Sampling of

Food
 Major Areas
Objectives
Importance of Sample Collection

Sampling tools and containers.

Sampling collection techniques

Sampling for Microbiological analysis of food

Routine versus Investigational sampling

Quantity of food samples to be collected for analysis

Packaging and sealing of sample

Dispatch of sample

Commodity Specific sampling procedure

 Objectiv
e
Sampling involves the selection of a certain portion, number of
container and product units from a particular lot of the same food.
It must be as representative.

Samples are usually collected from a lot of food for random

surveillance, collection of data for a specific purpose, or
monitoring/and to determine the conformity to product standards
specified in the regulation .
Objective

FSO may collect samples from any place where any article of food
is manufactured, or stored for sale, or stored for the manufacture
of any other article of food by Authorized officer for sale, or
exposed or exhibited for sale or where any adulterant is
manufactured or kept.

Food Safety officer while taking samples of food or imported

article of food for analysis shall, follow the specified procedure for
taking samples and sending them for analysis.
 Importance of Sample Collection
⚫ Sample collection is very important to ensure that
analytical data is reliable and to draw a representative
sample.
⚫ 3 activities in analysis
⚫ Collection of representative sample
⚫ Sample preparation
⚫ Analysis using proper methods & instruments

⚫ Potential sources of variation for above activities to

be identified and minimized or avoided

⚫ Proper sample size, suitable containers for

sampling or useof appropriate preservativesto
prevent spoilage
/damage before analysis.
 Pre cautions during sam
⚫pling
The condition of the sample received for
examination is of primary importance.
⚫ A representative sample is essential when
pathogens or toxins are sparsely
distributed within the food.
⚫ The number of units that comprise a
representative sample from a designated
lot of a food product must be
statistically significant.
⚫ The proper statistical sampling procedure, according to
whether the food is solid, semisolid, viscous, or liquid,
must be determined by the FSO at the time of sampling.
Precautions during
sampling
• Clean, dry, leak-proof, wide-mouthed and sterile
containers of a size suitable for sample of the
product must be used.
• Sample must be submitted in original and in sealed
condition.
• Dry or canned foods that are not perishable and are
collected at ambient temperatures need notbe
refrigerated.
• Collect frozen samples in pre-chilled containers.
• Follow storage norms
Sampling plan • type of food product
• the size of food articles to be
sampled
• the degree of hazard to
The criteria should be
human health
considered in
formulating a • the potential for fraud
sampling plan: • acceptance and
rejection criteria:
• adulteration,
• tolerance limits,
• compositional standards,
• net contents
 Sampling tools and
containers
Samples collected from bulk packages or unpackaged foods sold
at retail must be placed in suitable containers for storage and
handling to be presented for laboratory analysis.

⚫ Sampling tools:

⚫ The tools available to FSO/ Authorized Officer range from

common tools for general purposes to special tools to be
used in specific situations and for specific examinations of
particular food products.

⚫ Common tools such as pliers, spoon, screwdriver and knife

are useful for opening containers, cutting bags of food
products.
Sampling tools and
containers
⚫ Sample containers:
⚫ In general, for liquids the FSO/ Authorized Officer should
use clean, dry containers of appropriate waterproof and
leak proof material, including glass, stainless metal, and
suitable plastic material which can be sterilized by heat if
necessary.
⚫ The containers must have a secure closure of rubber or
plastic stoppers, or a screw-cap of metal or plastic, coated
with an insoluble, non-absorbent.
⚫ For solids or semi-solids, clean, dry, wide-mouth,
cylindrical receptacles of suitable waterproof, material
should be used.
⚫ For butter, suitable wide-mouth jars should be used. The
butter must not be allowed to come into contact with paper
Sample Collection
Techniques:
⚫ TheFSO/ Authorized Officer must obtained
the following Information;
name of the food;
lot number;
container size or sizes;
product code numbers;
labelling information;
condition of the lot, i.e., broken packages,
evidence of rodent or insect infestation, debris,
etc.;
 Sampled Unit (Lot)
⚫ Every effort should be made to restore the lot from
which the sample is collected to its original condition.
⚫ Whenever possible, samples should be collected from
previously unopened boxes or crates, unopened retail
packages, and unopened bulk containers such as
sealed big containers.
⚫ Often samples may have to be collected from bulk
containers which have been inadequately covered.
⚫ When this happens, the existing condition should be
described in detail, keeping in mind the effect that
opening could have had on the composition of the
product.
Sample
integrity
⚫ The FSO/ Authorized Officer must always be aware of the
perishability of the sample and that, for analytical
significance, the sample must reach the laboratory in a
condition similar to that at the time of sampling.
⚫ In taking official samples, many food control authorities
prescribe the use of special tamper-proof containers or
sealing with wax and a seal with the FSO/ Authorized
Officer’s designated identification number. It is usually a
good precaution to have the owner of the goods sign for the
owner’s portion of the sample.
⚫ The FSO/ Authorized Officer is responsible for collecting,
holding, sealing, storing and delivering the sample.
Whoever receives the sample at the laboratory has the
same responsibility from that time on.
⚫ It is very important that the FSO/ Authorized Officer be
able to document sample integrity from time of collection
to delivery to the analyst, particularly when enforcement
action is being considered.
 Quantity of Food Samples to be
collected for Analysis
⚫ Under the provision of Rule No. 13 (FSSA), the quantity of sample of food to be sent
to the Food Analyst / Director for analysis shall be as specified in the table below:
Article of food Approximate quantity
to be supplied
1. Milk 500 ml.
2. Sterilized Milk/UHT Milk 250 ml.
3. Malai/Dahi 200 gms.
4. Yoghurt/Sweetened Dahi 300 gms.
5. Chhana/Paneer/Khoya/Shrikhand 250 gms.
6. Cheese/Cheese spread 200 gms.
7. Evaporated Milk/Condensed Milk 200 gms.
8. Ice-Cream/Softy/Kulfi/Ice Candy/Ice lolly 300 gms.
9. Milk Powder/Skimmed Milk Powder 250 gms.
10. Infant Food/Weaning Food 500 gms.
11. Malt Food/Malted Milk Food 300 gms.
12. Butter/Butter Oil/Ghee/Margarine/Cream/ 200 gms.
Bakery Shortening
13. Vanaspati, Edible Oils/Fats 250 gms.
14. Carbonated Water 600 ml.
15. Baking Powder 100 gms
 Quantity of Food Samples to be collected for
ArticleAnalysis
of food Ap proximate quantity
to be supplied
16. Arrowroot/Sago250 gms
17. Corn flakes/Macaroni Products/ Corn Flour/ Custard 200 gms. Powder
18. Spices, Condiments and Mixed Masala(Whole) 200 gms.
19. Spices, Condiments and Mixed Masala (Powder) 250 gms.
20. Nutmeg/Mace 150 gms.
21. Asafoetida 100 gms.
22. Compounded Asafoetida 150 gms.
23. Saffron 20 gm.
24. Gur/jaggery, Icing Sugar, Honey, Synthetic Syrup, Bura 250 gms.
25. Cane Sugar/Cube sugar/Refined Sugar/Dextrose, Misri/ 200 gms Dried Glucose Syrup.,
26. Artificial Sweetener 100 gms.
27. Fruit Juice/Fruit Drink/Fruit Squash 400 ml
28. Tomato Sauce/Ketchup/Tomato Paste, Jam/ Jelly/ 300 gms. Marmalade/ Tomato
Puree/Vegetable Sauce
29. Non Fruit Jellies 200 gms.
30. Pickles and Chutneys 250 gms.
31. Oilseeds/Nuts/Dry Fruits 250 gms.
32. Tea/Roasted Coffee/Roasted Chicory 200 gms.
33. Instant Tea/Instant Coffee/Instant Coffee Chichory Mixture 100 gms.
 Quantity of Food Samples to be collected for
ArticleAnalysis
of food Approximate quantity
to be supplied
34. Sugar Confectionery/Chewing Gum/Bubble Gum 200 gms.
35. Chocolates 200 gms.
36. Edible Salt 200 gms.
37. Iodised Salt/ Iron Fortified Salt 200 gms.
38. Food Grains and Pulses (Whole and Split) 500 gms.
39. Atta/Maida/Suji/Besan/Other Milled Product/ 500 gms. Paushtik and Fortified
Atta/Maida
40. Biscuits and Rusks 200 gms.
41. Bread/Cakes/Pastries 250 gms.
42. Gelatin 150 gms.
43. Catechu 150gms.
44. Vinegar/Synthetic Vinegar 300 gms.
45. Food colour 25 gms.
46. Food colour preparation (Solid/Liquid) 25 gms Solid/100 ml liquid
47. Natural Mineral water/Packaged Drinking water. 4000 ml

48. Silver Leafs 1 gm

49. Prepared Food 500 gms.
50. Proprietary Food, (Non Standardised Foods) 300 gms.
51. Canned Foods . 6 sealed cans
52. Food not specified 300 gms.
 PA CKING AND SEALING THE
SAMPLES
⚫ In order to maintain integrity, packages containing exhibits
should be secured or sealed to prove their authenticity, i.e., to
ensure that they could not have been tampered.

