Data Collection, Sampling & Data

Analysis

Data Collection

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Data Collection
What is Data?
• Data is a collection of facts, such as values or
measurements.
• It can be numbers, words, measurements, observations or even
just descriptions of things.
Data can be qualitative or quantitative.
• Qualitative data is descriptive information (it describes
something)
• Quantitative data, is numerical information (numbers).
• can also be Discrete or Continuous:
• Discrete data can only take certain values (like whole numbers)
• Continuous data can take any value (within a range)
Data Collection

• With your eyes and ears you get data (or information) and
with these data you can answer your questions and
support (or not) the claims you made at the beginning of
your research.
• When data are used in support of a proposition in this way
they become evidence.
“Evidence is very important in research”
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 Precautions in Data Collection
• In the data collection the following precautions should be observed:
The data must be relevant to the research problem.
The data should be complete in itself and also comprehensive in
nature.
The data should have minimum measurement error.
The data should be such as these can be subjected to statistical
treatment easily.
The data should be collected through objective procedure.
The data should be accurate and precise.
The data should be reliable and valid.
The data should be such that these can be presented and interpreted
easily.
It should be collected through formal or standardized research tools.

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Data collection tools /instruments
• The scientific researches require the data by means of some
standardized research tools or self-designed instrument.
• A great variety of research tools are of many kinds and employs
distinctive ways of describing and qualifying the data.
• Questionnaires are one of the most frequently used self-designed
research tools in basic and/or applied research

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Designing questionnaire
 The questionnaire can be used in different kinds of design frame.
 It can be tightly structured, but can also allow the opportunity for a
more open-ended response if required.
•Steps in designing questionnaire:
Step 1: Content -
Take your objectives and variables as a starting point.
Step 2: Formulating questions -
Formulate one or more questions that will provide the information needed
for each variable.
Questions should: be specific, measure one thing at a time, and not be
leading.
Step 3: Sequencing the questions -
Design your questionnaire to be ‘informant friendly’.
Follow logical sequence
Start with an interesting but non-controversial question
Pose more sensitive questions as late as possible in the interview 6
Cont.…
Step 4: Formatting the questionnaire -
introductory page

heading and subheadings

space for responses

Step 5: Translation -
translated and retranslate
Step 6: Ethical considerations -
obtaining informed consent before the study or the interview begins;
ensuring the confidentiality of the data obtained
learning enough about the culture of informants to ensure it is respected
during the data collection process

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Cont.…
• Step 7: Pre-test -refers to a small-scale trial of particular
research components:
• data-collection tools
• clarity of language, acceptability of questions,
accuracy of translation, time needed to administer the
questionnaire, need to pre-categorize some answers,
need for additional instructions
• Availability and willingness of respondents
• Sampling procedures
• Procedures for data processing and analysis

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Cont.…
Two questionnaire rules
Bear in mind these rules when drafting your questionnaire:
1. keep it short (try to keep to one side of A4)
2. only ask for one piece of information per question.
Kinds of Questions
• You can have open or closed questions.
1. An open question gives free rein to the respondent to say what they want
(e.g. 'Tell me what do you think about impacts of corrosion on water
distribution pipe').
2. A closed question has to be answered with one of the alternatives that the
questioner (i.e. you) gives.
Closed questions are more common in questionnaires and there is a range
of ways of providing the 'closeness' of the answer:

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Cont.…
2.1. Yes/no question :
• The clue’s in the name they have to be answered ‘Yes’ or ‘No’
2.2. Multiple choice question :
• Here, there are two or more answers and respondents are told either to tick one
box, or to tick as many boxes as they like.
For example: Which of the following factors are more significant in poor
performance of local contractors(tick as many as you like)?
⃝ Budget/capital ⃝ Skilled manpower
⃝ Gender ⃝ Equipment
⃝ Other Please specify _________________
2.3. Rank order questions
• Here, your respondents (that is, people whom you are questioning) have to put
items in rank order –
• from best to worst, or
• most important to least important, or
• most difficult to least difficult, or
• most beautiful to least beautiful, and so on. 10
Cont.…
For example, if you were interested in the factors that
were most significant for your university selection …..
Example: Thinking about the choice you have just made
about your university for further education, please look at
this list of factors and rank the three which were most
important for you in making your decision. Please mark 1, 2
and 3 in the relevant boxes (1 for most important, 2 for next
most important, 3 for next most important).
Ease of access ⃝
Reputation ⃝
Exam results ⃝
Quality of buildings ⃝
Opinion of friends ⃝
Opinion after visiting ⃝
School prospectus ⃝
Other (please elaborate) ⃝ _________________

