MEG7052 Vehicular Electronics: Prof.

Gi-Woo Kim

Fall 2022

Lecture 2

1
Today’s Course Outline

• Review of Dynamic Modeling and Control

• Transfer Function Approach:
Modeling in Frequency Domain
• State Space Model Approach:
Modeling in Time Domain
• Concept of Stability

Bohdan T. Kulakowski, J. Lowen Shearer, John

F. Gardner [The Pennsylvania State University]

2
 Review : General Control System

Disturbance (d) Controlled output

Error (e) Control
Reference variable (y)
input(u)
input (r) Plant
Controller Actuator (Automotive
System)
+ –

Sensor
Noise
Closed-loop (negative feedback) control system  Automatic Control

3
• Examples of Automotive Control Systems

a. Automobile steering
control system.
b. The driver uses the
difference between
the actual and the
desired direction of
travel to generate a
controlled adjustment
of the steering wheel.
c. Typical direction-of-
travel response.

4
Six Step Approach to Dynamic System Problems

• Define the system and its components

• Formulate the mathematical model and list the necessary
assumptions
• Write the differential equations describing the model
• Solve the equations for the desired output variables
• Examine the solutions and the assumptions
• If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system

5
 Transfer Function in Mechanical Systems
• Example 1: 1990 ACC Benchmarking Problem
• 2DOF
 sensing • Semi-definite system
actuating • ω1=0 (rigid body)
d  m1 x1 = u − k ( x1 − x2 )

m2 x2 = −d + k ( x1 − x2 )

x1 ( s ) (m1s 2 + k ) x2 ( s ) k
= = 2 2 = ,d 0 = ,d 0
u ( s ) s (m1m2 s + k (m1 + m2 )) u ( s ) s 2 (m1m2 s 2 + k (m1 + m2 ))
x1 ( s ) −k x2 ( s ) −(m1s 2 + k )
= = = = , u 0 ,u 0
d ( s ) s 2 (m1m2 s 2 + k (m1 + m2 )) d ( s ) s 2 (m1m2 s 2 + k (m1 + m2 ))

6
• Example 2: 2-DOF with damping

J1θ1 + D1θ1 + K (θ1 − θ 2 ) = T

J θ + D θ + K (θ − θ ) = 0
2 2 2 2 2 1

( J1s 2 + D1s + K )Θ1 ( s ) − KΘ 2 ( s ) = T ( s )

− KΘ1 ( s ) + ( J 2 s 2 + D2 s + K )Θ 2 ( s ) = 0

T (s) −K J1s 2 + D1s + K T ( s )

2
0 J 2 s + D2 s + K −K 0
Θ1 ( s ) = Θ 2 (s) =
2
J1s + D1s + K −K J1s 2 + D1s + K −K
−K J 2 s 2 + D2 s + K −K J 2 s 2 + D2 s + K

7
Θ1 ( s ) J 2 s 2 + D2 s + K Θ 2 ( s ) K
= , =
T (s) ∆ T (s) J1 J 2 s 4 + ( D1 J 2 + D2 J1 )s 3 + ( D1 D2 + KJ 1 + KJ 2 )s 2 + K ( D1 + D2 )s

Step Response
0.45

K = 10; 0.4
G1
J1 = 20; G2

J2 = 20; 0.35

D1 = 0.3;
0.3
D2 = 100;
%num = [J2 D2 K]; 0.25
Amplitude

t = 0:0.01:30;
0.2
num = K;
den=[J1*J2 0.15
D1*J2+D2*J1
D1*D2+K*J1+K*J2 0.1
Open-loop system is
K*(D1+D2) 0]
step(num,den,t)
0.05
unstable (divergent!)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (seconds)

8
• Example 3: 2-DOF

K1 K2 K3

fv1 fv2 fv3

M 1 x1 + ( f v1 + f v 2 ) x1 − f v 2 x 2 + ( K1 + K 2 ) x1 − K 2 x2 = u
M 2 x2 − f v 2 x1 + ( f v 2 + f v 3 ) x2 − K 2 x1 + ( K 2 + K 3 ) x2 = 0