⚫ The stopper shall first be securely fastened so as to

prevent leakage of the contents in transit

⚫ The bottle, jar or other container shall then be completely

wrapped in fairly strong thick paper. The ends of the paper
shall be neatly folded in and affixed by means of gum or other
adhesive.

⚫ A paper slip of the size that goes round completely from the
bottom to top of the container, bearing the signature of the
Designated Officer and code number of the sample, shall be
pasted on the wrapper, the signature or thumb impression of
the person from whom the sample has been taken, shall be
affixed in such a manner that the paper slip and the wrapper
both carry a part of this signature or the thumb impression

⚫ The outer covering of the packet shall also be marked

with the code number of the sample.
DISPATCH OF SAMPLE
⚫ All samples packaged for dispatch must be secured with
shock-absorbing materials to protect them from
damage en route.

⚫ Samples of frozen foods to be sent overnight may be

packed in insulated cartons containing dry ice that will
last for that length of time.

⚫ If special precautions in handling or storing samples are

needed, the FSO/ Authorized Officer should ensure
that persons who will be handling the samples are
informed.
 DO CUMENTATION
FORM III
[Refer rule 3.3.2.(1)]
(to keep any article of food in safe custody of the vender)

To

(Name and address of the vendor)

………………………………….
………………………………….
………………………………….

Whereas *…………………………….intended for food which is in your possession appears to

me to be adulterated/misbranded:

Now therefore under clause (c) of sub-section (1) of section 38 of the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (34
of 2006), I hereby direct you to keep in your safe custody the said sealed stock subject to such orders as may be
issued subsequently in relation thereto.

Food Safety Officer

Area…………
Place:
Date:

*Here give the name of article of food.

 FORM V
(Refer rule 3.4.1. (3))
To
………………..
……………….

Dear Sir/s/ Madam:

I havethis day taken from premises of ……………….situate

at...........................
………………..samples of food specified below to have the same analysed by the Food
Analyst for .

Details of food:

Code number:

Place: Sd/-) Food Safety Officer

Date:
Address:
 FORM VI
(Refer rule 3.4.3 (7))

Memorandum to Food Analyst

From:
……………..
…………….. Date:

To
Food Analyst
………………
……………..

MEMORANDUM
(Refer rule (v)a of 3.4.1(8))

1.The sample described below is sent herewith for analysis under of of section of Food Safety and
Standards Act, 2006

I. Code Number
II. Date and place of collection
III. Nature of articles submitted for analysis
IV. Nature and quantity of preservative, if any, added to the sample.

2. A copy of this memo and specimen impression, of the seal used to seal the packet of sample are being
sent separately by post/courier/hand delivery (strike out whichever is not applicable)

(Sd/) Food Analyst

Address:
COMMODITY SPECIFIC SAMPLING
PROCEDURES
⚫ Adulteration crosses the economic fraud area when toxic or
inedible adulterants are used and human illness and
chemical poisoning result.
⚫ Food control also includes responsibilities for prevention of
economic fraud.
⚫ Inspection activities include review of labelling, check of
net contents, identity and compositional aspects of food
standards, and false and misleading food advertising.
⚫ Sampling procedures should be performed in accordance
with appropriate ISO Standards related to the commodity
of concern.
⚫ General Guidelines on Sampling can be downloaded from
the Codex Website (CAC/GL 50-2004).
 Sampling
Sampling

Concept
Concept and
and Importance
Importance of
of sampling
sampling

The
The term
term “food”
“food” refers
refers to to the
the broad
broad range
range ofof edible
edible materials
materials that
that comprise
comprise the the essential
essential body
body
nutrients
nutrients required
required for
for life
life and
and growth,
growth, such
such as
as proteins,
proteins, carbohydrates,
carbohydrates, fats,
fats, vitamins,
vitamins, oror minerals.
minerals.
Foodstuffs
Foodstuffs are
are described
described variously
variously as as “liquid”
“liquid” oror “solid”,
“solid”, and
and “wet”
“wet” or or “dry”,
“dry”, depending
depending on on the
the
amounts
amounts ofof water
water and
and fat
fat they
they contain.
contain. Samples
Samples of plant origin
of plant origin are
are classified
classified for
for analytical purposes
analytical purposes
as
as having
having aa high
high or
or medium
medium water water content
content and
and aa lower
lower content
content of of saccharides
saccharides (from
(from 5%5% toto 15%),
15%),
very
very low
low water
water content
content (dry),
(dry), oror aa high
high content
content of
of oils.
oils. Similarly,
Similarly, food
food samples
samples cancan be
be divided
divided into
into
four main groups based on water and
four main groups based on water and fat content.fat content.

Lot:
Lot: A
A quantity
quantity of
of food
food or
or food
food units produced and
units produced and handled
handled under
under uniform
uniform conditions.
conditions.

Sample:
Sample: A
A number
number of
of food
food units
units that
that resembles
resembles the
the characteristics
characteristics of
of the
the lot
lot

A sample
A sample isis aa limited
limited quantity
quantity of
of something
something which
which is
is intended
intended to
to be
be similar
similar to
to and
and represent
represent aa larger
larger
amount
amount ofof that
that thing(s).
thing(s). The
The things
things could
could be
be countable
countable objects
objects such
such as
as individual
individual items
items available
available asas
units
units for
for sale,
sale, oror aa material
material not
not countable
countable as
as individual
individual items.
items.

What
What is
is sampling?
sampling?

“A
“A procedure
procedure used
used to
to draw
draw inferences
inferences about
about aa lot
lot (population)
(population) from
from results
results obtained
obtained from
from aa sample”
sample”

“To
“To collect
collect aa representative
representative sample
sample to
to obtain
obtain information
information on
on its
its status”
status”

Sampling
Sampling involves
involves the
the selection
selection ofof aa certain portion, number
certain portion, number ofof container
container and product units
and product units from
from aa
particular
particular lot of the same food. It must be as representative as possible of the whole consignment or
lot of the same food. It must be as representative as possible of the whole consignment or
from
from lot.
lot.

An
An act
act of
of obtaining
obtaining aa sample
sample is called sampling,
is called sampling, which
which can
can be
be done
done by
by aa person
person oror automatically.
automatically.
Samples
Samples of of material
material cancan bebe taken
taken oror provided
provided for
for testing,
testing, analysis,
analysis, inspection,
inspection, investigation,
investigation,
demonstration,
demonstration, or or trial
trial use.
use.

Objective:
Objective:

Samples
Samples are
are usually
usually collected
collected from
from aa lot
lot of
of food
food for
for random
random surveillance,
surveillance, collection
collection of
of data
data for
for aa
specific
specific purpose,
purpose, or
or monitoring/and
monitoring/and to
to determine
determine whether
whether the
the food
food is
is unsatisfactory
unsatisfactory for
for any
any reason.
reason.

Importance
Importance of
of Sample
Sample Collection
Collection

The
The reliability
reliability of
of analytical
analytical data
data thus
thus obtained
obtained depends
depends on
on several
several factors,
factors, sampling
sampling being
being the
the major
major
factor.
factor. Current analytical methods require only few grams of food sample to analyze. Thus, it
Current analytical methods require only few grams of food sample to analyze. Thus, it is
is
necessary
necessary that
that aa sample
sample bebe as
as representative
representative ofof the population as
the population as possible.
possible.

