225 m),
AM96-43-08 (111 m) and AM96-43-05 (107 m). Recent
investigation (Imants Kavalieris, personal communica-
tion 2001) has also confirmed the presence of andalusite
in the southeastern part of the Grasberg pit. Andalusite
has been observed as an alteration of a fine-grained tu-
ffisite dyke that cuts and brecciates quartz–anhydrite
veins, suggesting a very late timing.
The major andalusite occurrences (deep Grasberg,
GRS-37-162, and in the Grasberg pit) have a strong
spatial association with the development of white seri-
citic–argillic alteration zones (see below). In deep
Grasberg, these white zones also coincide with quartz–
anhydrite veins, which have been leached of their an-
hydrite content to produce vuggy quartz veins (Fig. 9k).
This association was not observed in the upper Grasberg
holes where anhydrite of the quartz–anhydrite stage is
abundant both in vein and spot alteration formats.
Vuggy quartz veins
The sericite–clay zones are characterized by two vari-
eties of vuggy quartz veins. The most prominent are 1–
2-cm-wide quartz veins composed of coarse-grained,
crustiform quartz crystals (to 0.5 cm long) projecting
into open central voids. Coarse-grained, more granular
quartz is also present closer to the vein walls, and there
is no quartz alteration of the wall rocks. The quartz is
white to pale grey and appears identical to that of the
quartz–anhydrite veins. The latter are present on both
sides of the vuggy quartz vein zones, and it appears
that removal of anhydrite created the vuggy central
voids.
Smaller quartz veins (0.2–0.5 cm wide) are also vuggy
along their central zones, but contain much finer
grained, clear quartz, and rare white mica and clay. The
fine-grained, clear quartz also overprints the coarse-
grained quartz described above. The veins are particu-
larly noticeable where they cut the MGI quartz veins in
the perimeter zone of AM96-40-5, appearing as white
zones with tiny vugs traversing the grey quartz. Nu-
merous examples were observed where tiny sulfide
crystals (bornite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, and molybdenite)
had nucleated on the faces of the quartz, and grown into
open void space.
133
White clay–illite alteration
Hypogene sericitic–argillic alteration is widespread on
section 13 as 100–200 m zones of grey-white muscovite–
illite–kaolinite alteration (Fig. 9l). Two main styles of
alteration are recognized. One occurs as large-scale zones
dominated by rubble in the core trays, which display
major signs of both pre- and post-sericite brecciation,
and contains the two types of vuggy quartz described
above. This style is particularly dominant in deep Gras-
berg, especially to the northeast, where earlier K-feldspar
alteration(s) are largely obliterated by intense alteration
to sericite. The other alteration style is similar, but lacks
major signs of pre- and post-alteration disruption, and
without significant vuggy quartz or signs of major
leaching of anhydrite–quartz veins. These zones are pe-
trographically similar to the above, being dominated by
white sericite (presumably illite), minor kaolinite, car-
bonate, and quartz. The host rocks are mostly very
strongly feldspathized. Pyrophyllite has been reported in
the southwestern part of the GIC and in the adjacent
Kembelangan Group sandstone by Gibbins et al. (2000).
The distribution of the white clay–illite alteration
(Fig. 9l) suggests the presence of two broad-scale frac-
ture/fault zones: one to the northeast which is well
represented in deep Grasberg, the other to the south-
west, towards the GIC margin. The alteration material is
also weakly represented in near-surface domains (GRS-
37-39) within more central sections of the GIC. Similar
material forms a significant part of the current southern
pit wall, where a zone some 50–100 m wide trends
northwest. The zone is steeply dipping, and appears to
be a major fault zone, with evidence of multiple dis-
ruption both pre- and post-mineralization events.