   
[ M ] x + [ f v ]x + [ K ]x =
 f

M1 0   f v1 + f v 2 − f v2   K1 + K 2 − K2 
[M ] =  , [ f ] =  −f , [ K ] =
M 2  f v 2 + f v 3   −K K 2 + K 3 
v
 0  v2  2

9
M 1 x1 + ( f v1 + f v 2 ) x1 − f v 2 x 2 + ( K1 + K 2 ) x1 − K 2 x2 = f
M 2 x2 − f v 2 x1 + ( f v 2 + f v 3 ) x 2 − K 2 x1 + ( K 2 + K 3 ) x2 = 0

[ M 1s 2 + ( f v1 + f v 2 )s + ( K1 + K 2 )] X 1 − ( f v 2 + K 2 ) X 2 = F
− ( K 2 + f v 2 s ) X 1 + [ M 2 s 2 + ( f v 2 + f v3 )s + ( K 2 + K 3 )] X 2 = 0

Using Cramer Rule

F (s) − ( f v2 s + K 2 ) M 1s 2 + ( f v1 + f v 2 ) s + ( K1 + K 2 ) F ( s )
2
0 M 2 s + ( f v 2 + f v3 )s + ( K 2 + K 3 ) − ( f v3 s + K 2 ) 0
X 1(s) = X 2 (s) =
∆ ∆

X 1 ( s) M 2 s 2 + ( f v 2 + f v3 ) s + ( K 2 + K 3 )
=
F (s) ∆

10
Using Mathematica

X 1 ( s) M 2 s 2 + ( f v 2 + f v3 ) s + ( K 2 + K 3 )
=
F (s) ∆
M 2 s 2 + ( f v 2 + f v3 ) s + ( K 2 + K 3 )
=
M 1M 2 s 4 + ( f v3 M 1 + f v1M 2 + ( M 1 + M 2 ) f v 2 ) s 3 + ( K 2 K 3 M 1 + K1 K 2 M 2 + f v1 f v 2 + f v1 f v3 + f v 2 f v3 ) s 2 + Cs + 

11
Transfer Function of Electrical Systems
• RC circuit

• The capacitor will discharge its

stored electric energy.
• The voltage across the capacitor
can be found by using Kirchhoff's
current law

1 1
s → jω H ( jω ) = =
RCjω + 1 1 + (RCω )
2

 low-pass filter ω = 1 1
• LRC circuit c =
RC τ

Slope=-
20/decade

12
• Analogy between Mechanical and Electrical Quantities
• Force Voltage Analogy

∝
mx + bx + kx =
F

13
TF of Electro-Mechanical Systems
• Armature controlled DC servomotor

14
Transfer Function of Hydro-mechanical Systems [Kim]
• Hydraulic Servo Valve System

β Orifice Q =CtP
P = (Q − Ct P − Ax ), Mx = PA − Cx − kx − F k
Vo P
M P

β A
sP ( s ) = (Q( s) − Ct P( s) − AsX ( s) ), X ( s) = P( s)
Vo Ms 2 + Cs + k
X (s) A
∴ =
Q( s ) Vo M VoC V k 
s3 + ( + Ct M ) s 2 +  o + Ct C + A2  s + Ct K
β β  β 

 3rd order system with much different natural frequencies 

stiff system (slow simulation speed)

15
Summary
• 선형 시불변 (LTI) 시스템의 블록 선도는 네 가지 요소 (신호, 시스템, 합점 및
분기점)로 구성되어 TF G(s), Sensor H(s)등으로 구성된다.
• 장점: 복잡한 Closed-loop 블록 선도도 입력과 출력의 관계를 나타내는 단일
전달 함수로 단순화시킬 수 있다

• 단점: 시스템 차수가 증가할수록 매우 복잡 해짐

Counter example

16
 State Space Model Approach
• State variable & state space model
• The set of variables that describe the system
• The state variable does not represent physical
quantities big freedom to get the State Space Model

mx(t ) + cx (t ) + kx(t ) =

u (t )

 0 1  0
Many SS Representations
= x (t )  k A c  x +  1B u
TF : (canonical forms) − −   
 m m   m 
y = [1 C0] x
The only one converting
Many State-Space models
17
• State-Space Model

• Example 1

18
Example 2 : Quarter Car Suspension System

Given quarter car suspension model and consider 4 state variables.