Foods
Foods sampling
sampling

Food
Food sample:
sample:

Food
Food samples
samples ofof biological
biological origin
origin (liquid
(liquid or
or solid)
solid) have
have been
been divided
divided generally
generally into
into the
the five
five
categories
categories described
described in
in Table
Table 19.1.
19.1. This
This coarse
coarse division
division is
is important
important when
when considering
considering the
the choice
choice

Page 1
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of
of isolation
isolation technique,
technique, extraction
extraction solvent,
solvent, and
and sample
sample clean-up
clean-up method
method during
during an
an analytical
analytical
procedure.
procedure.

Moisture
Moisture content
content is is an
an important
important consideration
consideration during
during sampling procedures, in
sampling procedures, in part
part because
because it it
affects
affects the
the extent
extent ofof sample
sample heterogeneity.
heterogeneity. Virtually
Virtually all
all foods
foods are
are heterogeneous,
heterogeneous, and and the
the analyst
analyst
should
should bebe familiar
familiar with
with their
their variability
variability in
in composition
composition andand structure.
structure. InIn general,
general, fresh
fresh foods
foods ofof plant
plant
origin
origin are more variable in composition than fresh foods of animal origin. The analyst should be
are more variable in composition than fresh foods of animal origin. The analyst should be
also
also aware
aware of
of the
the postmortem
postmortem or postharvest physiological
or postharvest physiological changes
changes that
that can
can occur
occur after
after aa fresh
fresh food
food
is
is sampled
sampled andand which
which cancan affect
affect sample
sample heterogeneity.
heterogeneity. A A combination
combination of of cold
cold storage
storage and
and chemical
chemical
preservation
preservation maymay bebe required
required to to maintain
maintain sample
sample integrity
integrity in
in the
the event
event of prolonged storage.
of prolonged storage.

General
General classification
classification of
of food
food samples
samples according
according to
to their
their content
content

Sample
Sample Character
\Character Typical
Typical analytes
analytes
Veterinary
Veterinary drugs,
drugs, toxic
toxic
Milk
IMilk Aqueous, proteins,
Aqueous, proteins, lipidslipids elements, pesticides, industrial
elements, pesticides, industrial]
contaminants
contaminants
Veterinary
Veterinary drugs,
drugs, pesticides,
pesticides,
Eggs
Eggs High
High lipids
lipids and
and albumin
albumin content
content
industrial
industrial contaminants
contaminants
Other
Other samples
samples of of animal
animal Drugs,
Drugs, pesticides,
pesticides, industrial
industrial
Various
Various fat,
fat, proteins,
proteins, or or water
water
origin (liver, fat)
origin (liver, fat) contaminants
contaminants
Plant
Plant materials
materials (fruits, Various water,
(fruits|Various water, plant
plant pigments, toxic elements,
pigmentsjJtoxic elements, pesticides,
pesticides,
vegetables)
vegetables) proteins,
roteins, lipids,
lipids, essential
essential oil,
oil, waxes
waxes _ industrial
findustrial contaminants
contaminants
pesticides,
pesticides, industrial
industrial
Food (meat,
Food (meat, milk,
milk, cereals,
cereals,
Various
Various fat,fat, oils,
oils, lipids,
lipids, proteins, contaminants,
proteins,Jcontaminants, synthetic
synthetic
wines, juices, plants
wines, juices, plants oils,
oils,
sugar, starch, water, or pigments
sugar, starch, water, or pigments colorants, additives, synthetic
colorants, additives, synthetic
sugar
sugar
sweeteners,
Sweeteners, antioxidants
antioxidants

Although
Although the the chemical
chemical and and physical properties of
physical properties of foods
foods are are inherently
inherently variable,
variable, eveneven between
between
samples
samples that
that originate
originate fromfrom the
the same
same breed
breed or
or strain,
strain, the
the variability
variability in in composition
composition of of aa single
single food
food
sample
sample can can be be minimized
minimized with with proper
proper sampling
sampling and and sample pre-treatment techniques.
sample pre-treatment techniques. Two Two
approaches
approaches can can be
be used
used for
for sampling
sampling aa food
food mass
mass that
that isis larger
larger than
than thethe amount
amount required
required forfor analysis
analysis
in
in the
the laboratory.
laboratory. Many Many minute
minute increments
increments of of aa solid
solid material
material can can bebe collected
collected and and blended
blended to to
represent the entire foodstuff, or a quantity of material that is large enough
represent the entire foodstuff, or a quantity of material that is large enough to be compositionally to be compositionally
representative
representative of of the
the whole
whole cancan bebe collected
collected and
and then
then reduced
reduced to to aa fine
fine mixture
mixture before
before being
being sub-
sub-
sampled.
sampled. The The first
first approach
approach is is usually
usually avoided,
avoided, since
since it it is
is difficult
difficult to to obtain
obtain a a statistically
statistically
representative
representative sample
sample and and the
the sampling
sampling timetime can
can also
also bebe very
very long.
long. TheThe latter
latter approach
approach is is more
more
practical,
practical, accurate,
accurate, and and reproducible.
reproducible.

Since
Since virtually
virtually nono food
food material
material can
can be
be analysed
analysed inin its
its entirety,
entirety, careful
careful sampling
sampling techniques
techniques are
are
required
required toto obtain
obtain representative,
representative, laboratory-sized
laboratory-sized primary
primary samples,
samples, in in addition
addition to
to subsequent
subsequent
subsamples,
subsamples, or or secondary
secondary samples.
samples. The
The amount
amount ofof subsample
subsample required
required for
for an
an analytical
analytical procedure
procedure
usually varies from a fraction of a gram to several
usually varies from a fraction of a gram to several grams.grams.

Sample
Sample Size
Size

The
The required
required sample
sample size
size isis defined
defined in
in part
part by
by the
the nature
nature of
of the
the target
target compound,
compound, that that is,
is, to
to what
what
extent
extent the
the analyte
analyte isis retained
retained in in the
the matrix.
matrix. Xenobiotics
Xenobiotics areare generally
generally present
present atat trace
trace levels.
levels. AA
sufficiently
sufficiently large
large amount
amount of of sample
sample must
must be be collected
collected and
and analysed
analysed in in order
order to
to be
be able
able to
to measure
measure
minute
minute quantities
quantities ofof the
the compound
compound of of interest
interest and
and to
to satisfy
satisfy thethe method’s
method’s limit
limit ofof detection.
detection.
Conversely,
Conversely, relatively
relatively small
small samples
samples maymay be be collected
collected for
for the
the macro
macro analysis
analysis ofof gross
gross foodfood

Page 2
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components,
components, i.e.,
i.e., to
to measure
measure crude
crude fat,
fat, crude
crude protein,
protein, crude
crude fiber,
fiber, or
or ash.
ash. Although
Although proximate
proximate
analysis
analysis of
of these
these food
food components
components is
is sometimes
sometimes sufficient,
sufficient, more
more exact
exact analyses
analyses are
are usually
usually required.
required.

The
The sample
sample size
size isis also
also dependent
dependent on on the
the relationship
relationship thatthat exists
exists between
between the the mass
mass required
required toto
adequately
adequately represent
represent aa sample
sample and
and the
the characteristics
characteristics ofof that
that sample.
sample. If If aa foodstuff
foodstuff consists
consists ofof some
some
mixture
mixture ofof different-sized particles, enough
different-sized particles, enough sample
sample mass
mass needs
needs to to be
be collected
collected inin order
order to
to adequately
adequately
represent
represent all
all of
of the
the particles.
particles. Because
Because large particles are
large particles are more
more difficult
difficult to to represent
represent than
than smaller
smaller
ones,
ones, aa mass
mass that
that is
is large
large enough
enough toto represent
represent the
the larger
larger particles
particles willwill also
also be
be representative
representative of of the
the
smaller ones. The segregation of finer, denser particles to the bottom of the
smaller ones. The segregation of finer, denser particles to the bottom of the sample container mustsample container must
be
be recognized
recognized during
during the
the sampling process to
sampling process to ensure
ensure that
that allall particles
particles are are represented
represented andand toto avoid
avoid
large
large sampling
sampling errors.
errors.