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Cont.…
2.4. Rating scale question
• The respondent will rate something (an experience, attitude,
attribute, etc.) along a continuum.
For example: If you engaged in highway industries, how influential do
you find these factors?

Very good Good Not much use useless

Quality

Cost

Availability

The respondent will tick only one box in each row

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Cont.…
2.5. The Likert Scale
• A Likert scale (named after the psychologist Rensis Likert) can be
used in any situation where belief or attitude is being measured.
• You ask for agreement or disagreement with a statement that you
provide.
For example:
Strongly Strongly
agree Agree Disagree disagree

1. LCs should be given

another chance no matter
what their perform.

2. Their performance are

so serious that they
should always carry a
prison sentence
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Cont.…
• Stages on data collection process
• Stage 1: Permission to proceed
• Obtaining consent from the relevant authorities, individuals and the community in
which the project is to be carried out
• Stage 2: Data collection
• Logistics:
• who will collect what,
• when and
• with what resources
• Quality control:
• Prepare a field work manual
• Select your research assistants
• Train research assistants
• Supervision
• Checked for completeness and accuracy
Stage 3: Data handling
• Number questionnaires
• Identify the person responsible for storing data and the place where it will be stored
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Precautions on Data processing and analysis
• Sorting data
• Into groups of different study populations or comparison groups
• Quality control checks
• Check again for completeness and internal consistency
• Missing data-if many exclude the questionnaire
• Inconsistency-correct, return or exclude
• Data processing
• Categorizing the data
• Coding, and
• data entry
• Data analysis
• In a proposal-dummy table which contains all elements of a real
table, except that the cells are still empty
• Frequency counts
• Cross-tabulations
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Questionnaire online
• One of the best known online questionnaire services is Survey
Monkey, at www.surveymonkey. com.

• At the time of writing it lets you construct your own

questionnaire free for up to 100 respondents and gives help on
the construction of a questionnaire, with 24-hour online support.

• If you need an alternative service that lets you survey more

people you will probably find that your university subscribes to
one. You can ask your tutor or someone at the Computer Centre
which one is used at yours.
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ii. Interview
• A research interview is a discussion with someone else with a purpose
(your purpose, not theirs) in mind.
• It can be more structured and formal, or less structured and completely
informal. The degree of formality is reflected in the three broad types of
interview that you can do:
1. A structured interview. Here, you have your questions written out and
you go through them in order and without deviation.
2. An unstructured interview. This, by contrast, is completely open.
- Other than directing your interviewee to the topic you want to talk
about, you inject very little else into the discussion.
- Your aim is to find out what the interviewee thinks without
influencing them too much.

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Interview
3. A semi-structured interview. This is the happy
medium.
You have an interview schedule of themes or topics
that you write out on a list in front of you but beyond
this there is no structure.
You just make sure that you cover each of the themes
that you have on your schedule.

Subject Done
What do you think of the local contractor (LC)? √
Does the LC contribute to our infrastructure √
development?
Could you compare the performance of LC with other
contractor?
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Interview
• The semi-structured interview, the 'happy medium', is the form
of interview most commonly used by researchers.
• It's not a restriction so you can deviate from it as necessary, but
you make sure you get through the issues you wanted to ask
about.
• You should feel free to modify the questions, or ask
supplementary questions.
• The essence of a semi-structured interview is that the structure
reminds you of your aims and themes, but it does not constrain
you slavishly to follow a format.
• Although it is usually preferred, the semi-structured interview
isn't always best.
• If, for example, you are doing an ethnography it would be better
to use an unstructured interview because your aim in an
ethnography is to learn from your research participants
unobtrusively - or, at least, as unobtrusively as possible.
•
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Interview
 You can record the interview:
1. electronically and then copy it all out afterwards (the copy is called a
transcript)
2. by taking notes during the interview
3. by taking notes and recording electronically at the same time.

