Tsunami and

Disaster
Prevention and Mitigation
Joan C. Salcedo
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology –
Department of Science and Technology
Objectives:
At the end of this module, the participants will be able to:
1. define a tsunami;
2. distinguish a tsunami from tidal waves and storm surge;
3. explain how tsunami is generated;
4. differentiate locally generated tsunami from far field or
distant tsunami;
5. enumerate the 3 natural signs of an approaching local
tsunami;
6. enumerate some tsunami safety and preparedness
measures
7. differentiate the types of Philippine Tsunami Information
 Tsunami

▪ Japanese term meaning “harbor waves”

or “alon sa pantalan”

▪ A series of waves generated by various

geological processes.
 What causes Tsunami

Generally by Less commonly by Sub-

EARTHQUAKES aerial to Submarine
LANDSLIDES

Infrequently by Very rarely by

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS METEORITE IMPACTS
Seiche
Seiches are waves triggered by strong
shaking due to earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions that are found in enclosed or
partially enclosed bodies of water such
as lakes, bays and rivers.
Seiche
 Tsunami vs Tidal wave
Similarity: both are sea waves
a tsunami and a tidal wave are two different and
unrelated phenomena

Tidal wave - is the wave motion of the tides. A

tidal wave is a shallow water wave caused by the
gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon,
and Earth.

Tsunamis - are ocean waves triggered by large earthquakes

that occur near or under the ocean, volcanic eruptions,
submarine landslides, and by onshore landslides in which
large volumes of debris fall into the water.
 Storm surge
Storm surge – sudden increase in sea
water level associated with the passage of
typhoons or tropical cyclones
Review: Plate Tectonics

Plates
- cover the entire surface of the earth
- contain both the continents and seafloor
- move relative to each other
Review: Plate Tectonics
CONVERGENT
Plate boundary – the
TRANSFORM
DIVERGENT
region where plates come
in contact

Type of plate boundary

– determined in the way in
which one plate moves
relative to another

Spreading – two plates move away from each other

Subduction – where two plates move toward each other and
one slides beneath the other
Transform – where two plates slide horizontally past each
other
 Earthquakes & Tsunamis

An earthquake can be caused by

- volcanic activity
- but most are generated by movements along fault
zones associated with the plate boundaries
- most strong earthquakes, representing 80% of the
total energy released worldwide by earthquakes, occur in
subduction zones – where an oceanic plate slides under a
continental plate
Not all earthquakes generate tsunami
To generate a tsunami
•the earthquake generator where the earthquake
occurs must be underneath or near the ocean

•Cause vertical movement of the seafloor (up to

several meters)

•over a large area (up to hundred thousand sqkm)

•shallow focus earthquakes (depth less than 70km)

 Stages of Tsunami

Propagation Inundation

Generation
Stages of Tsunami

Inundation
Propagation

Generation
 Tsunami Generation

Tsunamis are generated primarily by tectonic

dislocations under the sea, which are caused by shallow
focus earthquakes along areas of subduction.
The upthrusted and downthrusted crustal blocks impart
potential energy into the overlying water mass with drastic
changes in the sea level over the affected region.
The energy imparted into the water mass results in
tsunami generation.
Tsunami Propagation

Tsunamis travel outward

in all directions from the
generating area, with the
direction of the main
energy propagation
generally being
orthogonal to the direction
of the earthquake fracture
zone.
Tsunami Propagation

Their speed depends on

the depth of water, so that
the waves undergo
accelerations and
decelerations in passing
over an ocean bottom of
varying depth
Bathymetry: the
science of measuring
depths of the ocean,
lakes, seas, etc.
Tsunami Propagation How Fast?
waveheight

inundation

Over 800 kilometers per Tsunami speed depends

hour (kph) in deep ocean on the depth of water
over 6000m deep

30 to 50 kph near shorelines

g=9.8m/s 2
Inundation The horizontal distance inland that a
tsunami penetrates, generally
measured perpendicularly to the
shoreline.

Topography: the
shape of the land
Landcover:
roughness
Offshore and coastal
features can determine
the size and impact of
tsunami waves.
Landcover/Surface Roughness
• Grassland

• Areas covered
with buildings

• Areas densely
covered with
forest
NHK, Japan Tsunami, 11 march 2011
WAVEHEIGHT

INUNDATION
Area flooded with water by
the tsunami
Tsunamis are unique in that the energy
extends through the entire water column from
sea surface to the ocean bottom. It is this
characteristic that accounts for the great
amount of energy propagated by a tsunami
 Tsunami Facts
Tsunamis that strike coastal locations are almost always
caused by earthquakes. These earthquakes might occur
far away or near where you live. While earthquakes occur
in all ocean basins around the world, most do not
generate tsunamis
 Tsunami Facts
Some tsunamis can be very large, and they cause impacts
like flashfloods. Later waves are often full of debris.

