Methods of Data Collection

Conducting & Reading Research

Chapter 10 Baumgartner et al
 Methods of Data Collection
• Primary data: information that is developed or
gathered by the researcher specifically for the
research project at hand

• Secondary data: information that has previously

been gathered by someone other than the
researcher and/or for some other purpose than
the research project at hand
 Classification of Secondary Data

• Internal secondary data: data that have been

collected within the firm

• Internal databases: databases (collection of data

and information describing items of interest)
consisting of information gathered by a company
typically during the normal course of business
transactions
 Classification of Secondary Data…cont.

• External secondary data: data obtained from

outside the firm
• Types:
• Published
• Syndicated Services Data
• External Databases
 Classification of Secondary Data…cont.
Types of External Secondary Data

• External secondary data

• Published: sources of information prepared for
public distribution and found in libraries or a
variety of other entities

• Syndicated Services Data: data provided by

firms that collect data in a standard format and
make them available to subscribing firms
 Classification of Secondary Data…cont.
Types of External Secondary Data

• External secondary data

• External Databases: databases provided by
outside firms; many are now available online
(online information databases)
• Bibliographic databases..citations by
subject
• Numeric or statistical databases, 2001 Census
• Government Reports, Other Studies
• Directory or list databases
• Comprehensive databases, Contain all of
the above
 Advantages of Secondary Data
• Obtained quickly (compared to primary data gathering)
• Inexpensive (compared to primary data gathering)
• Usually available
• Enhances existing primary data

. Limitations of Secondary Data

• Exact data that one may need may not be
available.
• May have difficulty in getting access.
• Errors in data base.
• Possible coding problems
• Data may be available but it may have problems:
Missing or incomplete data.
Unknown definitions of data.
Changed definitions or procedures.
Might be too aggregated.
 Evaluating Secondary Data

• What was the purpose of the study?

• Who collected the information and when was this
done?
• What information was collected (questions,
scales, etc.)?
• How was the information obtained (sampling
frame, method of sample draw, communication
method, resulting sample, etc.)?
• How consistent is the information with other
published information?
 Primary Data Collection

Methods of
Primary Data
Collection

In-depth Experimentation
Observation Surveys
Techniques
 OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
• Observation is a way of noting and recording information about people and
their behaviour without asking specific questions.

• It is a process of systematically recording verbal and non verbal behaviour

and communication.

• It is concerned with understanding the routine rather than what appears to

be unusual.

• Observation becomes a scientific tool for obtaining data when it serves a

specific research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subject to checks and controls on validity and reliability

• A researcher can collect the desired information either directly by watching

the event and taking notes, or by recording the event with electronic
instrument.
 Types of Observations

Disguised Participation
Structured Participant (Presence of the
(Descriptive) (Anthropological) observer is hidden)
Unstructured Non-Participant
(Exploratory) (Political forecasts)
 In-Depth Techniques

Focus groups Interviews Projective Techniques

Personal Telephonic Focused Non-Directive

Direct Personal Indirect Oral

Investigation Investigation

Structured

Unstructured
 Experimentation

Real World Setting Lab Setting Web Based

 Observations: Examples

• Observe classroom activities to measure the

amount of time spent on hands-on learning
activities.

• Observe amount of traffic on a road from the

village to a major town.

• Observe Meetings

• Observe program offices

In-depth Techniques
 Merits of interview method

• It provides greater information in-depth.

• Can overcome the resistance through persuasion .
• Personal information can be sort.
• Low no-response.
• Can secure most spontaneous reactions.
• Adaptability of the language to the level of interviewee.
• Can collate supplementary information which maybe of great value
in
interpreting the results.
• Interviewer can clarify unclear questions
• Literacy is not required
• Interviewer can collect more complex answers and observations
• Interviewer can minimize missing and inappropriate responses
• Interviewer can prevent respondent from answering out of
sequence
 Interview method is most useful when:

• Other methods do not make sense.

• When the issues are complex and in-depth understanding is needed.
• When the issues and questions are still being determined.

