GEN BIO
LIPIDS
 are composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and
Oxygen.
They have a wide range of biological roles, including:
 difference is that it has a long hydrocarbon
chain and less oxygen
 composed of glycerol and 3 fatty acids.
FATS : store twice amount of energy compared to
carbohydrates.
 Saturated fats -composed of long straight
chain, making the molecule compact and solid
at room temp. - mostly found in animals.
 Unsaturared fats: liquid at room temperature;
mostly found in fishes and plants.
PHOSPHOLIPIDS: dual characteristic. - phosphate head
is hydrophilic; fatty acid tail is hydrophobic.
- forms a barrier between the cell and the
external environment.
STEROIDS: organic compounds that contain four rings
of carbon atoms.
- important components of cell membranes
which alter membrane fluidity; and as signaling
molecules.
Cholesterol: always associated with cardiovascular
diseases because it causes block built up in our blood
vessels. -important component of cell membrane; helps
it to be fluid and flexible. - a precursor of important
molecules such as our hormones. (sex and steroid
hormones)
Arteries and Veins of the Human Heart CORONARY
ARTERIES: arteries that supply the heart muscle itself.
CORONARY VEINS: collect blood from myocardial
capillaries and channel it back to the right atrium.
 The total cholesterol of our body is composed
of LDL, HTL and Triglycerides. LDL: bad
cholesterol, it is the one that causes
cholesterol to pluck in our arteries. HTL: good
cholesterol, removes cholesterol from our
blood.
Proteins are a diverse group of large and complex
polymeluces, made up of long chains of amino
acids.
• catalytic: all enzymes are proteins, catalyzing
many biochemical reactions.
• signalling: many hormones and receptors are
proteins.
• immunological: all antibodies are proteins.
 Structural: proteins are the main component
of body tissues, such as muscle, skin,
ligaments, and hair.
Structure
 monomer = amino acids (20 different amino
acids)
 polymer = polypeptide
- protein can be one or more polypeptide
chains folded and bonded together; large &
complex molecules
complex 3-D shape
Peptide bond: the bond formed by amino acids.
examples:
• Rubisco: enables the plants to synthesize
glucose.
• Hemoglabin: aids us in transporting oxygen,
found in our blood.
! Amino Acids have a central carbon atom, a
hydrogen, the amino group, the carboxylic acid
group, and the R group.
Non-Essential amino acids: the body naturally
produces it.
Essential: the ones the body can’t produce, one
has to get it from his diet.
Conditionally non essential: dependent on the
situation of the body.
GEN BIO
Primary (1) structure
`Order of amino acids in chain`
 amino acid sequence determined by gene
(DNA)
 slight change in amino acid sequence can
affect protein’s structure & its function.
Secondary (2) structure
2 types: alpha- helics and beta pleated sheet
“Local folding” - folding along short sections of
polypeptide. Interactions between adjacent amino
acid.
Terriary (3) structure
“Whole molecule folding” - interactions between
distant amino acids.
 Hydrophobic interactions
 Cytoplasm is water-based.
Nonpolar amino acids cluster away from water.
H bonds & ionic bonds
Disulfide bridges : formed by two cysteine.
Quaternary (4) structure
- more than one polypeptide chain bonded
together.
*only then does polypeptide become functional
protein.*
Collagen = skin & tendons
Hemoglobin : a globular protein with 4
polypeptide chains bonded together.
PROTEIN DEBATURATION
Unfolding a protein
- conditions that disrupt H bonds, ionic bonds,
disulfide bridges
- caused by temperature, pH, salinity
- that results to alter 2 & 3 structure and destroys
functionality.
- some proteins can return to their functional
shape after denaturation, many cannot
Enzymes( loyal molecules) are protein molecules
that are very specific about which reactions they
catalyse. Only molecules with exactly the right
shape will bind to the enzyme and react. These are
the reactant, or substrate, molecules.
The part of the enzyme to which the reactant binds
is called the active site.
Models of Substrate Active Site Binding
1) Lock and Key : a substrate and an enzyme
perfectly fit together and chemical reaction will
happen.
2) Induced fit : enzyme conform to the shape of
the substrate and pursuit chemical reaction.
Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering the
activation energy of a reaction.
• Activation energy : energy needed to start a
reaction.
Factors that affect the rate of a reaction:
• temperature. • substrate concentration
• pH • surface area
• enzyme concentration • pressure
Optimum : all enzymes work best at only one
particular temperature and pH.
COMPOUNDS WHICH HELP ENZYMES
• Activators
> cofactors
- non protein, small inorganic compounds &
ions ; Mg, K, Ca, Zn, Fe, Cu ; bound within enzyme
molecule
! Inorganic : absence of carbon ; organic : with the
presence of carbon
GEN BIO

> coenzymes - modified nucleotied.