Sampling
Sampling Steps
Steps

Sample
Sample collection
collection

•e Containers
Containers
•e Sampling
Sampling devices
devices
•e Sampling procedures: aseptic
Sampling procedures: aseptic technique
technique
•e Sample labelling
Sample labelling

Techniques:
Techniques:

Food
Food lots
lots are
are sampled
sampled in in either
either aa manual
manual or or continuous
continuous mannermanner in in order
order to
to obtain
obtain aa representative
representative
specimen.
specimen. Containers
Containers holding
holding loose
loose foodstuffs
foodstuffs can can bebe sampled
sampled manually
manually with
with devices
devices thatthat trap
trap the
the
material
material inin aa compartment
compartment such such asas aa probe
probe or or tube.
tube. Slots
Slots oror openings placed at
openings placed at intervals
intervals in in the
the tube
tube
allow
allow for
for simultaneous
simultaneous sampling
sampling at at different
different depths
depths of of the product. When
the product. When employing
employing this this technique,
technique,
however,
however, the the analyst
analyst must
must consider
consider the the segregation
segregation effecteffect and
and ensure
ensure that
that all particle sizes
all particle sizes are
are
accessible.
accessible. TheThe foodstuff
foodstuff may
may ultimately
ultimately needneed toto be
be removed
removed from from the
the sample-container
sample-container and and poured
poured
onto
onto aa flat
flat surface.
surface. The
The amount
amount of of material
material maymay thenthen bebe reduced
reduced with
with aa coning-and-quartering
coning-and-quartering
method,
method, and and aa subsample
subsample collected
collected in in multiple
multiple random
random increments.
increments. No No particle
particle size
size should
should be be
excluded
excluded during
during the the sampling process. Since
sampling process. Since foodfood components
components or or contaminants
contaminants that that collect
collect in in
certain-sized particles might be omitted from the final analysis, thereby resulting
certain-sized particles might be omitted from the final analysis, thereby resulting in an increase in in an increase in
sampling
sampling error.
error.

Large
Large mixtures
mixtures may
may also
also be
be reduced
reduced with
with aa riffle
riffle cutter,
cutter, which
which isis aa box-like
box-like device
device that
that has
has equally
equally
spaced
spaced dividers
dividers to
to divide
divide the
the sample
sample stream.
stream. The
The sample
sample may
may bebe further
further cut
cut or
or quartered
quartered by passing
by passing
it
it through
through successive
successive riffles.
riffles. Other
Other proportional
proportional dividers
dividers are
are available
available for
for reducing
reducing aa sample,
sample, such
such
as
as the
the straight-line
straight-line sampler
sampler andand the
the spinning
spinning riffle
riffle sample
sample divider.
divider.

Uniformly
Uniformly solidsolid oror liquid
liquid products
products are perhaps the
are perhaps the most
most straightforward
straightforward to to sample.
sample. Drill-type
Drill-type
devices
devices are
are used
used to
to obtain
obtain aa core
core from
from solid products such
solid products such asas cheese
cheese oror frozen
frozen foods.
foods. Liquid
Liquid samples
samples
are
are thoroughly
thoroughly mixed
mixed before
before aa subsample
subsample is is removed
removed withwith aa syringe-type
syringe-type sampler
sampler oror by
by submerging
submerging
aa container
container under
under thethe liquid’s
liquid’s surface
surface (a (a so-called
so-called “grab”
“grab” sample).
sample). For
For obvious
obvious reasons,
reasons, ‘many
‘many
complex
complex foods
foods such
such as as vegetables,
vegetables, fruit,
fruit, oror animal
animal tissues
tissues may
may require
require blending prior to
blending prior to being
being
sampled.
sampled.

Throughout
Throughout the the sample preparation procedure,
sample preparation procedure, it it is
is essential
essential for
for the
the analyst
analyst toto recognize
recognize the
the
necessity
necessity of
of utilizing
utilizing methods
methods thatthat satisfy
satisfy statistical
statistical sampling
sampling andand analysis
analysis requirements.
requirements. TheThe
inherent
inherent variability
variability in in the
the composition
composition of of raw
raw materials,
materials, basic
basic ingredients,
ingredients, and processed foods
and processed foods
requires
requires the
the use
use of of statistical
statistical methods
methods for
for obtaining
obtaining representative
representative and
and replicate
replicate samples,
samples, and
and for
for
estimating
estimating the
the error
error involved
involved inin sampling.
sampling.

Page 3
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3 of 8
Food
Food pre-treatment:
pre-treatment:

Removal
Removal of
of extraneous
extraneous matter:
matter:

Before
Before sample
sample blending
blending isis done,
done, it
it is
is often
often necessary
necessary to
to wash,
wash, remove,
remove, or
or drain
drain irrelevant
irrelevant extraneous
extraneous
matter.
matter. Soil
Soil or
or sand
sand that
that adheres
adheres toto fresh
fresh fruit
fruit or
or vegetables
vegetables can
can be
be removed
removed byby washing
washing oror wiping
wiping
the surface of the produce; however, excessive washing should be avoided to prevent
the surface of the produce; however, excessive washing should be avoided to prevent the leaching the leaching
of
of soluble
soluble solids.
solids.

Depending
Depending on on the
the objective
objective of of the
the analysis,
analysis, fresh
fresh produce
produce may
may bebe separated
separated into
into thethe core
core andand the
the
outer and inner tissues. Shells are usually separated from nut kernels and pits
outer and inner tissues. Shells are usually separated from nut kernels and pits from stone fruits.from stone fruits.
Large
Large fish
fish are
are cleaned,
cleaned, scaled,
scaled, and
and eviscerated,
eviscerated, while
while small
small fish
fish can
can be
be blended
blended whole.
whole. Shellfish
Shellfish areare
shucked,
shucked, eggs
eggs are
are broken
broken to to isolate
isolate the
the liquid
liquid interior,
interior, and
and meat
meat is
is removed
removed asas completely
completely as as possible
possible
from
from bone.
bone. Canned
Canned fruit
fruit and
and vegetable
vegetable products
products may
may bebe drained
drained through
through screens
screens if
if it
it is
is not
not necessary
necessary
to
to analyse
analyse the
the composite
composite sample.
sample.

Sample
Sample reduction
reduction

Once
Once aa food
food sample
sample has
has been
been collected
collected using
using the
the sampling
sampling techniques
techniques aa suitable
suitable method
method isis required
required
to
to make the material less heterogeneous. Various approaches may be utilized for reducing the
make the material less heterogeneous. Various approaches may be utilized for reducing the
particle
particle weight
weight and
and size
size inin aa primary
primary sample,
sample, so so that
that smaller
smaller subsamples
subsamples can can be
be taken
taken for
for aa
representative
representative analysis
analysis of of the
the whole.
whole. Finely
Finely divided
divided materials
materials also
also dissolve
dissolve faster
faster and
and are
are easier
easier toto
extract
extract because
because ofof their
their greater
greater surface
surface area.
area.

Methods
Methods forfor reducing
reducing solid
solid or
or semi-solid
semi-solid foods
foods include
include mechanical
mechanical grinding,
grinding, mixing,
mixing, rolling,
rolling,
agitating,
agitating, stirring,
stirring, chopping,
chopping, crushing,
crushing, macerating,
macerating, mincing, pressing, pulverizing,
mincing, pressing, pulverizing, or
or any
any other
other
reasonable
reasonable means
means of of cornminuting
cornminuting the
the sample.
sample.

Sample
Sample reduction
reduction can
can also
also be
be achieved
achieved with
with aa Wiley
Wiley oror ball
ball mill,
mill, mortar
mortar and
and pestle,
pestle, mechanical
mechanical
high-speed
high-speed beaters
beaters or
or blenders
blenders (for
(for soft
soft or
or wet
wet foods),
foods), and
and meat
meat grinders.
grinders.

Sample
Sample handling
handling

•e Transportation
Transportation
•e Reception
Reception

Sample
Sample analysis
analysis

•e Withdrawing
Withdrawing analytical
analytical units
units
•e Homogenization
Homogenization ofof analytical
analytical units/
units/ Analysis
Analysis using
using appropriate
appropriate methods
methods and
and
instruments
instruments

Types
Types of
of Sampling
Sampling

Bulk
Bulk sampling
sampling

It
It involves
involves the
the selection
selection of
of aa sample
sample from
from aa lot
lot of
of material
material that
that does
does not
not consist
consist ofof discrete,
discrete,
identifiable
identifiable or
or constant
constant units.
units. Sampling
Sampling maymay be performed in
be performed in static
static or
or dynamic
dynamic situations.
situations. Bulk
Bulk
sampling poses special
sampling poses special problems
problems requiring
requiring certain
certain decisions
decisions toto be
be made:
made: the
the number
number of of increments
increments
to
to be
be taken,
taken, the
the size
size of
of the
the increments,
increments, from
from where
where in in the pile or
the pile or stream
stream they
they should
should bebe drawn,
drawn, the
the

Page 4
Page of 88
4of
sampling
sampling device
device toto be
be used,
used, and
and how
how to
to reduce
reduce the
the increments
increments taken
taken to
to aa reasonable
reasonable size
size of
of ample
ample
for
for delivery
delivery in
in the
the laboratory.
laboratory.