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Interview
• I find that recording everything and then copying it all out is time-
consuming, a bit of a bore and hardly ever worth it.
• It's much better, in my opinion, to take notes of the important bits and
back this up with an electronic copy if necessary.
• So, take your recorder in with you and record the interview, but don't
rely on it: just use it as a back-up to fill in bits that you have missed or
where you want to remind yourself of something.

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Interview
 Group Interviews and Focus Groups
• People behave differently in groups from when they are on their own,
and if you decide to interview a group you will do so because of this
difference - because of group psychology.
• Maybe you want to find out how a group (as distinct from individuals)
would react to an imaginary event.

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Interview
• Often, the term 'focus group' is used interchangeably
with 'group interview', but the two kinds of group
are very different.
• In a simple group interview the researcher takes a
lead role - and conducts the interview with the group
much as a one-to-one interview would be conducted.
But in a focus group the researcher is more of a
facilitator.
• If you run a focus group you want to facilitate
discussion among the participants, not between
yourself and the participants. You assume a marginal
rather than a central role.

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Interview
• The focus group contains eight or so participants, all with
something in common (such as Local contractor - what they
have in common is that they are all ‘contractors').
• It's like an unstructured interview, but with a group.
• Your aim is to let the group set the direction.
• Your role - as facilitator or mediator - is to stimulate
discussion and make sure it stays on track.
• You may do this with your comments, or with focus materials -
such as objects, photos, drawings, newspaper stories, audio or
video recordings - which the group will discuss.
• You may choose just to take notes, or to record in audio or
on video.

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Other tools
• Laboratory instruments:

• Software packages / models /

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Sampling
• Sampling is indispensable technique of the research.
• The research work cannot be undertaken without use of sampling.
• The study of the total population is not possible and it is also
impracticable.
• The practical limitation: cost, time and other factors which are
usually operative in the situation, stand in the way of studying the total
population.
• The concept of sampling has been introduced with a view to making
the research findings economical and accurate.
Population:
• Population or universe means, the entire mass of observations, which
is the parent group from which a sample is to be formed.
• The term ‘population’ or universe conveys a different meaning than a
traditional one. In census survey, the count of individuals (men,
women and children) is known as population. But in research
methodology population means the characteristics of a specific
group. e.g. Traffic accidents
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Population Vs Sample

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Sampling
Advantages of Sampling Technique
1. It has a greater adaptability.
2. It is an economical technique.
3. It has a greater precision and accuracy in the observation.
4. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.
5. It has a greater scope in the field of research.
6. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE:
1. A good sample is the true representative of the population
corresponding to its properties.
The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and
sample is called sub-aggregate of the universe.
2. A good sample is also economical from energy, time and money
point of view.
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Sampling
3. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of
a sample is closely linked with true-representativeness.
• Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is
controlled by specific purpose of the investigation. A
sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not be a
good representative of the population.
4. A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields an accurate
estimates or statistics and does not involve errors.
5. A good sample is free from bias, the sample does not
permit prejudices the learning and preconception,
imaginations of the investigator to influence its choice.
6. A good sample is an objective one, it refers objectivity in
selecting procedure or absence of subjective elements from
the situation.
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Sampling
7. The subjects of good sample are easily approachable. The
research tools can be administered on them and data can be
collected easily.
8. The size of good sample is such that it yields an accurate
results. The probability of error can be estimated.
9. A good sample makes the research work more feasible.
10. A good sample has the practicability for research
situation.

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TYPES OF SAMPLING DESIGNS
In general two types of techniques of sampling are
as follows:
1. Probability Sampling: Method of sampling which
gives the probability that our sample is
representative of population.
2. Non-probability Sampling: If there is no such
idea of probability then the method of sampling is
known as non- probability sampling.
Non-probability is also known as non-parametric
sampling which are used for certain purpose.