Formulate the state-space model after choosing these state variables
x1 = zus − z0 , x2 = zus , x3 =−z s zus , x4 = zs

19
Phase variable (controllability) canonical form
• Example 1: numerator is no longer constant

• Method 1 (TF  n-th order

ODE) is not available

• Method 2 : Not systematic and rigorous

20
• Method 3 (optional)

• Controllability (phase variable) canonical form

• Similarity transform: difficult SS model  easier controllability
canonical form (many “0”)

21
• MATLAB
[A,B,C,D] = tf2ss(num,den)

Example

Y ( s) 25.04 s + 5.008
= 3
U ( s ) s + 5.03247 s 2 + 25.1026 s + 5.008

 . 
 x.1  − 5.0325 − 25.1026 − 5.008  x1  1
x  =  1 0 0   x2  + 0u
 .2  
 x3   0 1 0   x3  0
 
 x1 
y = [0 25.04 5.008] x2  + [0]u
 x3 

22
SS Model to TF

• IN MIMO, transfer function matrix

H (s ) = C(sI − A ) B
−1

Converting from SS to TF is
the only one!

23
• Example 1: Mass-spring-damper system

Numeric example

A ⇒ λ1 =
−1, λ2 =
−2
CE : s 2 + 3s + 2 = ( s + 1)( s + 2) = 0,
• Eigenvalues of A are same as the root
(poles) of characteristic equation ∴ s =−1, s =−2

24
• MATLAB Example
[num,den] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D)

Example

>> A=[0 1 0;0 0 1;-5 -25 -5]

A=
0 1 0
0 0 1
-5 -25 -5
>> e=eig(A)
e=
-0.2083 + 0.0000i
-2.3958 + 4.2734i
-2.3958 - 4.2734i
>> p = poly(e)
p=
1.0000 5.0000 25.0000 5.0000

25
 State Space Representation is NOT the only one!
• Example 1

Y (s) 10 s + 10
= 3
U ( s ) s + 6 s 2 + 5s + 10

 .   . 
 x.1   0 1 0   x1   0   x.1  − 6 −5 − 10  x1  1
x  =  0 0 1   x2  +  10 u x  =  1 0 0   x2  + 0u
 .2    .2  
 x3  − 10 −5 − 6  x3  − 50  x3   0 1 0   x3  0
   
A B
 x1   x1 
y = [1 0 0] x2  + [0]u y = [0 10 10] x2  + [0]u
C  x3  D  x3 

Case1 (Controllable canonical form) Case2 (from MATLAB)

26
 >>sys1 = ss(A,B,C,D) >>sys2 = ss(A,B,C,D)
>>step(sys1) >>step(sys2)

Step Response Step Response

2 2

case1 case2

1.5 1.5

Amplitude
Amplitude

1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (seconds) Time (seconds)

Same solutions (responses) !

27
Why Do We Need Linear Approximation?
• Watt’s centrifugal governor : James Watt first introduced the
rotational steam engine automatic control system[1788]

x1 = x2
x2 = x32 (sin x1 cos x1 ) − sin x1 − γx2 State-space model
x3 = k (cos x1 − ρ ) [A,B,C,D]?
Nonlinear system !

28
• Linearization of Nonlinear System Using Taylor Approximation
• Step 1: Find equilibrium (operation) point  static system
• Step 2: Applying Taylor Series at equilibrium (operation) point x0

• Step 3: First order approximation

Perturbation ( x − x0) assumed to be small

where δ x= x − x0 δ y= y − y0
dg
a=
dx x = x0

Nonlinear system is ubiquitous in various engineering areas

29
• Example 1: Vehicle Longitudinal Motion
예제 3.10
v(t ) = −av 2 (t ) + f (t ) = g (v(t )) + f (t )