Acceptance
Acceptance sampling
sampling

It
It differs
differs from
from the
the bulk
bulk sampling
sampling andand involves
involves the
the application
application of predetermined plan
of predetermined plan to
to decide
decide
whether
whether a lot of goods meet defined criteria for acceptance. The risks of accepting —badl or
a lot of goods meet defined criteria for acceptance. The risks of accepting ―bad‖ or
rejecting
rejecting "good‖
"good| lots
lots are
are stated
stated in
in conjunction
conjunction with
with one
one or
or more parameters. Statistical
more parameters. Statistical plans
plans can
can be
be
designed
designed toto regulate
regulate the
the probabilities
probabilities of
of rejecting
rejecting good
good lots
lots or
or accepting
accepting bad
bad lots.
lots.

Sampling
Sampling Plan
Plan

The particular choice

The particular choice of
of sampling
sampling procedure
procedure to
to determine
determine the
the minimum
minimum number
number of
of food
food units
units that
that
will provide aa high
will provide high degree
degree of
of certainty
certainty about
about the
the quality
quality of
of aa food
food lot.
lot.

Sample
Sample units
units (n)
(n)

1.
1. Large
Large enough
enough to
to represent
represent the population
the population

2.
2. Small
Small enough
enough to
to be
be economically
economically feasible
feasible

Sample
Sample characteristics
characteristics

The
The material
material may
may bebe solid,
solid, liquid,
liquid, gas,
gas, material
material ofof some
some intermediate
intermediate characteristics
characteristics such
such as as gel,
gel,
tissue,
tissue, organisms,
organisms, oror aa combination
combination of of these.
these. Even
Even ifif aa material
material sample
sample is is not
not countable
countable asas individual
individual
items,
items, the
the quantity
quantity of
of the
the sample
sample maymay still
still be
be describable
describable in in terms
terms of
of its
its volume,
volume, mass,
mass, size,
size, or
or other
other
such
such dimensions.
dimensions. A A solid
solid sample
sample can
can come
come in in one
one oror aa few
few discrete pieces, or
discrete pieces, or can
can be
be fragmented,
fragmented,
granular,
granular, oror powdered.
powdered.

Solid
Solid food
food sampling:
sampling:

Samplers
Samplers for
for general
general usage:
usage:

Sampling
Sampling from
from bulk:
bulk: Use
Use appropriate
appropriate apparatus
apparatus forfor obtaining
obtaining increments
increments from
from static
static bulk
bulk
(example,
(example, hand-
hand- held
held spears,
spears, mechanical
mechanical or
or air-assisted
air-assisted apparatus).
apparatus).

Sampling
Sampling from
from bags:
bags: Use
Use sack
sack type
type spears.
spears.

Mixing
Mixing and
and dividing:
dividing: Use
Use shovels
shovels and
and dividing
dividing apparatus
apparatus or
or automatic
automatic random
random dividing
dividing apparatus.
apparatus.

Sampling
Sampling from
from silos,
silos, bins
bins or
or warehouses:
warehouses:

Increments
Increments shall
shall be
be taken
taken throughout
throughout the
the whole
whole depth
depth of
of the
the lot.
lot. Suitable
Suitable instruments
instruments must
must be
be used
used
to
to achieve
achieve this
this requirement.
requirement. IfIf the
the depth
depth ofof the
the lot
lot does
does not permit use
not permit use of
of this
this method,
method, sampling
sampling
should
should be
be carried
carried out
out from
from the
the flowing
flowing cereal
cereal in
in accordance
accordance with
with ISO
ISO 6644.
6644.

Take
Take the
the square
square root
root of
of the
the tonnage
tonnage in
in the
the static
static bulk.
bulk. Divide
Divide byby two
two and
and round
round up
up to
to the
the next
next whole
whole
number.
number. This
This is
is the
the minimum
minimum number
number ofof increments
increments that
that is
is to
to be
be obtained.
obtained.

Example:
Example: Number
Number of
of increments
increments for
for bulk
bulk grain
grain of
of more
more than
than 500
500 tt

Page 5
Page of 8
5 of 8
 tonnage
tonnage 500
500 1000
41000 2000
[2000 4000
{4000 6000
{6000 8000
[8000 10000
{10000
Square
Square root
root 22.4
22.4 31.6
[31.6 44.7
144.7 63.2
163.2 77.4
177.4 89.4
189.4 100
|100
Number
INumber ofof increments
increments 12
12 16
16 23
23 32
B32 39
B39 45
45 50
50

Sampling
Sampling from
from bags:
bags: Unless
Unless otherwise
otherwise specified
specified in
in the
the contract
contract or
or unless
unless the
the practice
practice atat the port
the port
or elsewhere requires otherwise, increments shall be taken from different part of a bag (for
or elsewhere requires otherwise, increments shall be taken from different part of a bag (for eg. Top, eg. Top,
middle,
middle, bottom)
bottom) by
by means
means of
of aa sack/
sack/ bag
bag spear
spear from
from the
the number
number ofof bags
bags specified
specified inin table
table

Number of bags in
Number of bags in Number
Number of
of bags
bags to
to be
be sampled
sampled
consignment
consignment
Up
Up to
to 10
10 Each
Each bag
bag

10
10 to
to 100
100 10,
10, taken
taken at
at random
random

More
More than
than 100
100 Square
Square root
root (approx.)
(approx.) of
of total
total number,
number,

Sampling
Sampling Scheme
Scheme for
for consignment
consignment of
of more
more than
than 100
100 bags.
bags.

The
The consignment
consignment shall
shall be
be dividing
dividing into
into (n-1)
(n-1) groups
groups containing
containing n
n or
or (n-1)
(n-1) bags:
bags: the
the remaining
remaining bags
bags
constitute
constitute aa group.
group.

Examples:
Examples:

A
A consignment
consignment comprising
comprising 200
200 bags.
bags.

The
The square
square root
root of
of 200=14.142,
200=14.142, therefore
therefore n=14:
n=14: ---makeup
---makeup 14 14 group
group of
of 14
14 bags
bags (i.e.
(i.e. total
total of
of 196
196
bags); ---Draw up a list from 1 to 14; cross out one number, for e.g. 7; ---Sample
bags); ---Draw up a list from 1 to 14; cross out one number, for e.g. 7; ---Sample the seventh bag the seventh bag
from
from each
each group
group ofof 14
14 bags;
bags; ---the
---the remaining
remaining group
group (i.e.
(i.e. 4)
4) is
is smaller
smaller than
than 14
14 bags,
bags, soso sample
sample one
one
bag
bag from
from this
this group
group atat random.
random. AA total
total of
of 15
15 bags
bags have
have thereof
thereof been
been selected.
selected.

A
A consignment
consignment comprising
comprising 2000
2000 bags
bags

The
The square
square root
root of
of 2000=44.721,
2000=44.721, therefore
therefore n=45:
n=45: ---make
---make upup 44
44 groups
groups ofof 45
45 bags
bags (i.e.
(i.e. total
total of
of 1980
1980
bags);
bags); ---draw
---draw upup aa list
list from
from 11 to
to 45;
45; ---cross
---cross out
out one
one number,
number, forfor example
example 20;20; ---sample
---sample the the 20th
20th
bag
bag from
from each
each group
group of of 45
45 bags;
bags; ---the
---the remaining
remaining group
group (i.e.
(i.e. 20)
20) is
is smaller
smaller than
than 45
45 bags,
bags, soso sample
sample
one
one bag
bag from
from this
this group
group at at random.
random. AA total
total of
of 45
45 bags
bags ha
ha therefore
therefore been
been selected.
selected.