- non protein, organic molecules - molecule of energy ; required for contraction and
relaxation.
- bind temporarily or permanently to enzyme
near active site. Many vitamins ( NAD (nitacin: B3) , Our genetic material
FAD (riboflavin, B2) , Coenzyme A ( if you lack some
of these, some of the crucial chemical reactions 1. Stores information
won't work which will lead to malfunctions.
o genes
TWO EXAMPLES OF ENZYME INHIBITORS
o blueprint for building proteins
a. Competitive inhibitors : chemicals that resemble
 DNA → RNA → Proteins
an enzyme's normal substrate and compete with it
for the active site.
 contains all instruction
b. Noncompetitive inhibitors : do not enter the
2. Transfers information
active site but bind to another part of the enzyme
causing the enzyme change its shape which in turn o blueprint for new cells
alters the active site.
o blueprint for next generation
Nucleic Acids
NUCLEOTIDES
 genetic material, stores information
→ 3 parts
 where you can find DNA and RNA.
1. Nitrogen Base (C-N ring)
 this is in connection with proteins because the
DNA is the one that contains all the 2. Pentose sugar (5C)
instructions that would dictate the body on
 ribose in RNA
what proteins it will make.

CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY  deoxyribose in DNA

3.Phosphate (PO4) group

 DNA contains instructions that will be
transcribed by RNA and translate them into
proteins.
! Our muscles contain the proteins that should
Nucleotides
interact to each other so the muscles will contract (
myosin and actin )
3 parts:

a) nitrogen base : contains Adenine, Thymine,  ATP is replenished by a variety of means:

Guanine, and Cytosine.
• creatine phosphate
b) pentose sugar : ribose in RNA ; deoxyribose in
• stored glycogen
DNA
• aerobic metabolism of glucose, fatty acids, and
other high-energy molecules
c) phosphate group

ATP ( Adenosine Triposphate )