• Step 1: Find equilibrium point fo

0 = −av02 + f 0 ⇒ f 0 = av02
• Step 2: Perturbation to state variable v(t), and control input f(t)
v(t ) = v0 + δv(t ) dg
g (v(t )) ≈ g (v0 ) + ⋅ δv(t )
f (t ) = f 0 + δf (t ) dv v = v0

• Step 3: Plug into Eq. and apply Taylor series

δv(t ) = −av02 − 2av v =v ⋅ δv(t ) + f 0 + δf (t )
0

= −av02 − 2av0δv(t ) + av02 + δf (t )

δv(t ) + 2av0δv(t ) = δf (t )
δ v( s ) 1
sδ v( s ) + 2av0δ v( s ) =
δ f (s) ∴ G ( s )= =
δ f ( s ) s + 2av0
1st order linear TF
used for auto cruise control
30
• Example 2: Magnetic levitation System
• T. H. WONG Design of a Magnetic Levitation Control System Undergraduate, IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. E-29, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 1986 Project
2
i
EOM: mx = mg − Fm (i, x) = mg − C  
2  x
i 
At equilibrium point: mg = C  
x

Linearization :
2 2
i i   2i 2   2i 
Fm C   ≈ C   − C  3  xˆ + C  2  iˆ
∴=
 x x  x  x 
2 2 2
i   2i 2   2i  ˆ  i  i   2i 2   2i 
∴ mxˆ = mg − C   + C  3  xˆ − C  2 i ⇒ mxˆ = C   − C   + C  3  xˆ − C  2 iˆ

x  x  x  x x  x  x 
 2i 2   2i 

⇒ mxˆ − C  3  xˆ = −C  2  iˆ ⇒ mxˆ − k1 xˆ =
− k2iˆ x2 xˆ=
x1 xˆ ,=
= , u iˆ
 0 1  0 
 x  x 
⇒ x =xˆ =x
1 2 = A = k  ,B  −k 
 2i 2   2i   1
0  2
SS k k2 ˆ  m   m 
where k1 C=
=  3  , k2 C  2  x2= xˆ= 1 x1 − i
 x  x  m m C = [1 0]
y = xˆ
31
• Using Jacobian Matrix
• Example: nonlinear system x + 0.6 x + 3x + x 2 = 0
x1 = x2
x2 = −0.6 x2 − 3 x1 − x12

• Step 1. Find all equilibrium points x1 = x2 = 0

0 = x20
0 = −0.6 x20 − 3 x10 − x102
0 = 3 x10 + x102 ⇒ x10 = 0,−3
∴ (0,0) & (−3,0)
• Step 2. Linearize at equilibria

Jacobian
matrix

32
 Concept of Stability

Transfer functions Unit step response Unit impulse response

)
Pole-Zero Map 0.6 0.5

-1
1
0.4

Oscillating but Marginally Stable !

2

Axis (seconds
Y (s) = 2
0
0
0.2

s +4 -2

Imaginary
-4 0 -0.5
-2 -1 0 1 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
-1
Real Axis (seconds )
)

Pole-Zero Map 0.3 0.3

-1

1
0.2
0.2

Y (s) = 2
Axis (seconds

0.1
0

s + 3s + 4
0.1
0
Imaginary

-2 0 -0.1
-2 -1 0 1 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
-1
Real Axis (seconds )
)

Pole-Zero Map 0.15 0.3

-1

1
0.2
0.1

Y (s) = 2
Imaginary Axis (seconds

0.1
0

s + 2 s + 10
0.05
0

-5
-2 -1
Convergent and Stable !
0

Real Axis (seconds

-1
1

)
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
-0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10
)

Pole-Zero Map 0.02 0.1

-1

10
0.015 0.05

1
Imaginary Axis (seconds

0.01 0

Y (s) =
0

s 2 + 2 s + 100
0.005 -0.05

-10 0 -0.1
-2 -1 0 1 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
-1
Real Axis (seconds ) 7 7
10 10
)

P l Z M 8 15
1

33
 Pole-Zero Map 8 15

-1
1

1
6
10

) Imaginary Axis (seconds

Y (s) = 2
4
0
5

s −4
2

-1 0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
-1
Real Axis (seconds )
Pole-Zero Map 10 40
-1

1
5
20

Y (s) = 2
0
Imaginary Axis (seconds

s − s + 10
0
-10

Divergent and Unstable !

