Integral calculus

37
Standard integration

This rule is true when n is fractional, zero, or a

37.1 The process of integration positive or negative integer, with the exception of
n = −1.
The process of integration reverses the process of
Using this rule gives:
differentiation. In differentiation, if f (x) = 2x 2 then "
f ! (x) = 4x. Thus the integral of 4x is 2x 2 , i.e. inte- 3x 4+1 3
gration is the process of moving from f ! (x) to f (x). (i) 3x 4 dx = + c = x5 + c
4+1 5
By similar reasoning, the integral of 2t is t 2 . " "
Integration is a process of summation or ! adding 2 −2 2x −2+1
(ii) dx = 2x dx = +c
parts together and an elongated S, shown as , is used x2 −2 + 1
to replace! the words ‘the! integral of’. Hence, from 2x −1 −2
above, 4x = 2x 2 and 2t is t 2 . = +c= + c, and
dy −1 x
In differentiation, the differential coefficient 1 3
dx " " 1
indicates that a function of x is being differentiated √ x 2 +1 x2
(iii) x dx = x dx =
2 +c= +c
with respect to x, the dx indicating that it is ‘with 1 3
respect to x’. In integration the variable of integration +1
2 2
is shown by adding d (the variable) after the function 2√ 3
to be integrated. = x +c
" 3
Thus 4x dx means ‘the integral of 4x Each of these three results may be checked by
with respect to x’, differentiation.
"
and 2t dt means ‘the integral of 2t (a) The integral of a constant k is kx + c. For
with respect to t’ example,
"
As stated above,
! the differential coefficient of 2x 2 is 8 dx = 8x + c
4x, hence 4x dx = 2x 2 . However, the ! differential
2
coefficient of 2x + 7 is also 4x. Hence 4x dx is also (b) When a sum of several terms is integrated the
equal to 2x 2 + 7. To allow for the possible presence result is the sum of the integrals of the separate
of a constant, whenever the process of integration is terms. For example,
"
performed, a constant ‘c’ is added to the result.
" " (3x + 2x 2 − 5) dx
2
Thus 4x dx = 2x + c and 2t dt = t 2 + c " " "
‘c’ is called the arbitrary constant of integration. = 3x dx + 2x 2 dx − 5 dx

3x2 2x3
37.2 The general solution of integrals = + − 5x + c
2 3
of the form axn
!
The general solution of integrals of the form ax n dx, 37.3 Standard integrals
where a and n are constants is given by:
" Since integration is the reverse process of differenti-
axn+1 ation the standard integrals listed in Table 37.1 may
axn dx = +c
n+1 be deduced and readily checked by differentiation.
368 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Table 37.1 Standard integrals integrated separately. (This splitting up of terms only
applies, however, for addition and subtraction.)
!
ax n+1 !# $
(i) ax n dx = +c 3
n+1 Hence 4 + x − 6x 2 dx
(except when n = −1) 7
# $ 1+1
!
1 3 x x 2+1
(ii) cos ax dx = sin ax + c = 4x + − (6) +c
a 7 1+1 2+1
! # $ 2
1
(iii) sin ax dx = − cos ax + c 3 x x3
a = 4x + − (6) + c
! 7 2 3
1
(iv) sec2 ax dx = tan ax + c
a 3 2
! = 4x + x − 2x3 + c
1 14
(v) cosec 2 ax dx = − cot ax + c
a Note that when an integral contains more than one
!
1 term there is no need to have an arbitrary constant
(vi) cosec ax cot ax dx = − cosec ax + c
a for each; just a single constant at the end is sufficient.
!
1
(vii) sec ax tan ax dx = sec ax + c
a Problem 3. Determine
!
ax 1 ax
(viii) e dx = e + c ! !
a 2x 3 − 3x
! (a) dx (b) (1 − t)2 dt
1 4x
(ix) dx = ln x + c
x

(a) Rearranging into standard integral form gives:

!
" " 2x 3 − 3x
Problem 1. Determine (a) 5x 2 dx (b) 2t 3 dt. dx
4x
! ! 2
2x 3 3x x 3
" ax n+1 = − dx = − dx
The standard integral, ax n dx = +c 4x 4x 2 4
n+1 # $ 2+1
(a) When a = 5 and n = 2 then 1 x 3
! = − x+c
5x 2+1 5x3 2 2+1 4
5x 2 dx = +c= +c # $ 3
2+1 3 1 x 3 1 3
= − x + c = x3 − x + c
(b) When a = 2 and n = 3 then 2 3 4 6 4
! !
2t 3+1 2t 4 1 (b) Rearranging (1 − t)2 dt gives:
2t 3 dt = +c= + c = t4 + c
3+1 4 2
!
Each of these results may be checked by differenti- 2t 1+1 t 2+1
(1 − 2t + t 2 ) dt = t − + +c
ating them. 1+1 2+1
2t 2 t3
Problem 2. Determine = t− + +c
2 3
!# $
3 1
4 + x − 6x 2 dx. = t − t2 + t3 + c
7 3
This problem shows that functions often
" have to be
" rearranged into the standard form of ax n dx before
(4 + 37 x − 6x 2 ) dx may be written as it is possible to integrate them.
" " "
4 dx + 37 x dx − 6x 2 dx, i.e. each term is
 STANDARD INTEGRATION 369

! ! !
3 (1 + θ)2 (1 + 2θ + θ 2 )
Problem 4. Determine dx. √ dθ = √ dθ
x2 θ θ
! ! ! $ %
3 1 2θ θ2
2
dx = 3x −2 dx. Using the standard integral, = 1
+ 1
+ 1
dθ
! x θ2 θ2 θ2
ax n dx when a = 3 and n = −2 gives: !$ & ' & '%
−1 1− 21 2− 21
! = θ + 2θ
2 +θ dθ
3x −2+1 3x −1
3x −2 dx = +c= +c
−2 + 1 −1 ! & '
−1 1 3
−3 = θ 2 + 2θ 2 + θ 2 dθ
= −3x −1 + c = +c
x
& ' &' &'
−1 1 3
" √ 2 +1 2 +1 2 +1
Problem 5. Determine 3 x dx. θ 2θ θ
= + + +c
− 21 +1 1
2 +1 3
2 +1
For
√ fractional powers it is necessary to appreciate 1 3 5
m
n m
a =an θ2 2θ 2 θ2
= 1
+ 3
+ 5
+c
! ! 1 2 2 2
√ 1 3x 2 +1
3 x dx = 3x 2 dx = +c
1 1 4 3 2 5
+1 = 2θ 2 + θ 2 + θ 2 + c
2 3 5
3
#
=
3x 2 3
+ c = 2x 2 + c = 2 x3 + c
√ 4# 3 2# 5
3 = 2 θ+ θ + θ +c
3 5
2
! Problem
" 8. Determine"
−5 (a) 4 cos 3x dx (b) 5 sin 2θ dθ.
Problem 6. Determine √
4
dt.
9 t3
H
(a) From Table 37.1(ii),
! ! ! $ % ! $ %
−5 −5 5 −3 1
√
4
dt = 3
dt = − t 4 dt 4 cos 3x dx = (4) sin 3x + c
9 t3 9t 4 9 3
3
$ % − +1 4
5 t 4 = sin 3x + c
= − +c 3
9 3
− +1 (b) From Table 37.1(iii),
4 ! $ %
$ % 1 $ %$ % 1
5 t4 5 4 1 5 sin 2θ dθ = (5) − cos 2θ + c
= − + c = − t4 + c 2
9 4 1 9 1
5
20 √
4 = − cos 2θ + c
=− t+c 2
9
! Problem 9. Determine
(1 + θ)2
Problem 7. Determine √ dθ. " "
θ (a) 7 sec2 4t dt (b) 3 cosec 2 2θ dθ.
370 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

(a) From Table 37.1(iv),

! " # Now try the following exercise.
1
7 sec2 4t dt = (7) tan 4t + c
4
Exercise 146 Further problems on standard
7 integrals
= tan 4t + c
4
In Problems 1 to 12, determine the indefinite
(b) From Table 37.1(v), integrals.
! " # ! !
1
3 cosec 2 2θ dθ = (3) − cot 2θ + c 1. (a) 4 dx (b) 7x dx
2
$ %
3 7x 2
= − cot 2θ + c (a) 4x + c (b) +c
2 2
! !
2 2 5 3
Problem 10. Determine 2. (a) x dx (b) x dx
5 6
! ! $ %
3x 2 2 3 5 4
(a) 5 e dx (b) dt. (a) x + c (b) x + c
3 e4t 15 24
!" 2 # !
3x − 5x
(a) From Table 37.1(viii), 3. (a) dx (b) (2 + θ)2 dθ
! " # x
1 3x 5  
3x
5 e dx = (5) e + c = e3x + c 3x 2
3 3  (a) 2 − 5x + c 
 