GEN BIO
Most biomolecules can also be called
macromolecules, which are polymers made from
single building block called monomers
MONOMER
→ pertains to an organic molecule of any class of
compounds that can react with other molecules to
form larger molecules or polymers
→ are repeating units of the same molecules that,
when bonded together, create macromolecules
Polymers (except Lipids) are made up of smaller
units of different kinds as opposed to monomers
that repeat themselves.
Built from monomers:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Nucleic Acids
Lipids are made up of composed of different units,
which is why it is not considered as a monomer.
How these building blocks are formed or broken
down involves two particular processes/chemical
reactions:
 Dehydration Synthesis/Condensation
Reaction
→ a water molecule is formed as a result of
generating a covalent bond between two
monomeric components in a larger polymer
Monosaccharide: 2 molecules of glucose The
hydrogen group of the other combines with the
hydroxyl group of anther sharing electrons to form
covalent bonds.
→ In this process, water is formed.
Vs.
 Hydrolysis
→ a water molecule is consumed as a result of breaking
the covalent bond holding together two components of
a polymer; the process of breaking down molecules
with the use of water
Maltose consists of two molecules of glucose,
which are linked by an alpha glycosidic bond. The
enzyme maltase efficiently catalyzes the hydrolysis
process of maltose into two glucose molecules.
→ This process requires a molecule of water and
releases stored energy.
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates serve as the primary energy source of
the body, mainly in the form of glucose and can be
abundantly found in our diet.
Composed of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), & Oxygen
(O)
→ Have a backbone of carbon atoms, with hydrogen
and oxygen attached in the same proportion as they
appear in water. Hence the general formula: CH₂O
This means carbon is hydrated or combined with water.
There are different kinds of carbohydrates with the
simplest one referred to as monomers. To more
complicated monosaccharides primarily for storage of
energy.
Examples:
Glucose - Monosaccharide
Maltose - Disaccharide
Simple carbohydrates can be classified based on the
number of carbons in the molecule.
Classifying sugars:
1. Location of the Carbonyl Group
Carbonyl Group
Aldoses (Aldehyde Sugars) - found at the end of the
carbon skeleton
GEN BIO
Ketoses (Ketone Sugars) - found within the carbon
skeleton
2. Size of the Carbon Skeleton
Hexoses: 6-carbon sugars
Pentoses: 5-carbon sugars
MONOSACCHARIDES
→ The simplest kind of carbohydrates which has
relatively simple structures consisting of C, H, O, in a
1:2:1 ratio.
→ Used cellular respiration in order to produce ATP
(the molecule of energy)
→ Carbon skeletons serve as raw material for synthesis
of other types of small organic molecules
Examples: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, Ribose,
Deoxyribose
Glucose
 has a mild-sweet flavor
 main source of energy of mammalian brain
 carbs get digested into glucose and is rapidly
absorbed into the body providing a source of
instant energy.
 found in every disaccharide and
polysaccharide
Fructose
 sweetest sugar
 found in fruits and honey
 high intake is linked to obesity and diabetes
which is mainly because only liver cells break
down fructose (unlike glucose which can be
used by almost every cell in the body)
 one of the end products of its breakdown is a
triglyceride which is a form of fat
 an isomer of glucose
Galactose
 important for early human development
 crucial for metabolism and energy delivery in
the body
 cherry, celery, plums, avocados
! Two glucose (monosaccharide) molecules form
maltose (disaccharide)
DISACCHARIDES
→ Two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic
linkage.
Glycosidic linkages can be formed through each
hydroxyl of a sugar, and when multiplied, hydroxyl on a
single sugar form glycosidic linkages resulting in a
branch oligosaccharide.
Examples: Sucrose (Gluctose + Fructose), Maltose
(Glucose + Glucose), Lactose (Glucose + Galactose)
Maltose
 Glucose + Glucose
 produced when starch breaks down
 not abundant
 various models containing syrups are used in
the brewing, baking, softdrink, confectioning,
canning, and other forms of food industries.
Sucrose
 Glucose + Fructose (linked in an alpha-
glycosidic bond)
 aka cane sugar
 abundant in the plant world and is commonly
known as table sugar
Lactose
 Glucose + Galactose (also forming a
glycosidic linkage)
 main carbohydrate in milk
 known as milk sugar
Complex Carbohydrates - during dehydration synthesis,
thousands of monosaccharides are joined together into
straight or branch chains to form complex carbohydrates
which are known as polysaccharides.
GEN BIO
POLYSACCHARIDES
→ The most important polysaccharide in living organisms
consists of long chains of glucose monosaccharides
→ Architecture and Function
 sugar monomers
→ Energy Storage: Glycogen (Animals) and Starch (Plants)
→ Structural: Cellulose and Chitin
Starch
 accounts for more than 50% of our carbohydrate
intake
 occurs in plants in the form of granules
 polymer of glucose monomers
 joined by 1-4 linkage
 within cellular structures known as plastid
 simplest form - amylose
 A mixture of two polymers:
Amylose - nonbranched/coiled, easily digestible
Amylopectin - Long and unbranched, not easily digestible
Glycogen
 energy reserve carbohydrate in animals
 all mammalian cells contain some stored
carbohydrates in the form of glycogen
 especially abundant in the liver and skeletal
muscles
 found as granules in liver and muscle cells
 when fasting, animals draw on these glycogen
reserves during the first day without food to
obtain the glucose needed to maintain metabolic
balance
Cellulose
 a fibrous carbohydrate found in all plants
 the structural component of plant cell walls
 most abundant of all carbohydrates accounting
for 50% of all the carbon found in the vegetable
kingdom
Chitin
 second most abundant polysaccharide (next to
cellulose)
 widely exists in the exoskeleton of shrimps,
crabs, and insects (arthropods), as well as in the
cell walls of fungi and algae
! Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are made up of large
molecules that cannot be readily absorbed (or utilized as
it is) by the body. This is where the digestive system is
linked as it is involved process of digestion breaks down
large food molecules into smaller food molecules that can
be readily absorbed. Digestion — breakdown and
absorption — of food molecules primarily takes place in
the small intestine which is lined with tiny finger-like
projections called villi that possess even larger amounts of
microvilli that constitute the brush border cells. The brush
border cells contain the enzymes that serve as the site of
terminal carbohydrate digestion. For example, sucrose and
maltose are readily hydrolyzed by disaccharidases.
Anaerobic Respiration
 Redox Reactions : reduction and oxygen
reaction; transfer of one or more electrons
from one reactant to another.
 relocation of electrons releases energy stored
in organic molecules, used to synthesize ATP.
 Reduction; addition of electrons.
 Oxidation: removal of electrons.
ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate
 comprised of 3 phosphate groups, sugar
(ribose), nitrogenous base.
 molecule that carries energy within cells; it is
the main energy currency.
 end product of the processes of
phosphorylation; cellular respiration and
fermentation.
 Decarboxylation - the removal or elimination