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Probability Sampling
Characteristics of Probability Sampling
1. Every individual of the population has equal probability to
be taken into the sample.
2. Probability sample may be representative of the population.
3. Probability sample has not from distribution for any
variable.
4. There is a risk for drawing conclusions from probability
sample.
5. The probability is comprehensive.
Important Types of Probability Sampling:
1. Simple random sampling.
2. Systematic sampling.
3. Stratified sampling.
4. Multiple or Double sampling.
5. Multi-stage sampling.
6. Cluster sampling.
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PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Simple Random Sampling
• A simple random sample is one in which each element of the population has an
equal and independent chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample
selected by randomization method
• It is done by using a number of techniques as :
(a) Tossing a coin; (b) Throwing a dice; (c) Lottery method; (d) Blind
folded method; (e) By using random table.
Advantages
• (a) It requires a minimum knowledge of population.
• (b) It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.
• (c) It provides appropriate data for our purpose.
Disadvantages
• (a) The representativeness of a sample cannot be ensured;
• (b) it does not use the knowledge about the population.
• (c) The accuracy of the finding depends upon the size of the sample.

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PROBABILITY SAMPLING
2. Systematic Sampling
• Systematic sampling requires the complete information about the population.
Now we decide the size of the sample.
• Let sample size = n and population size = N
• Now we select each N/nth individual from the list and thus we have the desired size of
sample which is known as systematic sample.
• Thus for this technique of sampling population should be arranged in any systematic
way.
Advantages
• (a) a simple method of selecting a sample.
• (b) It reduces the field cost.
• (c) Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.
• (d) Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and
generalizations.
Disadvantages
• (a) This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to different ways of
systematic list by different individuals.
• (b) Information of each individual is essential.
• (c) There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the sample.
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PROBABILITY SAMPLING
3. Stratified Sampling
• When employing this technique, the researcher divides his population in
strata on the basis of some characteristics and from each of these smaller
homogeneous groups (strata) draws at random a predetermined number of
units.
• Stratified sampling may be of three types:
1. Disproportionate stratified sampling.
2. Proportionate stratified sampling.
3. Optimum allocation stratified
sampling.
1. Disproportionate sampling means that the size of the sample in each unit
is not proportionate to the size of the unit but depends upon
considerations involving personal judgement and convenience.
is more effective for comparing strata which
It
have different error possibilities.
It is less efficient for determining population characteristics.
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Stratified Sampling
2. Proportionate sampling refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a
sample that is proportionate to the size of the unit.
Advantages of this procedure include representativeness with respect to
variables used as the basis of classifying categories and
increased chances of being able to make comparisons between strata.
Lack of information on proportion of the population may be listed as
disadvantages of this method.
. Optimum allocation stratified sampling is representative as well as
comprehensive than other stratified samples.
It refers to selecting units from each stratum should be in proportion to the
corresponding stratum the population.
Thus sample obtained is known as optimum allocation stratified sample.
Advantages
• (a) It is (more precisely third way) a good representative of the population.
• (b) It is an objective method of sampling.

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 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Stratified Sampling
Disadvantages
• (a) it is difficult for the researcher to decide the relevant criterion for
stratification.
• (b) Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but it generally seems
more than one criterion relevant for stratification.
• (c) It is costly and time consuming method.
• (d) Selected sample may be representative with reference to the used criterion
but not for the other.
• (e) There is a risk in generalization.