-20

-5 -20 -40
-2 -1 0 1 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
-1
Real Axis (seconds )

Pole-Zero Map Step Response Impulse Response

-1

1 1000

1 40

Y (s) = 2
Imaginary Axis (seconds

Amplitude

Amplitude
0

s
500
20

-1 0 0

Double Integrator -1 -0.5 0

Real Axis (seconds

0.5
-1
)
1 0 10 20

Time (seconds)
30 40 0 10 20

Time (seconds)
30 40

34
The Concept of Stability
• Stability is of utmost importance in designing and analysis of feedback
control systems.
– Absolute stability: either stable or not stable
– Relative stability : Considering the degree of stability
• A stable system is a dynamic system with a bounded response to a
bounded input (BIBO)
• If the system poles (eigenvalues) are negative, the system is stable in
the sense of Routh-Hurwitz Stability

LHP Re{λ i ( A)} < 0, (∀ i )

35
 Ubiquitous Examples

Carrier, G. F., 1949, ‘‘The Spaghetti

DNA Supercoiling Problem,’’ Am. Math. 56, pp. 669–672.

Buckling (Bistable, “Snap Through”)

Vehicle Roll Over

36
 Historical Review on Stability
• Maxwell’s paper “On Governors” on feedback control and
stability analysis of James Watt’s Steam Engine in 1769

x1 x1 = x2
x2 = x32 (sin x1 cos x1 ) − sin x1 − γx2
x3
x3 = k (cos x1 − ρ )
Equilibrium points
x20 = 0
2 1 1
x30 cos x10 − 1 =0 ⇒ x30 =± =±
cos x10 ρ
k (cos x10 − ρ ) =0 ⇒ x10 =cos −1 ( ρ )
 0 1 0 
  1− ρ2 
Linearization J = ρ − γ ρ −γ 2
2 ρ (1 − ρ )  ∆( s ) = s 3 + γ s 2 +  2
 s + 2k (1 − ρ ) = 0
   ρ 
2
 − k 1 − ρ 0 0  3
γC = 2k ρ 2

[credit: Hassard et al, Theory and Applications of Hopf Bifurcation, 1981]

37
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
• Motivation
CE: ∆ ( s ) : an s n + an −1s n −1 + ... + a1s + a0 =
0

− a ± a 2 − 4b
( s ) : s 2 + as + b =0 s=
2

( s ) : s 3 + as 2 + bs + c =0

( s ) : s 4 + as 3 + bs 2  + c =0
s=?

Q: Find how many poles in the

right half of the s-plane? 
whether negative or positive
In 1800~1900

38
 CE: ∆ ( s ) : an s n + an −1s n −1 + ... + a1s + a0 =
0

• Simple algorithm to determine it without finding root method (factorizing)

• Necessary condition for stable system:
All coefficient of CE ( an , an −1 , an − 2 , ..., a0 ) are same sign
• Sufficient condition:
• All coefficient of 1st column of Routh array should be same sign  stable
• The number of sign change at the 1st column
= the No. of unstable poles
Routh Array (Table)
• References
• E.J. Routh, A Treatise on The Stability of Motion, UK
London, 1877
• A. Hurwitz, "On the conditions under which an equation
has only roots with negative real parts”, Mathematische
Annelen, vol. 46, pp. 273-284, 1895
• G. Meinsma, “Elementary proof of the Routh-Hurwitz
test” Systems & control Letters 25 (1995) p. 237-242.