of carboxyl from a molecule and releases
carbon dioxide.
 Substrate level Phosphorylation - a
phosphate group is transferred from an
GEN BIO
organic molecule to the adenosine
diphosphate to form adenosine triphosphate.
• NAD+ Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
• NADH Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide + Hydrogen
Metabolism : is the sum total of the chemical reactions
of biomolecules in an organism.
 Anabolism : assembly of interlarger molecules
; it requires energy
 Catabolism : you are going to break down
larger molecules to smaller molecules.
Substrate level phosphorylation -refers to formation of
ATP from ADP and a phosphorylated intermediate,
rather than from ADP and Pi as in oxidative
phosphorylation.
 ATP is produced through glycolisis.
THE INVOLVEMENT OF OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
IN METABOLISM
OIL : Oxidation is Loss of electrons. ———→ RIG :
Reduction is Gain of electrons
X is oxidized by Y
X loses electrons
X is a reducing agent
X increases
*COENZYMES IN REDOX REACTIONS*
GLYCOLISIS
 "glyco" sugar, "lysis" break down
 breaks glucose into two molecules called
pyruvate.
 First stage of glucose metabolism
 Anaerobic process
 Yields only 2 molecules of ATP
 Also called the Embden-Meyerhoff pathway
 aerobic respiration and fermentation begin
with precisely the same set of reactions in the
cytoplasm.
 Glucose : 6 carbon molecule ; pyruvate : 3
carbon molecule.
 from one glucose, it should be able to produce
2 molecules of pyruvate.
1. Hexokinase
2. Phosphofructokinase
3. Pyruvate kinase
Oxygen : released from unaccountable numbers of
water molecules, it accumulated in the oceans.
 is the final electron acceptor at the end of the
electron transport chain of aerobic
resipiration.
Cellular Respiration
 an example of catabolic pathway because it
releases stored energy by breaking down
complex molecules.
1. Aerobic Respiration : takes place in the
presence of oxygen, evolved after oxygen was
added to Earth's atmosphere. ; in the site of
mitochondria.
 Oxygen is consumed as reactant ; most
efficient.
2. Anaerobic respiration takes place without
oxygen. ; in the site of plasm.
 also present in different places; inside the
volcano, beneath the soil, digestive track,
deepest part of the ocean.
 use substances other than oxygen.
FERMENTATION : partial degradation of sugars/ other
organic fuel ; no oxygen.
- it can produce various products ie. apple cider,
yogurt, vinegar.
GEN BIO
 type of anaerobic pathway that harvests
energy from carbohydrates.
! Red fibers have many mitochondria and produce ATP
by aerobic respiration; sustain prolong activity like
marathon runs, they have an abundance of myoglobin ;
protein that stores oxygen for aerobic respiration.
! White fibers contain few mitochondria and no
myoglobin so they don't carry out a lot of aerobic
respiration, instead they make the most of ATP by
lactate fermentation; this pathway makes ATP quickly
but not for so long, it is used for strenuous activities like
weight lifting, sprinting. Muscle cells also carry out
lactic acid fermentation only when they have too little
oxygen for aerobic respiration to continue.
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION
 Goal: turn pyruvate to lactate
 lacto - milk/lactose
 Lactobacillus - rod shaped bacteria ; breaks
down lactose in milk, we use this bacteria to
create dairy products.
 Yeast species : ferment and preserve pickles,
kimchi
 some lactic fermentors spoil food, but we use
others to preserve it.
 carried out by various species such as
lactobacillus bulgaricus and staphylococcus
thermopilus, but can also be done by the
muscle cells in the absence of oxygen.
 the starting molecule: 1 glucose
 at the end of fermentation, it will produce 2
lactate.
 location: cytoplasm
 no carbon dioxide is released.
 Net Yield: 2 NADH, 2 ATP, 2 Lactate
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION
 starting molecule is 1 glucose and will produce
2 molecules of Ethanol.
 goal is to turn pyruvate to ethanol
 location: cytplasm
 carbon dioxide is released, in contrast with
lactic acid fermentation,
 Net Yield: 2 NADH, 2 ATP, 2 CO2, 2 Ethanol
 it will undergo the different reactions of
glycosis to produce 2 molecules of pyruvate
and a total of 4 ATP, the pyruvate will then
undergo carboxylation to produce 2 molecules
of acetaldehyde and 2 CO2, the acetaldehyde
will undergo redox to regenerate the NADH to
NAD and form 2 Ethanol.
 Bekers used the alcohol fermentation
capabilities of one species of yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to make breads.
This cells break down carbohydrates of bread
dough and release carbon dioxide, the dough
expands arises, as carbon dioxide forms
bubbles in it.
 Some cultivated screens of saccharomyces are
also used to produce wine, crashed grapes are
led in bats along large population of yeast
cells which converts the sugar in the juice to
ethanol.
EVOLUTION
Three Key Elements of Evolution:
 Evolution involves decent over time
o Populations undergo slow changes
over generations.
 Evolution involvves genetic modification
o Undergo changes in the DNA.
 Evolution is unpredictable and natural.
GEN BIO
THE EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION - The Fossil Record
 Incomplete, but valuable
 Preserves only hard tissues
 Determining the age of fossils
 Stratification of sedimentary rocks in which
fossils are located can help
Anatomy and Embryology
 Homologous structures : body structures that
share a common origin (i.e, vertebrate
forelimbs)
 Analogous structures : body structures that
share a similar function but very different
origins.
 Vestigial structures: body structures that no
longer have a function but are homologous to
structures
COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY EXAMINES
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN MOLECULES
 Estimates divergence of species from a
common ancestor.
Example : cytochrome c
 Similarities in RNA, DNA, and proteins are
used as indicators of common ancestry
Biogeography : The Impact of Geographic Barriers and
Continental Drift on Evolutionary Processes
 Study of the distribution of different plants
and animals worldwide
 impact of geographic barriers such as
mountains, desserts, large bodies of water.
 Continental drift
NATURAL SELECTION CONTRIBUTES TO EVOLUTION :
Random Mutations Underlie Evolution
 Mutations are rare accidental events that
change the nucleotide sequence of a gene
 Alleles: different forms of a gene that result
from mutations in a gene.
 Non-lethal alleles may be passed to the next
generation and future generations
NATURAL SELECTION ENCOURAGES CHANGES IN THE
GENE POOL
Genetic drift and Gene Flow After Alter Populations
 Population : group of individuals of the same
species that occupy the same geographic area.
 Genetic drift: random changes in allele
frequency due to chance events.
o Two causes of genetic drift:
 Bottleneck effect : occurs when a major
catastrophe wipes out a large proportion of
the population without regard to fitness.
 Founder effect: small part of the population
will transfer to the other
 Gene flow : redistribution of alleles due to
migration into and out of a population.
! Mass Extinctions Eliminate Many Species :
 a life form dies out completely.
 There have been five mass extinctions in the
last 530 million years
 These have eliminated 50% or more of species
! Evolutionary Trees Trace Relationships Between
Species
 Also called a phylogenetic tree.
 Purpose
o Trace evolutionary change and
relationships between species.
 Adaptive radiation
o Short bursts of evolutionary activity
GEN BIO