! ! " #" #  θ 3 
2 2 −4t 2 1 −4t (b) 4θ + 2θ 2 + +c
(b) dt = e dt = − e +c 3
3 e4t 3 3 4 ! !
4 3
1 1 4. (a) dx (b) dx
= − e−4t + c = − 4t + c 3x 2 4x 4
6 6e $ %
−4 −1
(a) + c (b) 3 + c
Problem 11. Determine 3x 4x
! !" 2 # !√ ! ,
3 2m + 1 14 5
(a) dx (b) dm. 5. (a) 2 x 3 dx (b) x dx
5x m 4
$ %
4√ 5 1√ 4 9
! ! " #" # (a) x + c (b) x +c
3 3 1 3 5 9
(a) dx = dx = ln x + c ! !
5x 5 x 5 −5 3
(from Table 37.1(ix)) 6. (a) √ dt (b) √5
dx
!" 2 # !" 2 # t3 7 x4
2m + 1 2m 1 $ %
(b) dm = + dm 10 15 √
m m m (a) √ + c (b) 5
x+c
t 7
! " #
1 ! !
= 2m + dm
m 7. (a) 3 cos 2x dx (b) 7 sin 3θ dθ
2m2  
= + ln m + c 3
2  (a) 2 sin 2x + c 
 
= m2 + ln m + c  7 
(b) − cos 3θ + c
3
 STANDARD INTEGRATION 371
! !
3 Applying the limits gives:
8. (a) sec2 3x dx (b) 2 cosec 2 4θ dθ
4 ! " #3 * + * 3 +
" # 3 x3 33 1
1 1 2
x dx = +c = +c − +c
(a) tan 3x+c (b) − cot 4θ+c 1 3 1 3 3
4 2 * +
! 1 2
= (9 + c) − + c =8
9. (a) 5 cot 2t cosec 2t dt 3 3
! Note that the ‘c’ term always cancels out when limits
4 are applied and it need not be shown with definite
(b) sec 4t tan 4t dt
3 integrals.
 
5
 (a) − cosec 2t + c 
 2  Problem 12. Evaluate
  ,2 ,3
1 (a) 1 3x dx (b) −2 (4 − x 2 ) dx.
(b) sec 4t + c
3
! ! ! " #2 - . - .
3 2x 2 dx 2 3x 2 3 2 3 2
10. (a) e dx (b) (a) 3x dx = = (2) − (1)
4 3 e5x 1 2 2 2
1
" #
3 2x −2 1 1
(a) e + c (b) +c =6 − 1 =4
8 15 e5x 2 2
! !* 2 + ! " #3
2 u −1 3 x3
11. (a) dx (b) du (b) (4 − x 2 ) dx = 4x −
3x u −2 3 −2
" # - . - .
2 u2 (3)3 (−2)3
(a) ln x + c (b) − ln u + c = 4(3) − − 4(−2) −
3 2 3 3
- .
! !* +2 −8
(2+3x)2 1 = {12 − 9} − −8 −
12. (a) √ dx (b) + 2t dt 3
x t - .
  1 1
√ √ 18 √ 5
(a) 8 x + 8 x 3 + x +c
= {3} − −5
3
=8
3 H
 5 
 
 1 4t 3 
(b) − + 4t + +c ! 4 *θ +
t 3 +2
Problem 13. Evaluate √ dθ, taking
1 θ
positive square roots only.

37.4 Definite integrals

! 4 *θ +2
+ ! 4*
θ 2
+
Integrals containing an arbitrary constant c in their √ dθ = + 1 dθ
1
results are called indefinite integrals since their 1 θ 1 θ2 θ2
precise value cannot be determined without further ! 4* 1 +
information. Definite integrals are those in which −1
= θ + 2θ
2 2 dθ
limits are applied. If an expression is written as [x]ba , 1
‘b’ is called the upper limit and ‘a’ the lower limit.  / 0 / 0 4
The operation of applying the limits is defined as 1 −1
2 +1
2θ 2 +1
[x]ba = (b) − (a). θ
= +

1 1 
The increase in the value of the integral x 2 as x +1 − +1
,3
increases from 1 to 3 is written as 1 x 2 dx. 2 2 1
372 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