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 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
4. Multiple or Double or Repetitive Sampling
• This is most frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample.
• When employing a mailed questionnaire, double sampling is sometimes used
to obtain a ‘more representative sample.
• This is done because some randomly selected subjects who are sent
questionnaires may not return them.
• This double sampling technique enables one to check on the reliability of the
information obtained from the first sample.
Advantages
• (a) This technique of sampling reduces the error.
• (b) This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate the reliability
of the sample.
Disadvantages
• (a) This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample. It is
applicable only for small sample.
• (b) This technique is time consuming, costly, and requires more competition.
• (c) Its planning and administration is more complicated.
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PROBABILITY SAMPLING
5. Multi-Stage Sampling
• This sample is more comprehensive and representative of the population.
• In this type of sampling primary sample units are inclusive groups and
secondary units are sub-groups within these ultimate units to be selected which
belong to one and only one group.
• Stages of a population are usually available within a group or population,
whenever stratification is done by the researcher. The Individuals are selected
from different stages for constituting the multi-stage sampling.
Advantages
• (a) It is a good representative of the population.
• (b) Multi-stage sampling is an improvement over the earlier methods.
• (c) It is an objective procedure of sampling.
Disadvantages
• (a) It is a difficult and complex method of samplings.
• (b) It involves errors when we consider the
primary and secondary stages.
• (c) It is again a subjective phenomenon 39
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
6. Cluster Sampling
• To select the intact group as a whole is known as a Cluster sampling.
• In Cluster sampling the sample units contain groups of elements (clusters)
instead of individual members or items in the population.
Advantages
• (a) It may be a good representative of the population.
• (b) It is an easy method.
• (c) It is an economical method.
• (d) It is practicable and highly applicable in education.
Disadvantages
• (a) Cluster sampling is not free from error.
• (b) It is not comprehensive.

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Non-probability Sampling
Characteristics of Non-probability Sampling:
1. There is no idea of population in non-probability sampling.
2. There is no probability of selecting any individual.
3. Non-probability sample has free distribution.
4. The observations of non-probability sample are not used for generalization
purpose.
5. There is no risk for drawing conclusions.
Types of Non-probability Sample:
(1) Incidental or accidental sample.
(2) Purposive sample.
(3) Quota sample.
(4) Judgment sample.

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Non-probability Sampling Techniques
1. Incidental or Accidental Assignment
• The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples that are taken because
they are most frequently available, i.e.
• this refers to groups which are used as samples of a population because they are
readily available or because the researcher is unable to employ more
acceptable sampling methods.
Advantages
• (a) It is very easy method of sampling.
• (b) It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an economical method.
Disadvantages
• (a) It is not a representative of the population.
• (b) It is not free from error.

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Non-probability Sampling Techniques
2. Judgment Sampling
• This involves the selection of a group from the population on the basis of
available information thought.
• It is to be representative of the total population.
• Generally investigator should take the judgment sample so this sampling is
highly risky.
Advantages
• (a) Knowledge of the investigator can be best used in this technique of
sampling.
• (b) This technique of sampling is also economical.
Disadvantages
• (a) This technique is objective.
• (b) It is not free from error.
• (c) It includes uncontrolled variation.
• (d) Generalization is not possible.

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Non-probability Sampling Techniques
3. Purposive Sampling
• The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary method because it is
known to be representative of the total population, or it is known that it will
produce well matched groups.
• The Idea is to pick out the sample in relation to some criterion, which are
considered important for the particular study.
• This method is appropriate when the study places special emphasis upon the
control of certain specific variables.
Advantages
• (a) Use of the best available knowledge concerning the sample subjects.
• (b) Better control of significant variables.
• (c) Sample groups data can be easily matched.
• (d) Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.
Disadvantages
• (a) Reliability of the criterion is questionable.
• (b) Knowledge of population is essential.
• (c) Errors in classifying sampling subjects.
• (d) Inability to make generalization concerning total population.
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Non-probability Sampling Techniques
4. Quota Sampling
• This combined both judgment sampling and probability sampling.
• The population is classified into several categories: on the basis of judgment or
assumption or the previous knowledge, the proportion of population falling into
each category is decided. Thereafter a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and
the observer is allowed to sample as he likes.
• Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in Municipal surveys.
Advantages
• (a) It is an improvement over the judgment sampling.
• (b) It is an easy sampling technique.
• (c) It is most frequently used in social surveys.
Disadvantages
• (a) It is not a representative sample.
• (b) It is not free from error.
• (c) It has the influence of regional geographical and social factors.
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Determining Sample Size
• In addition to the purpose of the study and population size, three
criteria usually will need to be specified to determine the appropriate
sample size:
1. the level of precision,
2. the level of confidence or risk, and
3. the degree of variability in the attributes being measured
1 The Level of Precision
• The level of precision, sometimes called sampling error, is the range
in which the true value of the population is estimated to be.
• This range is often expressed in percentage points (e.g., ±5 percent).
Thus, if a researcher finds that 60% of civil engineers in the sample
have experience in high way engineering with a precision rate of ±5%,
then he or she can conclude that between 55% and 65% of the
engineers in the population have the practice.