o Many new species develop within a o larger infancy

short time.
o continued decline in sexual
In the beginning, Earth was too hot for life, then organic dimorphism
molecules formed from atmospheric gases and
photosynthesis altered the course of evolution.  Homo sapiens : Out of Africa Again ( 100,000
to 140,000 years ago)
 Taxonomy : naming and classifying organisms
o Distinctly larger brain
Humans Share a Common Ancestor with Primates
o Further development of spoken
 Taxonomy classification language

o Domain Eukarya o Thoroughly human physical structure

o Kingdom Animalia Differences within the Human Species

o Phylum Chordata  Racial differences are slight differences in

phenotypes between subgroups of a common
o Class Mammalia species

o Order Primata  Differences helped populations adapt to

environments
o Family Hominidae
o Dark skin : provides protection from
o Genus Homo
ultraviolet damage in intense
o Species sapiens sunlight

o Light skin: allows adequate UV

 Species : a group of organisms that, under
radiation for vitamin D production in
natural conditions, tend to interbreed and
less intense sunlight.
produce fertile offspring

Humans are Primates  Racial differences are no more significant than

individual differences
 Hominoid group diverged from other primates
about 25 million years ago

Evolution of Homo sapiens

 Ardipithecus ramidus (4.4 million years ago) ;

some disagreement regarding classification as
a hominid and Australopiethecus afarensis
(3.2 mya) ; walked upright, sexual dimorphism
( males were considerably larger than
females)

 Hominids: Hominoids that are human like.

 Homo erectus : out of Africa ( 2 mya )

o more brain enlargement