 3

1 4
% √ & Problem 16. Evaluate
2 2θ 2 
2 3 √ 4
θ
= 3 + 1 = θ +4 θ * 2 *
2 2
3 1
4 3
1 (a) 4 e2x dx (b) du,
' (
√
) ' (
(
) 1 1 4u
2 2
= (4)3 + 4 4 − (1)3 + 4 (1)
3 3 each correct to 4 significant figures.
' ) ' )
16 2
= +8 − +4
3 3 * 2 % &2
2x 4 2x
1 2 2 (a) 4 e dx = e = 2[ e2x ]21 =2[ e4 − e2 ]
= 5 + 8 − − 4=8 1 2 1
3 3 3
= 2[54.5982 − 7.3891] = 94.42
* π * % &4
2 4 3 3 3
Problem 14. Evaluate 3 sin 2x dx. (b) du = ln u = [ ln 4 − ln 1]
0 1 4u 4 1 4
3
* π = [1.3863 − 0] = 1.040
2 4
3 sin 2x dx
0
%
+ , &π % &π Now try the following exercise.
1 2 3 2
= (3) − cos 2x = − cos 2x
2 0 2 0 Exercise 147 Further problems on definite
' - .) ' )
3 π 3 integrals
= − cos 2 − − cos 2(0)
2 2 2 In problems 1 to 8, evaluate the definite inte-
' ) ' ) grals (where necessary, correct to 4 significant
3 3
= − cos π − − cos 0 figures).
2 2 * 4 * 1
' ) ' ) 3
3 3 3 3 1. (a) 5x 2 dx (b) − t 2 dt
= − ( − 1) − − (1) = + = 3 1 −1 4
2 2 2 2 % &
1
(a) 105 (b) −
* 2 2
Problem 15. Evaluate 4 cos 3t dt. * 2 * 3
1
2. (a) (3 − x 2 ) dx (b) (x 2 − 4x + 3) dx
−1 1
* %
+ , &2 % &2 % &
2 1 4 1
4 cos 3t dt = (4) sin 3t = sin 3t (a) 6 (b)−1
1 3 3 3
1 1
' ) ' ) * * π
4 4 π 3 2
= sin 6 − sin 3 3. (a) cos θ dθ (b) 4 cos θ dθ
3 3 0 2 0
Note that limits of trigonometric functions are always [(a) 0 (b) 4]
expressed in radians—thus, for example, sin 6 means
* π * 2
the sine of 6 radians = −0.279415 . . . 3
* 2 4. (a) π
2 sin 2θ dθ (b) 3 sin t dt
6 0
Hence 4 cos 3t dt
'
1
) ' ) [(a) 1 (b) 4.248]
4 4 * 1 * π
= (−0.279415 . . . ) − (0.141120 . . . ) 6
3 3 5. (a) 5 cos 3x dx (b) 3 sec2 2x dx
0 0
= (−0.37255) − (0.18816) = −0.5607
[(a) 0.2352 (b) 2.598]
 STANDARD INTEGRATION 373

! 2
1 litre to 3 litres for a temperature rise from
6. (a) cosec 2 4t dt 100 K to 400 K given that:
1
! π

(b)
2
(3 sin 2x − 2 cos 3x) dx Cv = 45 + 6 × 10−3 T + 8 × 10−6 T 2
π
4 [55.65]
[(a) 0.2527 (b) 2.638]
10. The p.d. between boundaries a and b of an
! 1 ! 2 ! b
2 Q
7. (a) 3 e3t dt (b) dx electric field is given by: V = dr
a 2πrε0 εr
2x
0 −1 3 e
[(a) 19.09 (b) 2.457] If a = 10, b = 20, Q = 2 × 10−6 coulombs,
! 3 ! 3 ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 and εr = 2.77, show that
2 2x 2 + 1
8. (a) dx (b) dx V = 9 kV.
2 3x 1 x
[(a) 0.2703 (b) 9.099] 11. The average value of a complex voltage
waveform is given by:
9. The entropy change "S, for an ideal gas is !
given by: 1 π
VAV = (10 sin ωt + 3 sin 3ωt
! T2 ! V2 π 0
dT dV
"S = Cv −R + 2 sin 5ωt) d(ωt)
T1 T V1 V
where T is the thermodynamic temperature, Evaluate VAV correct to 2 decimal places.
V is the volume and R = 8.314. Determine [7.26]
the entropy change when a gas expands from