2004
Tsunami,
Indonesia
 Tsunami Facts
Run-up height could be as high as 10 meters or more

2011 Japan Tsunami

4 storeys x ~3 meters/storey = ~12 meters

 Tsunami Facts
All low lying coastal areas can be struck by tsunamis

1976 Moro Gulf Tsunami

 Tsunami Facts
A tsunami consists of series of waves. The first wave
may not be the largest. The danger from a tsunami can
last for several hours after the arrival of the first wave.
Tsunami waves typically do not curl and break, so do not
try to surf a tsunami!

Tsunami Accounts: The 1976 Moro Gulf

Tsunami
Descriptions:
3 or 4 waves (one person said 9) == there
was more than 1 wave
1 to 5 minutes interval
maximum inundation = 2 km
maximum water recession (with sucking
sound) = 2 km

Tsunami simulation, source Manila Trench

 Tsunami Facts
Sometimes a tsunami initially causes the water near the
shore to recede, exposing the ocean floor.
 Tsunami Facts
The force of some tsunami is very strong. Large rocks,
boats and other debris can be moved inland and can kill
and injure people.

2011 Japan
Earthquake

Transported bancas (Sakol, Island), 1976 Moro Gulf Tsunami

1964 Alaska Earthquake

 Tsunami Facts
Tsunamis can travel up rivers that lead to the sea.
Damage Scenario

Japan (almost 5 months after the Tsunami)

BANDA ACEH
(INDONESIA)
BEFORE and AFTER
TSUNAMI (DEC 26,
2004)
Tsunami Impacts

• Movement of
heavy objects and
impact to
structures

Kesennuma

Photos by RUSolidum, PHIVOLCS

Ogatsu
Ship on the house: 2004 Sumatra Earthquake Tsunami
Ship on the house: 2011 Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami
Transported bancas (Sakol, Island), 1976 Moro Gulf Tsunami
Hazards
▪ Trees and posts are uprooted from their locations
▪ Cars and boats are carried;
▪ Tsunami debris can cause injuries during inland &
back flows
 Hazards
▪ Sea water is dark or
muddy and may cause
health complications.

▪ Water in wells become

salty and not potable

▪ Agricultural lands are

rendered useless for
some years.
 Two Types of Tsunami
Type Source Lead time Warning mechanism in
earthquake to place
tsunami
LOCAL trench or fault in 2 to 20 Community-based
Philippine minutes up
region, usually must rely on natural signs
to 60 such as moderate to intense
less than 200 km minutes shaking in coastal area,
from shoreline unusual water level rise or fall,
and unusual sound
DISTANT trench or fault 1 to 24 International Centers
outside the hours Pacific Tsunami Warning
Regional Center, NW Pacific Tsunami
or Trans- Philippine Advisory Center
Pacific region
PHIVOLCS
(ex. Japan,
Hawaii, Chile) OCD
 Local Tsunami

Distant Tsunami

Tsunami simulation of 1700 Cascadia Earthquake

Tsunamis generated in distant locations
will generally give people enough time
for tsunami warning.

There will be less time (a few minutes)

for warning in case of locally-generated
tsunamis.
 Local Tsunami
A tsunami from nearby source
for which its destructive effects
are confined to coasts within
100 km or less than 1 hour
tsunami travel time from its
source.

A local tsunami is usually

generated by an earthquake,
but can also be caused by a
landslide or a pyroclastic flow
from a volcanic eruption
1o ~ 111km
Recent Local Tsunami in the Philippines

1992 Eastern Mindanao Tsunami

1976 Moro Gulf Tsunami 1994 Mindoro Tsunami

Philippine Tsunamis and Seiches
1589-2012

• 74 candidate events
• 41 confirmed tsunami
Ocean-wide or Teletsunami or Distant Tsunami
A tsunami originating from a
far away source, generally
more than 1000km or more
than 3 hours tsunami travel
time from its source.

Usually starting as a local

tsunami that causes
extensive destruction near
the shore, these waves
continue to travel across an
entire ocean basin with
sufficient energy to cause
additional casualties and
destruction.
 Distant Tsunami

• 1960 Chile M9.5

• 2010 Chile M8.8
• 2011 Japan M9.0
THE 1960 GREAT CHILE EARTHQUAKE
(MAGNITUDE 9.5) AND TSUNAMI
• The tsunami waves arrived in the eastern Philippine
shores 24 –26 hours after the earthquake

• Tsunami heights of 6 meters reported by eyewitnesses in

eastern shoreline of Samar Island

• The tsunami waves reached height of 1 meter in

Tacloban, Leyte based on tide gauge records

• The tsunami waves reached height of 2.5 meters in

Legaspi based on tide gauge records
The Philippines and The Tsunami Threat

Tsunami sources (image from ComMIT)