Mixed copper sulfide stage
The mixed copper sulfide stage (Fig. 9m) is composed
largely of chalcopyrite, bornite, nukundamite, digenite–
chalcocite, covellite, and pyrite. It is difficult to see all of
the components within any single sample, and this stage
is best defined by the appearance of bornite-dominated
and/or black sulfide spots within white/cream clay–illite
altered rocks. The sulfides occur in discontinuous veins
and cavities (Fig. 6D). The cavities are partially lined by
crystalline quartz that is succeeded by late muscovite
crystals (Fig. 6E). Molybdenite (rare), chalcopyrite,
nukundamite, pyrite, valleriite, and covellite mixtures
occur in cavities (e.g. Fig. 6E), with further late covellite
in cracks traversing earlier-formed minerals. The early
pyrite contains ovoid domains composed of bornite and
diginite, with minor chalcopyrite.
Nukundamite (Cu3.37, Fe0.66 S3.97) (Rice et al. 1979)
occurs as pale coloured, extremely bireflectant (pale
pink–pale yellow-grey), subhedral crystals which are
spectacularly anisotropic (green-red). Nukundamite can
occur in complex arrangements with chalcopyrite, cov-
ellite, and valleriite. Chalcopyrite is present as a major
134
component associated with both vein and vug infill
nukundamite and occurs in sharp contact with complex
combinations of chalcopyrite, covellite, and a pale red
extremely bireflectant and anisotropic mineral
tentatively identified as valleriite. Covellite occurs as
coarse-grained infill crystals, and as intimate fine-
grained mixtures of covellite and chalcopyrite inter-
preted to have formed by simultaneous precipitation.
Minute veins of fine-grained chalcopyrite also crosscut
the coarse-grained covellite.
Nukundamite and covellite exhibit relationships
broadly similar to those of chalcopyrite and covellite.
Nukundamite and covellite coexist as discrete infill stages
and also in complex assemblages where covellite appears
to occur on cleavage or fracture controls within nukun-
damite. A very blue, isotropic, mica-like sulfide mineral is
a rare accessory within this stage (e.g. GRS-37-162
786.5 m) and has been identified (Honea 1992) as
spionkopite.
A pale-blue sulfide mineral that is present in associ-
ation with bornite is referred to in previous reports as
digenite (e.g. Honea 1992), and is present in major
amounts within GRS-37-162. It is not clear how digenite
has been distinguished from the blue end members of
chalcocite, and this awaits microprobe/XRD confirma-
tion. The bornite–digenite combination is present as
millimetre-scale veins, isolated spots, and within cavities
which also contain chalcopyrite, covellite, and colusite.
The sulfide spot format is spatially associated with
the nukundamite, chalcopyrite, covellite, valleriite±
molybdenite, bornite assemblage described above, and
the entire package is presently considered as one as-
semblage. However, there is a possibility that there is a
separate bornite–digenite stage.
Quartz–carbonate veins
Rare quartz–carbonate veins composed of clear crys-
talline quartz that is partially infilled by granular car-
bonate crystals were observed in AM96-43-05. These
millimetre-scale veins are presently poorly timed, but
appear to post-date the mixed sulfide assemblage de-
scribed above.
Covellite±enargite–pyrite alteration/veining
Covellite occurs commonly in the outer perimeter zones
of the GIC, but is difficult to log because the most
common occurrence is as millimetre-scale veins and
minute alteration and/or infill spots. Veins were re-
corded only within deep Grasberg (Fig. 9n), and some of
these also contain enargite (Fig. 6F). The veins occur in
and around zones dominated by pyrite veins and mas-
sive pyrite of the HSZ. No covellite veins were noted in
the upper Grasberg holes, but petrographic examination
demonstrates abundant covellite in spot and discontin-
uous crack mode in GRS-37-162, with other occurrences
in isolated thin sections from GRS-37-173, GRS-37-33,
and GRS-37-128.