Pre-requisites of interviewing

• Careful selection, training, and briefing of the interviewer.

Must ask questions properly and intelligently.
Must answer legitimate questions of the interviewee.
Should not show surprise or disapproval
Must discourage irrelevant conversation.
• Interviewer must possess the technical competence and
necessary
practical experience.
• Occasional field checks.
 Guidelines for successful Interviewing:

1) Choose the time when the interviewee is at ease.

2) Approach must be friendly and informal.
3) Establish Rapport with the interviewee.
- People are motivated to communicate when atmosphere is favorable
4) Listen with understanding, respect and curiosity.
5) Control the course of the interview and avoid irrelevant conversation.

Telephone interviews

Merits:

Faster , cheaper, recall easy, higher rate of response than through

mailing, replies can be recorded ,no field staff Is required, possibility of
wider distribution of sample
Demerits:

1. No thinking space to the interviewee

2. Survey is restricted to those, who have telephone facilities.
3. Unsuitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers
are required.
4. Greater possibility of bias.
 Limitations of the interview method

• Possibility of Data collection and interpretation biases.

• Time consuming when sample is large.
• May introduce systematic errors.
• Lack of proper rapport , with the interviewee.
 Through mailed questionnaires

Merits:

Low cost
Free from the bias of the interviewer.
Enough thinking space.
Can be reached to otherwise inaccessible people.
Sample could be larger.

Demerits:

Low rate of return.

Only the educated and cooperating people could be approached.
Difficulty in modifying the approach once the questionnaire is made.
Possibility of ambiguous replies/omissions of questions.
Method is slightly to be slowest of all.
Important considerations while framing a questionnaire

A)General form (close ended/Open ended).

Question sequence:
First few questions are important because they are lightly to influence
the attitude and the desired cooperation from the respondent

• First questions should “break the ice”

• General to specific order of questions
• Questions on personal or sensitive topics left towards the end
• Avoid a series of questions that are likely to elicit the same response
(bias)
• One question can affect another
• Questions should be easily understood and should be simple
• There should always be provision for indications of uncertainty.
E.g." Don't know” “No preference”
 Questionnaire Design: General Principles

Open-ended vs closed-ended questions:

Open-ended questions generate answers that are more nuanced and

information-rich. They permit subject freedom to answer
question in own words (without pre-specified alternatives).

Open-ended questions do not provide respondents with

any answers from which to choose.
Open-ended Questions: Advantages and
Disadvantages

– Advantages:
• Not forced to choose between categories
• May better reflect respondents thoughts\beliefs
• Appropriate when list of possible answers is excessive
• Lets respondent have the say, let him tell the researcher what he

means, and not vice-versa (obtain unanticipated answers)

– Disadvantages:
• Respondent may say too much or too little
• Provide incomplete or unintelligible answers
• Flexibility in responses difficult to code and analyze -
Interpretations
of answers may vary
 Closed-ended Questions

Closed-ended questions provide respondents with a list of responses

from which to choose. Alternatively, closed-ended questions can
provide multiple choices for the respondent to accept or reject.

 
Closed-ended Questions: Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages:
• Easy to answer and takes little time
• Answers can be precoded (assigned a number) and easily transferred
to a computer
• Answers are easy to compare
• Easier to elicit responses to sensitive questions
• Answers are more reliable
• Meaning of responses more meaningful to researcher

– Disadvantages:
• May not be accurate--forces people to accept categories, or puts too
many people into “other” category
• Answers relative to response scale provided
• Respondent's choice not among listed alternatives
• Choices listed communicate kind of response wanted
• Wording of response choices may influence responses
 Through Schedules

ifference between a questionnaire and a schedule

Questionnaires are sent through mail to the informants while schedules

are filled in either by the researcher himself or by the enumerators
who are specially appointed for the purpose.
Questionnaire is relatively cheap but data collection through schedules
in expensive.
Non-response is high in case of a questionnaire.
In case of a questionnaire, identity of the person who has actually filled
in may be unknown as he/she might be doing it on behalf of someone
else.
Questionnaire method is slow as many respondents may not return the
filled in response in time.
Personal contact is not possible in case of questionnaires.
7) Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate
and cooperative.
8) Coverage with questionnaire could be wider and cheap.
9) Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively
more under the questionnaire method particularly when people are
unable to understand questions properly.
10) Observation method can also be used along with the schedules but it
is not possible with the questionnaire.
 Other methods
of Data
Collection