39
• Routh Array
an s n + an −1s n −1 + an − 2 s n − 2 + an − 3 s n −3 + an − 4 s n − 4 ... + a1s + a0 =
0
• Place an , an −1 , an −2 , ..., a0
in the 1, 2 row of Routh array

• Compute b1 , b2 , ..., bn

n−3 0
• Repeat the computation of coefficient until s , ..., s
40
Special Case : multiple poles on the jw-axis
• If the jw-axis roots of the characteristic equation are simple, the system is
neither stable nor unstable - called marginally stable
• The Routh-Hurwitz criteria will not reveal the instability  disadvantage
pole =
• Example 1
q( s) = s 5 + s 4 + 2s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 1 -1.0000
0.0000 + 1.0000i
0.0000 - 1.0000i
-0.0000 + 1.0000i
s5 1 2 1 s5 1 2 1 -0.0000 - 1.0000i
s4 1 2 1 s4 1 2 1 2
Pole-Zero Map

Imaginary Axis (seconds-1)

1

s3 ε ε 0 s3 4 4 0

s 2 1 1 p( s) = s + 2s
-1

s2 1 1
4 2
+1 -2
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4

s1 ε dP( s )
Real Axis (seconds -1)

s1 ε 0 ← Step Response

ds
200

s0 1 s0 1 100

Amplitude
0

stable stable -100

unstable
-200
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Time (seconds)

41
 [IEEE Control systems, 1997]

16
G (s) =
s 5 + s 4 + 8s 3 + 8s 2 + 16 s + 16
s = −1, j 2, j 2,−2 j , and − j 2

Unstable !

No unstable poles

42
Controller Design Using R-H Stability Criteria
• Example : Proportional control problem

K
G(s) ( s + 2)( s + 3)( s + 5)
=
1 + G(s) 1 + K
( s + 2)( s + 3)( s + 5)
K K
K = = 3
( s + 2)( s + 3)( s + 5) + K s + 10 s 2 + 31s + K + 30
30+K

s3 1 31
s2 10 K + 30 280 − K > 0, K + 30 > 0

280 − K
s1 0 ∴stable gain: -30 <K <280
10
s0 K + 30 0

43
 0
10
28 Step Response K =-50 0
Step Response K =-20
-1
-0.5
-2
unstable stable

Amplitude
Amplitude

-3 -1

-4
-1.5
-5

-6 -2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 5 10 15

Time (seconds) Time (seconds)

1.5
Step Response
K =200 2
10
26 Step Response
K =282
1

1 0

Amplitude
Amplitude

-1

stable unstable
0.5 -2

-3

0 -4
0 5 10 15 0 2000 4000 6000 8000

Time (seconds) Time (seconds)

44
Application Examples
• Example 1: Mass-spring-damper system

1
G(s) =
s 2 + cs + k

RH array s2 1 k
s1 c 0
s0 k

• Thus, mass-spring-damper system is stable in the sense of Routh-

Hurwitz stability if and only if both coefficients (c, k) are positive
• Damping (c) and spring constant (k) are physical parameters to be
positive  stable at all times !

45
• Example 2: Inverted Pendulum (Unstable System)
• Transfer function approach after linear approximation

Inverted
controller
pendulum
θr = 0 − K ( s + 6) F (s) −0.011 θ
- s + 12 s 2 − 11

G(s) 0.011K ( s + 6)
=Gc ( s ) =
1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) ( s + 12)( s 2 − 11) + 0.011K ( s + 6)
1
( M − m )
G(s) = − CLCE : ∆ ( S ) =s 3 + 12 s 2 − (11 − 0.011K ) s + (0.066 K − 132) =0
Mg
s2 −
( M − m )
where
= , M 100 = kg , m 10kg , 11 − 0.011K < 0, 0.066 K − 132 > 0
= m, g 9.8m / s 2
 1= ⇒ 2000 < K

• The only necessary condition is sufficient!

46
 Open-loop step response K = 2000 K = 2100
Pole-Zero Map Pole-Zero Map Pole-Zero Map
1 1 1

)
)

)
-1
-1

-1
0.5 0.5 0.5

Imaginary Axis (seconds

Imaginary Axis (seconds

Imaginary Axis (seconds

0 0 0

-0.5 Unstable pole -0.5 -0.5

-1 -1 -1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
-1 -1 -1
Real Axis (seconds ) Real Axis (seconds ) Real Axis (seconds )

22 Step Response Step Response Step Response

10
5 5000 30

25
4 4000

20
3 3000
Amplitude

Amplitude
Amplitude

15

2 2000
10

1
Unstable 1000

Unstable
5
Stable
0 0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 2 4 6 8 10