Reduction
Reduction of
of the
the Sample
Sample to
to Analytical
Analytical Size
Size

Page 6
Page of 8
6 of 8
The
The two
two common
common methods methods of of reducing
reducing bulkbulk samples
samples to to aa practical
practical size
size are
are riffling
riffling and
and quartering.
quartering.
The
The sample
sample is is fed
fed onto
onto the
the top
top of of the
the riffle
riffle andand asas it
it falls
falls through
through thethe device
device thethe sample
sample is is divided
divided
equally
equally into
into two
two bins.
bins. When
When the the operation
operation is is complete,
complete, the the contents
contents of of one
one bin
bin is
is discarded
discarded and and the
the
other
other passed
passed through
through the the riffle
riffle again.
again. InIn this
this wayway the
the sample
sample is is progressively
progressively and and randomly
randomly halvedhalved
until
until its
its bulk
bulk is is reduced
reduced to to that
that required
required for for laboratory
laboratory work work up.up. The
The riffle,
riffle, due
due toto its
its design
design isis
extremely
extremely difficult
difficult to to clean
clean and
and therefore
therefore it it is
is practical
practical to to arrange
arrange for
for an
an individual
individual riffle
riffle should
should bebe
permanently
permanently kept kept forfor use
use with
with aa specific
specific material.
material.

Sample
Sample Quartering:
Quartering:

The
The total
total sample
sample is placed on
is placed on aa clean
clean impervious
impervious surface
surface and
and formed
formed intointo aa cone
cone byby shoveling.
shoveling. EachEach
shovel
shovel full
full is
is placed
placed on on the
the top
top of of the
the last
last so
so that
that the
the material
material runs
runs down
down the the side
side of
of the
the pile
pile and
and isis
thereby
thereby distributed
distributed around
around the the sides
sides ofof the
the pile
pile as
as evenly
evenly asas possible
possible (if(if larger
larger pieces
pieces ofof material
material roll
roll
away
away from
from the the base
base of of the
the cone
cone theythey must
must be pushed back
be pushed back to to the
the edge).
edge). From
From the the first
first cone
cone two
two
successive
successive conescones are are sequentially
sequentially made made in in the
the same
same manner
manner (this
(this is
is to
to mix
mix the the sample
sample well).
well). The
The
third
third cone
cone isis then
then flattened
flattened to to aa uniform
uniform thickness
thickness and and then
then quartered
quartered along
along two two diameters.
diameters. One One
diagonal
diagonal pairpair ofof quarters
quarters is is rejected.
rejected. These
These fourfour stages
stages are
are repeated
repeated until
until aa sample
sample of of the
the required
required
size
size is
is obtained.
obtained. If If the
the initial
initial bulk
bulk sample
sample is is very
very course
course then
then the
the average particle diameter
average particle diameter made made
need
need toto be
be reduced
reduced by by grinding
grinding between
between each each quartering procedure.
quartering procedure.

Instruments
Instruments for
for different
different types
types of
of product
product and
and storage
storage states.
states.

Sample
Sample dividers:
dividers:

Ideal
Ideal for
for Free
Free Flowing
Flowing Powders
Powders Suitable
Suitable for
for use
use with
with powder
powder chemicals,
chemicals, food
food stuff,
stuff, feed
feed and
and similar
similar
granular
granular materials
materials These
These hand
hand held
held sample
sample dividers
dividers will
will subdivide
subdivide material
material samples
samples into
into smaller
smaller
portions
portions by
by single
single or
or multiple passes. The
multiple passes. The important
important feature
feature of
of Endecotts
Endecotts sample
sample dividers
dividers is
is that
that
each
each subdivision
subdivision retains
retains the
the characteristics
characteristics of
of the
the original
original sample.
sample.

Page 7
Page of 8
7 of 8
Sample
Sample Scoops
Scoops

These
These Heavy
Heavy Duty
Duty Sample
Sample Scoops
Scoops are produced to
are produced to the
the highest
highest quality,
quality, are
are crevice
crevice free
free to
to minimise
minimise
contamination
contamination and
and easy
easy to
to clean.
clean.

Sleeve
Sleeve Sampler
Sampler ::

Ideal
Ideal for
for Free
Free Flowing
Flowing Powders
Powders Suitable
Suitable for
for use
use with
with powder
powder chemicals,
chemicals, food
food stuff,
stuff, feed
feed and
and similar
similar
granular
granular materials
materials Ideal
Ideal for
for sampling
sampling large
large volumes
volumes at
at great
great depths.
depths. At
At the
the required
required depth
depth pull up
pull up
the
the sampler
sampler slightly.
slightly. This
This will
will force
force the
the sleeve
sleeve down
down so
so that
that the
the product
product can
can fall
fall into
into the
the sample
sample
chamber
chamber

The
The Sampling
Sampling Spear
Spear

Powder,
Powder, Granules
Granules or
or Crystals:
Crystals:

Samples
Samples ofof powders
powders granules
granules or
or crystals
crystals are
are usually
usually taken
taken with
with aa ‘spear
‘spear The
The spear
spear is
is thrust
thrust at
at an
an
angle
angle into
into the
the material
material (the
(the opening underneath) rotated
opening underneath) rotated two
two oror three
three times
times and
and then
then carefully
carefully
withdrawn
withdrawn with
with the
the opening
opening uppermost.
uppermost. The
The contents
contents are
are then
then discharged
discharged into
into the
the sample
sample container.
container.

Page 8
Page of 8
8 of 8
 Statistical
Statistical and
and Process
Process Control
Control for
for Food
Food Safety
Safety

Introduction:
Introduction:

The
The 77 QC
QC Tools
Tools are
are simple
simple statistical
statistical tools
tools used
used for problem solving.
for problem solving. These
These tools
tools were
were either
either
developed
developed in in Japan
Japan or
or introduced
introduced to to Japan
Japan by by the
the Quality
Quality Gurus
Gurus such
such as
as Deming
Deming and and Juran.
Juran.
These
These tools
tools have
have been
been the
the foundation
foundation of of Japan's
Japan's astonishing
astonishing industrial
industrial resurgence
resurgence after
after the
the
second
second war.
war. InIn terms
terms of
of importance,
importance, these
these are
are the
the most
most useful
useful inin industries.
industries. Kaoru
Kaoru Ishikawa
Ishikawa hashas
stated
stated that
that these
these 77 tools
tools can
can be
be used
used toto solve
solve 95 percent of
95 percent of all
all problems.
problems.

The
The following
following are
are the
the 77 QC
QC Tools:
Tools:

1.. Check
Check Sheets
Sheets
Ke

2.. Histogram
Histogram
3.. Scatter
Scatter Diagrams
BWN

Diagrams
4.. Graphs
Graphs
5.. Control
Control Charts
Charts
NINN

6.. Pareto
Pareto Diagram
Diagram
7.. Cause
Cause && Effect
Effect Diagram
Diagram

Check
Check Sheets
Sheets

As
As measurement
measurement and and collection
collection of
of data
data forms
forms the
the basis
basis for
for any
any analysis,
analysis, this
this activity
activity needs
needs to to
be planned in such a way that the information collected
be planned in such a way that the information collected is both relevant and is both relevant and
comprehensive.
comprehensive. Check Check sheets
sheets are
are tools
tools for
for collecting
collecting data.
data. They
They are
are designed
designed specific
specific to
to the
the
type
type of
of data
data to
to bebe collected.
collected. Some
Some examples
examples of of check
check sheets
sheets are
are daily
daily maintenance
maintenance check
check
sheets,
sheets, attendance
attendance records, production log
records, production log books,
books, etc.
etc.

Stratification
Stratification

Data
Data collected
collected using
using check
check sheets
sheets needs
needs to
to bebe meaningfully
meaningfully classified.
classified. Meaningful
Meaningful
classification
classification of
of data
data is
is called
called stratification.
stratification. Stratification
Stratification may
may be
be by
by group,
group, location,
location, type,
type,
origin, symptom, etc. for Example:
origin, symptom, etc. for Example:

a)
a) Data
Data on
on rejected
rejected product
product may
may be
be classified
classified either
either machine
machine wise
wise or
or operator
operator wise
wise oror shift
shift
wise.
wise.
b)
b) Data
Data of
of production
production of
of food
food grains
grains may
may be
be classified
classified nation
nation wise,
wise, state
state wise
wise or
or district
district wise,
wise,
etc.
etc.