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Determining Sample Size
2. The Confidence Level
• The confidence or risk level is based on ideas encompassed
under the Central Limit Theorem. In a normal distribution,
approximately 95% of the sample values are within two
standard deviations of the true population value (e.g.,
mean).
• In other words, this means that if a 95% confidence level is
selected, 95 out of 100 samples will have the true population
value within the range of precision specified earlier.
• There is always a chance that the sample you obtain does not
represent the true population value. This risk is reduced for
99% confidence levels and increased for 90% (or lower)
confidence levels.

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Determining Sample Size
3. Degree of Variability
• The third criterion, the degree of variability in the attributes
(being measured refers to the distribution of attributes in
the population.
• The more heterogeneous a population, the larger the
sample size required to obtain a given level of precision. The
less variable (more homogeneous) a population, the smaller
the sample size.
• Note that a proportion of 50% indicates a greater level of
variability than either 20% or 80%. This is because 20%
and 80% indicate that a large majority do not or do,
respectively, have the attribute of interest. Because a
proportion of 0.5 indicates the maximum variability in a
population, it is often used in determining a more
conservative sample size, that is, the sample size may be
larger than if the true variability of the population attribute
were used. 48
Sample size Formulas
You can find the following formulae (or variations thereof)
in most statistics textbooks, especially descriptive statistics
dealing with probability.

1. Sample size – infinite population (where the

population is grater than 50,000)

Z2 x (p) x (1-p)
SS = _______________
C2
SS = Sample Size
Z = Z-value (e.g., 1.96 for a 95 percent confidence level)
P = Percentage of population picking a choice, expressed as
decimal
C = Confidence interval, expressed as decimal (e.g., .04 = +/- 4
percentage points) 49
Sample size Formulas
a Z-values represent the probability that a sample will fall
within a certain distribution.

The Z-values for confidence levels are:

1.645 = 90 percent confidence level
1.96 = 95 percent confidence level
2.576 = 99 percent confidence level

Example:

SS = 3.8416 x .5 x .5
0016
SS = 600
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Sample size Formulas
2. Sample size – finite population (where the population
is less than 50,000)

SS
New SS = _______________
( 1 + ( SS - 1 ))
Pop

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Sample size Formulas

Pop = Population (e.g., 4,300 JiT Civil Engineering Students,

2014)

Note: Calculate the sample size using the infinite population

formula first. Then use the sample size derived from that
calculation to calculate a sample size for a finite population.

600
New SS = _________________
( 1 + (600 -1 ))
4300
New SS = 527

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Data processing and analysis
Introduction
• Once you've got all your data, what do you do with them?
• Remember that they are only data until you have analysed
them and used them intelligently.
• Only then will your data become evidence. So, how do you
do the analysis?
Your data are likely to come in one of two main forms:
i. Numbers
ii. Words
You treat different data in different ways. Let's look at each
in turn.

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Quantitative analysis: Numbers
1st . Eyeballing
• Eyeballing just means looking at your numbers to see what they tell you:
• What do they seem to say?
• Are they going up or down?
• Are they all around one point?
• Are there any that seem not to fit with the others?
2nd . Explaining
• The second thing to remember with numbers is that the numbers and the
statistics used to analyse them serve no function in themselves.
• They help you to analyse, but this analysis exists in order for you to explain,
discuss and communicate your findings.
• So, remember that when you present an analysis using numbers, you will need
to explain with words.

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Numbers
Eyeballing
• Your eyeball (teaming up with your brain) is your most
valuable tool in dealing with numbers and you should
trust it.

teaming up with your brain

• Sometimes it seems to me that we trust statistics too
much
• we should rely on our common sense as well as the
statistics to tell us what a range of numbers may be
saying.