Covellite–pyrite–marcasite–sericite–chalcopyrite veins
This stage is loosely defined and embraces a series of
isolated occurrences that post-date the mixed copper
sulfide stage. Several stages could be present, and/or
some examples may link with the earlier mixed copper
sulfide and covellite–enargite–pyrite stages. Examples
include fine-grained pyrite–covellite±marcasite, quartz,
enargite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and molybdenite
occurring as veins, with widely variable pyrite grain size
(Fig. 6G). Similar materials are abundant in the adja-
cent Kucing Liar deposit.
Also included here are a range of covellite–pyrite–
marcasite associations in small vugs and in tiny veins
that also contain chalcopyrite. One large vug (Fig. 6H)
has millimetre-scale marcasite crystals with interstitial
covellite and chalcopyrite. It seems clear that a covel-
lite–chalcopyrite association precipitated at the same
general time as pyrite–marcasite, and the same situa-
tion was recorded within the Ertsberg East Skarn
System by Katchan (1982) who showed curving layers
of alternating covellite and fine-grained chalcopyrite
infill.
Another variant included with this stage is a pyrite–
marcasite–covellite assemblage that appears to replace
Grasberg copper–gold stage chalcopyrite. Clearly, fur-
ther work is required to unravel the details of this late-
stage copper mineralization.
Sulfur veins
Rare occurrences of yellow sulfur (Fig. 9n) were
recorded as infill within discontinuous narrow zones
(1–2 cm), and as late-stage infill within vugs of fine
pyrite–marcasite–covellite. The occurrence as isolated
veins without sulfides suggests that sulfur is a separate
stage, and the post-covellite timing suggests it is very
late.
Other stages
Sphalerite±galena veins were noted in a couple of
places on the northeast side of the GIC where they
overprint carbonate rocks (Fig. 9o). These may repre-
sent the base metal veins which cut massive pyrite of the
HSZ elsewhere in perimeter zones.
Pyrite veins with clay borders (Fig. 9o) are rare, but
extremely distinctive. The veins have white alteration
envelopes (kaolinite?) with hair-line central infill cracks
containing fine-grained pyrite. The veins have not been
examined petrographically. This stage is very visible in
the Grasberg pit as late-stage, vertical white veins in the
pit walls.

Gypsum veins ranging from millimetre to centimetre
scales are ubiquitous in the GIC, but were not logged
during this study.
Discussion
Detailed paragenetic study of section 13 supports the
multistage character of intrusion and alteration within
the Grasberg Cu–Au deposit proposed by MacDonald
and Arnold (1994). More than 30 stages of fracturing
accompanied by hydrothermal alteration and infill have
been identified, and more can be anticipated as other
sections are examined. Further work may also serve to
clarify some of the timing relationships, particularly the
timing and extent of the diatreme breccia in relation to
other breccia types and to the alteration stages.
The hydrothermal fluids responsible for alteration
and mineralization on section 13 were apparently
sourced from below the current level of investigation as
most stages are still present in the deepest levels
penetrated by drilling. The time lines provided by the
intrusive rocks allow the identification of several
different fluid systems including post-Dalam–pre-MGI,
post-MGI–pre-Kali, and post-Kali phases. Copper–
gold mineralization has no direct connection in time
with the prominent MGI quartz vein system (post-
MGI–pre-Kali; Fig. 3), even though fluid inclusions in
these veins contain abundant Cu, Fe, and Au (Kyle
et al. 1996; Ulrich et al. 1999). The two major episodes
of Cu–Au mineralization recognized here are exclu-
sively post-Kali in age. The major Grasberg chalcopy-
rite–bornite–gold vein system is strongly localized by
the subvertical contacts of the central Kali intrusions,
and diminishes in intensity away from this zone
(Fig. 7). Material that was previously considered as an
outer phyllic zone linked to Grasberg Cu–Au miner-
alization (MacDonald and Arnold 1994; Rubin and
Kyle 1997) is composed dominantly of illite–muscovite
that is interpreted here to be linked to the late copper
system that overprints Grasberg Cu–Au mineralization
(Table 3). Chalcopyrite–bornite–nukundamite–chalco-
cite–covellite–enargite mineralization occurs within this
zone, and is also concentrated in the adjacent Kucing
Liar deposit where it overprints earlier, massive pyrite
as well as chalcopyrite mineralization.