Typing test analysis Date: 72th God

Typist: Matly Padé Test: R324
Examiner: Dawp Brawn,

Type of error Count Score

Reversed letters ety 5

Missing letters “HiT tii &

Extra letters Lt 5

Wrong letters LAT tit 10

Total errors: | 27g

Fig.
Fig. 11 Example
Example

Page 1
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1 of 7
Histogram
Histogram

Histograms
Histograms oror Frequency
Frequency Distribution
Distribution Diagrams
Diagrams are are bar
bar charts
charts showing
showing the
the distribution
distribution pattern
pattern
of
of observations
observations grouped
grouped in in convenient
convenient class
class intervals
intervals and
and arranged
arranged in
in order
order of
of magnitude.
magnitude.
Histograms
Histograms areare useful
useful in
in studying
studying patterns
patterns of
of distribution
distribution and
and in
in drawing
drawing conclusions
conclusions about
about
the
the process
process based
based on
on the
the pattern.
pattern.

The
The Procedure
Procedure to prepare aa Histogram
to prepare Histogram consists
consists of
of the
the following
following steps:
steps:

1.
1. Collect
Collect data
data (preferably
(preferably 50
50 or
or more
more observations
observations of
of an
an item).
item).

2.
2. Arrange
Arrange all
all values
values in
in an
an ascending
ascending order.
order.

3.
3. Divide
Divide the
the entire
entire range
range ofof values
values into
into aa convenient
convenient number
number of of groups
groups each
each representing
representing an an
equal
equal class
class interval.
interval. It
It is
is customary
customary to
to have
have number
number ofof groups
groups equal
equal toto or
or less
less than
than the
the square
square
root
root of
of the
the number
number of of observations.
observations. However,
However, oneone should
should not
not be
be too
too rigid
rigid about
about this.
this.

4. Note the
4. Note the number
number of
of observations
observations or
or frequency
frequency in
in each
each group.
group.

5.
5. Draw
Draw X-axis
X-axis and
and Y-axis
Y-axis and
and decide
decide appropriate
appropriate scales
scales for
for the
the groups
groups on
on X-axis
X-axis and
and the
the
number
number of
of observations
observations or
or the
the frequency
frequency on
on Y-axis.
Y-axis.

6.
6. Draw
Draw bars
bars representing
representing the
the frequency
frequency for
for each
each of
of the
the groups.
groups.

7.
7. Provide
Provide aa suitable
suitable title
title to
to the
the Histogram.
Histogram.

8.
8. Study
Study the
the pattern
pattern of
of distribution
distribution and
and draw
draw conclusion.
conclusion.

HISTOGRAM
HISTOGRAM

Frequency
- LE 7 Allsous)
bars ich
are of
Set of measurements
21.2 205 199 fo
oh a i Overall shape
25.1 292 266 20 oN
distribution
16.1 23.1 238
: : 3 Grouped into bars
23.6 225 220
20.7 21.1 15.6 10
195 204 21.1

etc.
a 4
12 14 16/18 20 22 24 26 28 30
This cell indicates that there Measurement value
are about 10 measurements
between 16 and 18

Scatter
Scatter diagram
diagram

When
When solving
solving aa problem
problem or or analysing
analysing aa situation
situation one
one needs
needs toto know
know thethe relationship
relationship between
between
two
two variables.
variables. A A relationship
relationship maymay oror may
may not
not exist
exist between
between two two variables.
variables. IfIf aa relationship
relationship
exists,
exists, it
it may
may be positive or
be positive or negative,
negative, it
it may
may be
be strong
strong or
or weak
weak and
and may
may bebe simple
simple oror complex.
complex.
A
A tool
tool to
to study
study the
the relationship
relationship between
between twotwo variables
variables isis known
known asas Scatter
Scatter Diagram.
Diagram.

Page 2
Page of 7
2 of 7
It
It consists
consists of
of plotting
plotting aa series
series of
of points
points representing
representing several
several observations
observations on
on aa graph
graph in
in which
which
one
one variable
variable is
is on
on X-axis
X-axis and
and the
the other
other variable
variable in
in on
on Y-axis.
Y-axis. The
The way
way the
the points
points lie
lie scattered
scattered
in
in the
the quadrant
quadrant gives
gives aa good
good indication
indication ofof the
the relationship
relationship between
between the
the two
two variables.
variables.

Figure
Figure shows
shows various
various types
types of
of distributions
distributions and
and relationship
relationship between
between the
the variables.
variables.

oes ter quaity aractertatic 1000

= « e*

. Degree
Degree of
off .
Scatter
Scatter Diagram
Diagram ore’ Interpretation
Interpretation
correlation
correlation

oe ~ : : No
INo relationship
relationship can
can be
be seen.
seen.
“ang * " None
INone . .
eis & . The
The yy variable
variable isis not
not related
related to
to the
the x
x
ee tf variable
Variable in
in any
any way.
way.

A
A vague
vague relationship
relationship is
is seen.
seen.

There
There is is aa low positive correlation
low positive correlation|
Low
Low between the
between the x x variable
variable and
and the
the y y
variable.
variable. There
There might
might be
be some
some
connection
connection between
between thethe two,
two, but
but itit is
is
not clear.
jnot clear.
The
The points
points areare grouped
grouped into
into a a clear
clear
linear
linear shape.
shape.

The
The two
two variables
variables are
are clearly
clearly related
related in
in|
High
High some
some way.
way. Given
Given one,
one, you
you can
can predict
predict
aa moderate
moderate range
range in
in which
which thethe other
other
will
will be
be found.
found.

All points lie

All points lie on
on aa line
line (which
(which is
is
oe usually straight).
jusually straight).
Perfect
i o Perfect The
The variables
variables are
are deterministically
deterministically
related,
related, and
and given
given one
one you
you can
can predict
predict
the
ne other
other with
with accuracy.
accuracy.

Page 3
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3 of 7
Graphs
Graphs

Graphs
Graphs ofof various
various types
types are
are used
used for pictoral representation
for pictoral representation ofof data.
data. Pictoral
Pictoral representation
representation
enables
enables the
the user
user or
or viewer
viewer to to quickly
quickly grasp
grasp the
the meaning
meaning of of the
the data.
data. Different
Different graphical
graphical
representation
representation ofof data
data is
is chosen
chosen depending
depending onon the purpose of
the purpose of the
the analysis
analysis andand preference
preference of
of the
the
audience.
audience. The
The different
different types
types of
of graphs
graphs used
used are
are as
as given
given below:
below:

1.
1. Bar
Bar Graph
Graph ToTo compare
compare sizes
sizes of
of data
data
2.
2. Line Graph To represent changes of
Line Graph To represent changes of data
data
3.
3. Gantt
Gantt Chart
Chart To
To plan
plan and
and schedule
schedule
4.
4. Radar
Radar Chart
Chart To
To represent
represent changes
changes in
in data
data (before
(before and
and after)
after)
5.
5. Band
Band Graph
Graph Same
Same asas above
above
6.
6. Pie
Pie Chart
Chart Used
Used to
to indicate
indicate comparative
comparative weights
weights

Example:
Example: Bar
Bar chart
chart

Patterns are easier to spot

a rc

20
A|B|c|D/E/F _—_> ——
@5)17 |26 }13 |28 |10 uv | | ||

Ns ar size is proportional : A B c D E F
io numbers in table

Control
Control Charts
Charts

Control
Control charts
charts was
was developed
developed by
by Dr.
Dr. Walter
Walter A.
A. Shewhart
Shewhart during
during 1920's
1920's while
while he
he was
was with
with Bell
Bell
Telephone
Telephone Laboratories.
Laboratories.

Control
Control chart
chart makes possible the
makes possible the diagnosis
diagnosis and
and correction
correction of
of many
many production
production troubles
troubles and
and
brings substantial improvements in the quality of the products and reduction of spoilage
brings substantial improvements in the quality of the products and reduction of spoilage and and
rework.
rework. It It tells
tells us
us when
when toto leave
leave aa process
process alone
alone as
as well
well as
as when
when toto take
take action
action to
to
correct trouble.
correct trouble.