55
 Numbers
Tell the reader what you want them to see in the
numbers: the statistics don't speak for themselves.
Set 1 Set 2 Set 3
Design A 112 119 108
Design B 176 184 195

56
 Numbers
3rd . Using Excel
• If you are using number in your
work and you don’t know how to
use Microsoft Excel. You really
need to find out how to do it.
Here’s a very brief introduction-use
it to play around either with my
imaginary data. Or make up your
own. (The instruction given here
are for PC users.

58
 Numbers
Example 1: Languages in terms of numbers of native
speakers, 2015
Language Native speakers
Mandarin
845,000,000
Chinese
English 335,000,000
Spanish 322,000,000
Hindi/Urdu 243,000,000 Native speakers
Chinese
Arabic 221,000,000 english

Bengali 181,000,000 spanish

hindu
Portuguese 178,000,000 arabic
bengali
Russian 144,000,000 portuguese
russian
Japanese 122,000,000 japanese

German 90,300,000 german

59
 how best to present your Data ?
Number

60
 Numbers
Do remember your readers and remember that you:
1. need to make things intelligible for them, and
2. demonstrate to them that you can think intelligently about numbers
and how they can best be presented.

So, consider how best to present your numbers meaningfully. If you

explore the chart function of Excel you will find many varieties of
chart that you can alternatively use.
• Microsoft Excel 2007 Tutorial—Free & Online
www.baycongroup.com/el0.htm
You can use this free online tutorial to learn Microsoft Excel 2007

61
 Numbers

• These statistics I have described here are called descriptive statistics

(because they describe) but there are of course others that have different
purposes.
• If you are using these statistics you will probably need to use SPSS
rather than Excel. SPSS (software package used for statistical
analysis) is available on most university pooled computers.

62
ii. Qualitative analysis: Words

63
ii. Words
• What is sometimes called 'qualitative research' is research to do with
words.
• When I say 'words' I mean words joined up in the way that we usually join them
up in language in our everyday lives. I don't mean isolated words, counted, as you
might count them, with questionnaire responses.
• I mean proper grown-up sentences with meanings.
• How do you analyse these, other than by just taking the sentences at
face value and copying them out into your research report?

64
 Words
• Most ways of analyzing words are based on the constant
comparative method. It's all you need to know. Here's what
it is:
The basic recipe for constant comparative method (CCM)
– step by step
1. You will need: your notes, any recordings; some
different coloured highlighters; a pad of A4 paper; a pen;
a computer (if you prefer to work on one).
You first read all of your data: interview notes, notes from
observations, etc.
3. With the highlighters, highlight parts that you think are
important.
• Use different colours for different kinds of 'important'. Do this
either in a wordprocessing file or in hard copy.
You'll begin to get an impression of key ideas or subjects that
are coming up again and again.
 You can call these your
temporary constructs.
Make a list of them.
1.
65
 Words
4. Now read through the data again, using your list of temporary constructs against
which to compare (this is the constant comparative bit).
• Now make up a grid with the temporary constructs in a column on the
left, and –
• on the right page numbers of where the temporary construct is
mentioned in your data.
You can make notes and observations on the grid as you do this.
5. Delete any temporary constructs that are not earning their keep.
• In other words, if the temporary construct is not appearing again and again,
scrub it from your list.
6. Now, after your second reading, make a list of second-order constructs that seem to
explain your data.
• With them you should be able to summarize the important themes in
your data.
If you are satisfied after a final look through your data you can label these as your themes.

8. Think about the themes.

• How do they seem to be connecting together?
• What matches with what?
• Are there any unanimous areas of agreement?
• Are there any contradictions or paradoxes? 66
 Words
9. Garnish: find ways of visually representing your themes - think,
for example, about how you could draw them in the shape of a
storyboard (or something like it), as shown on in the previous
chapter.
10. Place as part of your analysis chapter.
Analysis Vs Synthesis
Results & Discussion

Literature review
67