The multiple-staged alteration systems separated by
igneous intrusions at Grasberg have created a complex
pattern of overprinting alteration zones that are con-
trolled by different fracture configurations. Some are
focused near the edge of the GIC, while others are
centrally focused (e.g. Figs. 3, 7). This is a very different
situation to models of porphyry systems that envisage a
central zone of potassic alteration surrounded by suc-
cessive shells of phyllic and propylitic alteration as
proposed by Lowell and Guilbert (1970). Both the in-
trusive rocks and fluids responsible for alteration and
mineralization at Grasberg appear to have been sourced
in an underlying batholith, as most components are still
135
present at the deepest levels intersected by drilling. Pb
isotope data for the Ertsberg East Skarn System have
been interpreted to indicate that the ore-forming fluids
were derived from a deeper source with less crustal
contamination than the Ertsberg intrusion (James and
Housh 1995). A deeper source for the Ertsberg East
Skarn System skarn-forming fluids was also proposed by
Rubin and Kyle (1998) based on the distribution and
composition of skarn minerals. This overall disposition
of intrusive rocks and mineralization in the Ertsberg
district appears similar to the situation in the Yerington
Batholith described by Dilles (1987).
The early, high-temperature fluid systems repre-
sented by the K-feldspar, biotite, magnetite, and quartz
vein stages lack significant sulfide or sulfate compo-
nents. The first sign of sulfur as recorded by precipi-
tation of sulfide and/or sulfate minerals in the GIC
occurred in the quartz–anhydrite veins that overprint
the Kali intrusive rocks and the associated vein system
(Package 4). Sulfur behaves as an incompatible element
in oxidized granitoid magmas not saturated in anhy-
drite, and would be anticipated to partition strongly
into the earliest hydrothermal fluids evolved during
crystallization. Its absence in the early vein and alter-
ation stages suggests that the fluids were undersatu-
rated with respect to sulfides and sulfates, possibly due
to high temperatures and/or low sulfur concentrations.
In contrast, the post-Kali evolution is characterized by
massive amounts of sulfur in the form of purple an-
hydrite and Cu-, Fe-, and Mo-sulfides. This suggests
the fluids were derived from a different source to that
of the earlier alteration episodes, or that the nature of
the source changed prior to generation of the Grasberg
Cu–Au system.
Anhydrite from the Ertsberg East Skarn System has S
and Sr isotopic characteristics consistent with a mag-
matic source (Rubin and Kyle 1998), and models in-
volving incorporation of host rock derived sulfur into
the hydrothermal fluids prior to mineralization therefore
appear unlikely. The final intrusive rocks in the GIC are
the Kali intrusions, and Kali I contains numerous small
(<2 cm) basic xenoliths composed mainly of plagio-
clase, biotite, magnetite, and apatite. Similar mafic xe-
noliths are also abundant in the Ertsberg intrusion. The
mafic xenoliths appear to reflect intrusion of more basic
magma into more felsic Kali/Ertsberg magma(s). Such a
process can potentially supply abundant sulfur and
other volatiles to the magmatic–hydrothermal system
(Keith et al. 1998), and may explain the late appearance
of sulfur at Grasberg.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge with thanks the en-
thusiastic cooperation and assistance received from P.T. Freeport
Indonesia. Special thanks are due to Chuck Brannon, Al Edwards,
and Larry Segerstrom for managing administrative and organiza-
tional aspects of the project. Leo Wowiling, Uttu Mekel, and the
core shed crews provided generous assistance in transporting and
laying out drillcore. We thank George MacDonald and Jay Pen-
nington for sharing their knowledge of the Grasberg system and for
numerous discussions. P.T Freeport Indonesia is thanked for
permission to publish this work.
136
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