11.0
_- — UCL
= 10.860
Quality characteristic

Center line = 10.058

LCL = 9.256
9.0

Pareto
Pareto Diagram
Diagram

Pareto
Pareto Diagram
Diagram isis aa tool
tool that
that arranges
arranges items
items in
in the
the order
order of
of the
the magnitude
magnitude of
of their
their contribution,
contribution,
thereby
thereby identifying
identifying aa few
few items
items exerting
exerting maximum
maximum influence.
influence. The
The origin
origin of
of the
the tool
tool lies
lies in
in the
the
observation by an Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto that a large portion of wealth
observation by an Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto that a large portion of wealth was in the was in the

Page 4
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4 of 7
hands
hands of
of aa few people. He
few people. He observed
observed that
that such
such distribution
distribution pattern
pattern was
was common
common inin most
most fields.
fields.
Pareto
Pareto principle
principle also
also known
known as
as the
the 80/20
80/20 rule
rule is
is used
used in
in the
the field
field of
of materials
materials management
management etcetc

Procedure:
Procedure: The
The steps
steps in
in the
the preparation
preparation of
of aa Pareto
Pareto Diagram
Diagram are:
are:

1.
1. From
From the
the available
available data
data calculate
calculate the
the contribution
contribution of
of each
each individual
individual item.
item.

2.
2. Arrange
Arrange thethe items
items in
in descending
descending order
order of
of their
their individual
individual contributions.
contributions. If
If there
there are
are too
too many
many
items
items contributing a small percentage of the contribution, group them together as "others". It
contributing a small percentage of the contribution, group them together as "others". It is
is
obvious
obvious that
that “others"
“others" will
will contribute
contribute more
more than
than aa few
few single
single individual
individual items.
items. Still
Still it
it is
is kept
kept
last
last in
in the
the new
new order
order of
of items.
items.

3.
3. Tabulate
Tabulate the
the items,
items, their
their contributions
contributions in
in absolute
absolute number
number as
as well
well as
as in percent of
in percent of total
total and
and
cumulative
cumulative contribution
contribution of
of the
the items.
items.

4.
4. Draw
Draw X X and
and YY axes.
axes. Various
Various items
items are
are represented
represented on on the
the X-axis.
X-axis. Unlike
Unlike other
other graphs
graphs
Pareto
Pareto Diagrams
Diagrams have
have two
two Y-axes
Y-axes -- one
one on
on the
the left
left representing
representing numbers
numbers and and the
the one
one on
on right
right
representing
representing the
the percent
percent contributions.
contributions. The
The scale
scale forfor X-axis
X-axis isis selected
selected inin such
such aa manner
manner thatthat
all
all the
the items
items including
including others
others are
are accommodated
accommodated between between the
the two
two Y Y axes.
axes. The
The scales
scales for
for the
the
Y-axes are so selected that the total number of items on the left side and 100% on
Y-axes are so selected that the total number of items on the left side and 100% on the right side the right side
occupy
occupy the
the same
same height.
height.

5.
5. Draw
Draw bars
bars representing
representing the
the contributions
contributions of
of each
each item.
item.

6.
6. Plot points for
Plot points for cumulative
cumulative contributions
contributions atat the
the end
end of
of each
each item.
item. A A simple
simple wayway to
to do
do this
this is
is
to draw the bars for the second and each subsequent item at their normal
to draw the bars for the second and each subsequent item at their normal place on the X-axisplace on the X-axis
as
as well
well as
as at
at aa level
level where
where the previous bar
the previous bar ends.
ends. This
This bar
bar at
at the
the higher
higher level
level is
is drawn
drawn in in dotted
dotted
lines.
lines. Drawing
Drawing the the second
second bar
bar is
is not
not normally
normally recommended
recommended in in the
the texts.
texts.

7.
7. Connect
Connect the points. If
the points. If additional
additional bars
bars as
as suggested
suggested in
in step
step 66 are
are drawn
drawn this
this becomes
becomes simple.
simple.
All
All one
one needs
needs toto do
do is
is -- connect
connect the
the diagonals
diagonals of
of the
the bars
bars to
to the
the origin.
origin.

8.
8. The
The chart
chart is
is now
now ready
ready for
for interpretation.
interpretation. The
The slope
slope ofof the
the chart
chart suddenly
suddenly changes
changes atat some
some
point.
point. This point separates
This point separates the
the 'vital
'vital few’
few’ from
from the
the 'useful
‘useful many'
many' like
like the
the A,B
A,B and
and C
C class
class items
items
in
in materials
materials management.
management.

An
An example
example of
of aa Pareto
Pareto Chart
Chart

Pareto Chart
60 5 100%

=O 80%
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cums Vital Few Useful Many —#—Cumulative% = ------- Cut Off %

Page 5
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5 of 7
Cause
Cause &
& Effect
Effect Diagram
Diagram

A
A Cause-and
Cause-and Effect
Effect Diagram
Diagram is is aa tool
tool that
that shows
shows systematic
systematic relationship
relationship between
between a a result
result or
or aa
symptom
symptom or or an
an effect
effect and
and its
its possible
possible causes.
causes. ItIt is
is an
an effective
effective tool
tool to
to systematically
systematically generate
generate
ideas
ideas about
about causes
causes for problems and
for problems and to present these
to present these in in aa structured
structured form.
form. This
This tool
tool was
was devised
devised
by
by Dr.
Dr. Kouro
Kouro Ishikawa
Ishikawa andand asas mentioned
mentioned earlier
earlier isis also
also known
known asas Ishikawa
Ishikawa Diagram.
Diagram.

Structure
Structure

Another
Another name
name for for the
the tool,
tool, as
as wewe have
have seen
seen earlier,
earlier, isis Fish-Bone
Fish-Bone Diagram
Diagram due due toto the
the shape
shape ofof
the
the completed structure. The symptom or result or effect for which one wants to find causes is
completed structure. The symptom or result or effect for which one wants to find causes is
put
put in
in the
the dark
dark boxbox onon the
the right.
right. The
The lighter
lighter boxes
boxes at at the
the end
end ofof the
the large
large bones
bones are are main
main groups
groups
in
in which
which thethe ideas
ideas are
are classified.
classified. Usually,
Usually, four
four toto six
six such
such groups
groups areare identified.
identified. In In aa typical
typical
manufacturing
manufacturing problem,
problem, the the groups
groups may may consist
consist of of five
five MsMs -- Men,
Men, Machines,
Machines, Materials,
Materials,
Method
Method and and Measurement.
Measurement. The The six six M M Money
Money may may be be added
added if if it
it is
is relevant.
relevant. Important
Important
subgroups
subgroups in in each
each of of these
these main
main groups
groups are are represented
represented on on the
the middle
middle bones
bones and and these
these branches
branches
off
off further
further into
into subsidiary
subsidiary causes
causes represented
represented as as small
small bones.
bones. TheThe arrows
arrows indicate
indicate thethe direction
direction
of
of the path from
the path from thethe cause
cause toto the
the effect.
effect.

Procedure
Procedure

The
The steps
steps in
in the procedure to
the procedure prepare aa cause-and-effect
to prepare cause-and-effect diagram
diagram are:
are:

1.
1. Agree
Agree on on the
the definition
definition of
of the
the 'Effect'
'Effect' for
for which
which causes
causes are
are to
to be
be found.
found. Place
Place the
the effect
effect in
in
the
the dark
dark box
box at
at the
the right.
right. Draw
Draw the
the spine
spine or
or the
the backbone
backbone asas aa dark
dark line
line leading
leading to
to the
the box
box for
for
the
the effect.
effect.

2.
2. Determine
Determine the
the main
main groups
groups or
or categories
categories of
of causes.
causes. Place
Place them
them in
in boxes
boxes and
and connect
connect them
them
through
through large
large bones
bones to
to the
the backbone.
backbone.

3.
3. Brainstorm
Brainstorm to to find
find possible
possible causes
causes and
and subsidiary
subsidiary causes
causes under
under each
each of
of the
the main
main groups.
groups.
Make
Make sure
sure that
that the
the route
route from
from the
the cause
cause to
to the
the effect
effect is
is correctly
correctly depicted.
depicted. The
The path
path must
must start
start
from a root cause and end in the effect.
from a root cause and end in the effect.

4.
4. After
After completing
completing all
all the
the main
main groups,
groups, brainstorm
brainstorm for
for more
more causes
causes that
that may
may have
have escaped
escaped
earlier.
earlier.

5.
5. Once
Once the
the diagram
diagram isis complete,
complete, discuss
discuss relative
relative importance
importance of
of the
the causes.
causes. Short
Short list
list the
the
important root causes.
important root causes.

An
An example
example of
of aa cause-and-effect
cause-and-effect diagram
diagram

Page 6
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 Cause

(Enionen | Pees (Pee

(Materials }{ Environment
}[ Management

Page 7
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