Time (seconds) Time (seconds) Time (seconds)

47
• State-Space Model Approach

cos θ(t ) ≈ 1, sin θ(t ) ≈ θ(t )  0 1 0 0 θ

   0 
M + m    1 
 M g 0 0 0 θ
Mθ − ( M + m) gθ = F (t )    
x (t ) =  + M F (t )
0 0 0 1 x  0 

Mx + mgθ = M (t ) = 0  mg    
 − 0 0 0  x   0 
 M 
y (t ) = [0 0 1 0]x(t )

−λ 1 0 0 M +m
M +m −λ 0 0 g 0 0
g −λ 0 0 M
M = −λ 0 −λ 0 − 0 −λ 1
0 0 −λ 1 mg
mg 0 0 −λ − 0 −λ
− 0 0 −λ M
M
M +m 2 M +m
= λ4 − gλ = 0, ⇒ λ = 0(double), λ = ± g
M M
∴ unstable due to right plane pole

48
Numeric Example
 0 1 0 0 θ  0 
M + m  
   1 
 M g 0 0 0  θ   M 
x (t ) =  + F (t )
0 0 0 1  x   0 
 mg    1 
 − 0 0 0  x    22 Step Response
M M
10
    5

y(t ) = [0 0 1 0]x (t )
0

M = 1, m = 0.1,  = 1, g = 9.8
-5

Amplitude
>> eig(A)
-10

ans =
-15

0 -20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Time (seconds)
3.2833 Unstable !
-3.2833

49
• Example 3: Space Aircraft Attitude Control (Unstable System)

controller
θ
θr = 0 s+3 δ K ( s + 2) θ
- s s2 − 1

G(s) K ( s + 3)( s + 2)
=Gc ( s ) =
1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) s ( s 2 − 1) + K ( s + 3)( s + 2)
CLCE : ∆ ( S ) = s 3 + Ks 2 + [6 K − 1]s + 5 K = 0

δ s3 1 6K − 1
s2 K 5K
K ( s + 2) s1 6( K − 1) 0
G(s) =
s2 − 1 s0 − 0
∴ K −1 > 0 ⇒ K > 1

50
 K > 1 for stable
Open-loop at K = 0.5 K = 0.5 K = 1.1
Pole-Zero Map Pole-Zero Map
Pole-Zero Map
1 2 3

)
)

-1
)
-1

-1
0.5 1
1

Imaginary Axis (seconds

Imaginary Axis (seconds

Imaginary Axis (seconds

0 0 0

-1

-0.5 -1
Unstable pole -2

-1 -3
-2
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
-1 -1 -1
Real Axis (seconds Real Axis (seconds )
Real Axis (seconds )
)

Step Response Step Response Step Response

26 27
10 10 2
10 1

8 0.5 1.5

Amplitude
0
Amplitude

Amplitude

4
-0.5
0.5
2

Unstable
Unstable -1 Unstable Stable
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Time (seconds) Time (seconds) Time (seconds)

51
• Example 4: Friction Clutch Shudder Instability
θ
k

Engine J Load

Friction
clutch c

Jθ + cθ + kθ = Tt
∂µ
Tt = µ (v ) FR µ (v ) = µ o + v
∂v
where F is apply force on the clutch,
where µ o is the static coefficient,
R is effective radius of the clutch
v = − Rθ

⇒ Jθ + cθ + kθ = ( µ o − mRθ ) FR

∂µ
where m =
∂v

52
 Define state variables x1 = θ , x2 = θ

 x1   0 1  x   0 
  = − k − (c + mR 2 F )   1  +  µ 0 FR 
 x 2   J J
  x2  
  J 


Condition for stability: eigenvalues of matrix A have negative real part

s −1 ( c + mR 2
F) k
2
sI − A = 0 ⇒ k (c + mR F ) = 0 ⇒ s 2 + s+ =0
s+ J J
J J

⇒ (c + mR 2 F ) > 0
Stable
c ∂µ c µ range
⇒m>− ⇒ > −
R2F ∂v R2F

Velocity (v)

53