Use of
Projective
Mechanical
Techniques
Devices
 Use of Mechanical Devices

Eye Camera
Audio meter
Psycho Galvanometer (TV)
Body excitement as a result of visual stimulus
Pupilometric Camera Motion Picture Camera

Record movement of buyer

 Projective Techniques

Word Association Story Completion Pictorial techniques

Test test

Sentence completion Verbal projection tests Play Techniques

test (explain other people)
(role Play)

Quizzes ,Test Sociometry

and Examinations Social relationship of people
 Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT)

Rosenweig Test
https://psycho-tests.com/test/
Pictorial techniques rosenzweig-frustration-test

Rorschach Test

Holtzman Inkblot Test

 TAT
 How the TAT Works
 The TAT involves showing people a series of picture cards depicting
a variety of ambiguous characters (that may include men, women,
and/or children), scenes, and situations.
They are then asked to tell as dramatic a story as they can for each
picture presented, including:
 what has led up to the event shown
 what is happening in the scene
 the thoughts and feelings of characters
 the outcome of the story
 The complete version of the TAT includes 31 cards. Murray
originally recommended using approximately 20 cards and selecting
those that depicted characters similar to the subject.
 Rosenweig Test

 A projective test administered to assess

personality characteristics, in which the
subject is shown scenes depicting
moderately frustrating situations and
asked what the frustrated person depicted
would probably do, or how the subject
would react in such
 Strengths and Weaknesses of Contact Methods

Particulars Mail Telephone Personal Online

Flexibility Poor Good Excellent Good
Quantity of data that Good Fair Excellent Good
can be collected
Control of interviewer Excellent Fair Poor Fair
effects
Control of sample Fair Excellent Fair Poor
Speed of data Poor Excellent Good Excellent
collection
Response rate Fair Good Good Good

Cost Good Fair Poor Excellent

 Welcome Screen
 Welcome Screen like a cover letter
 It contains the name of the research company
and how to contact the organization if there is a
problem or concern.
 "If you have any concerns or questions about
this survey, or if you experience any technical
difficulties, please contact (NAME OF
RESEARCH ORGANIZATION).
QUESTIONNAIRE
Difference between a questionnaire and a schedule
A questionnaire should be designed in such a manner
that
responses can be easily tabulated and translated into findings and recommendations that
satisfy the required objectives of the research project.
• While designing a questionnaire, one must keep the
following considerations in mind:
 FIRST, does it provide the necessary information that is
required for the research project?
 SECOND, is it designed for the convenience of the
respondents?
 THIRD, does it meet coding, editing and data processing
requirements of the research project?
 EXAMPLE: Open-Ended
Questions
 OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS are those questions
to which a respondent replies in her or his
words. Such as -
 What do you think is the most in need of improvement in the present
system of billing at BSNL?________________________________

 Give the most important reason why you have selected the present
brand of tooth brush______________________________________.
• … closed ended questions that ask the respondents to
choose between two answers. Such as -
 Do you think that this year inflation is going to be more than that of
the last year?
 YES
 NO
 The UPA Government has taken serious steps to improve Indo-Pak
relations.
 AGREE
 DISAGREE
 According to your opinion, the growth rate in GDP this fiscal is going
to be
 GREATER THAN THAT OF THE PREVIOUS YEAR
 LOWER THAN THAT OF THE PREVIOUS YEAR
 LEADING QUESTIONS:
 A leading question is one which attempts to guide
the respondent's answer.
 If a response to a question is ‘pre-known and guided
one’, then it is a leading question.
 Examples:
 Would you like to vote for Mr. Rana Singh, a man
who has criminal background? YES/NO

 Have Congressmen forgotten for the sake of their

selfish interests? YES/NO
 LOADED QUESTIONS:
 A Loaded Question is a question with a false or questionable presupposition, and it is
"loaded" with that presumption.
 Examples:

 Have you Wife stopped beating you?

YES/NO
 Do you feel that mobile ringing has created mess
in the meeting? YES/NO
 This question presupposes that you have interrupted and your
interruption has created mess in the meeting.
Q Incorrect)
Do you Think Coca Cola is Refreshing and Tasty
Soft Drink?
Yes/No
Q (Incorrect) How many gallons of soft drinks do you
consume
(correct) How often do you consume soft drinks
Less than once a week
1 to 3 times
4 to 6 times
7 times and more
Q (incorrect) list the deptmental stores from where you
purchase your apprael for your family
___________________________________
(correct)
Women dress
Men’s Apparel
Children Apparel's
Cosmetics
Other's
Q (incorrect)Do You think that patriotic Indians Buy
Imported Automobiles
Yes/no/Don’t Know
Q (incorrect) Which brand of shampoo
do you use?
 Q (correct)

Which brand of shampoo have you

personally used at home ?In case of
more than one brands ,please list all
Q (incorrect) Are you in favor of budget

Q Are in favour of balanced budget if

increase the income tax limit to 2 lakh
Rs
• … place difficult and sensitive information at the end of the questionnaire.
• … put Personal information first so as to gain the familiarity with the
respondents

• physical appearance of a questionnaire may affect the

cooperation and thus, the quality of responses one can
obtain.
• … ensure proper size and layout of a questionnaire.
• … properly stapled/bounded and handy.
Tips for Improving Response Rates
 ·  Know your respondents. Make certain the questions are
understandable to them, to the point, and not insensitive to their social
and cultural values.
·   - Use trained personnel to recruit respondents and conduct surveys.
Set up a quality assurance system for monitoring quality and retraining
·       - Identify a larger number of eligible respondents than you need in
case you do not get the sample size you need.
·       - Keep survey responses confidential or anonymous
·     - Provide gift or cash incentives
·     - Formally respect each respondent’s privacy.
 
• In short, a good questionnaire should
‘speak’ to respondents in the understandable language and at
the appropriate intellectual level;
be convenient to be administered - in terms of posing questions
and recording responses;
be filled in comfortable time duration before the boredom sets in;
and
Provide a well written cover page
Leave adequate space for respondents to make
comments
Leave adequate space for respondents to make comments
-   The final test of a questionnaire is to try it on representatives
of the target audience.
The wording of a question is extremely important
Acquaint - inform
Assist - think
Reside - live
State - say
Sufficient - enough
Initiate - start and so on
QUESTIONNAIRE
Difference between a questionnaire and a schedule
A questionnaire should be designed in such a manner
that
responses can be easily tabulated and translated into findings and
recommendations that satisfy the required objectives of the
research project.
• While designing a questionnaire, one must keep the
following considerations in mind:
 FIRST, does it provide the necessary information that is
required for the research project?
 SECOND, is it designed for the convenience of the
respondents?
 THIRD, does it meet coding, editing and data processing
requirements of the research project?
• In short, a good questionnaire should
‘speak’ to respondents in the understandable language and at
the appropriate intellectual level;
be convenient to be administered - in terms of posing questions
and recording responses;
be filled in comfortable time duration before the boredom sets in;
and
Provide a well written cover page
Leave adequate space for respondents to make
comments
Leave adequate space for respondents to make comments
-   The final test of a questionnaire is to try it on representatives of the target audience.

The wording of a question is extremely important

Acquaint - inform
Assist - think
Reside - live
State - say
Sufficient- enough
Initiate - start and so on

Pre-test the Questionnaire

 LI Y
T Therefore, we
have to very

A
careful in
designing a
questionnaire!!!

QU GIGO