39
Tsunami Prone Areas in the Philippines
Prone to trench
related local and
distant tsunami
Prone to trench
related local
tsunami
Prone to offshore
fault and
submarine
landslide related
local tsunami
17 August 1976 12:11AM M8.1 Earthquake
The Moro Gulf earthquake:
~4,000 deaths
~2,000 missing
~8,000 injured
~ 12,000 families (~90,000
people) were rendered
homeless.
Of the number of casualties,
about 90% was due to the
tsunami.
Damage estimate (1976 Peso
Value): 400 Million ++
 The 1976 Moro Gulf Earthquake & Tsunami

Tsunami Accounts:
Sequence of Events
❖A violent shock that awaken
people and make standing &
walking difficult
❖unusually deep recession of
the sea

Inundated villages (along Moro Gulf)

❖A strong prolonged
approaching sound
❖arrival of waves!!!
Earthquake and Tsunami Monitoring and Warning
National Monitoring Network

Screen Display of Data

Unmanned seismic Data Receiving
Acquisition Computer
station Center

International Tsunami Warning Centers

Pacific Tsunami Warning Center Northwest Pacific Advisory Center

44
http://www.prh.noaa.gov/ptwc/responsibilities. http://ioc3.unesco.org/itic/files/NWPTAC_handbook
Hazard and Risk Assessment Software
REDAS by DOST-PHIVOLCS
Earthquake and
Tsunami Impact
Assessment
Module

Flood Loss
Hazard Assessment Module Assessment Tool

Exposure: Building

Severe Wind
Impact Modelling
Module

Exposure Data Module

GeoRiskPH Platforms/Applications
What to do ?
Run away from the shore towards
higher grounds! (Pre-identified)
 Natural Signs of an
Impending Local Tsunami
Felt earthquake Unusual Sound

SHAKE ROAR
DROP
Unusual & sudden rise or
fall of coastal waters
Exposure of corals, underwater
rocks, and marine life
Tsunami Information
Tsunami Information is released if an
earthquake with the potential to generate a
tsunami occurred.
• The information is either an:
-Advisory
-Warning
• threat to the Philippines,
• and the recommended action for possible
affected places.
• It also shows the earthquake parameters
of the event.
Advisory PHIVOLCS will No evacuation order
monitor sea level is in effect.
SEA changes and provide Public is advised to
LEVEL update. wait and listen for
CHANGE updates.
MONITORING
Tsunami Information is posted and
can be accessed at the DOST-
PHIVOLCS website
https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/.
Click on TSUNAMI – Tsunami
Advisory and Warning, a list of
the latest Tsunami Information in
the Philippines will be shown.
Click on Tsunami Information No.
to view details of that event.
Tsunami mitigation measures
- Choice of which mitigation measures to use
depends on the community and capability to
adapt.
Non-Structural Structural
▪ Information campaign ▪ Construction of seawalls,
▪ Tsunami hazard maps breakers, tsunami
▪ Tsunami evacuation plans platforms, towers
▪ Tsunami warning and ▪ Construction of additional
information signage alternate access roads
▪ Tsunami marker (development of roads
▪ Land use planning perpendicular to the coast
▪ Preservation of mangrove for faster evacuation)
areas
▪ Coastal zoning
 Structural Countermeasures
❑ Sea walls and breakwaters
❑ Tide control gates
❑ Flood gates
❑ Elevated Structure
❑ Construction of additional
alternate access roads
(development of roads
perpendicular to the coast for
faster evacuation)
Bohol
Non-Structural Countermeasures
Use of Hazard Map
 Non-structural Countermeasures
Planting of trees and
preservation of
mangrove

Bohol
 Non-structural Countermeasures
Establishment of
Community–based
Early Warning System
for Tsunami (CBEWS)

Tsunami signage

Tsunami Evacuation Map Tsunami Marker, Baler, Aurora

How to develop a tsunami-prepared community?

1. Increase awareness on basic tsunami information

What is a tsunami?
(generation, hazards)
How to develop a tsunami-prepared community?

2. Tsunami hazard and risk mapping

• waveheight
• Inundation
• Areas to be affected
• Elements-at-risk
(exposure)
How to develop a tsunami-prepared community?
3. Tsunami evacuation planning
3.1 Tsunami evacuation map – shows areas identified as safe
and areas that are within the hazard zone
Essential information provided in this map:
1)Areas threatened by tsunami inundation
2)Location of designated safe areas where people should
gather in case of tsunami
3)Recommended routes to the safe area for people to follow
which are normally indicated as arrows
4)Other significant information such as landmarks for people to
identify location
How to develop a tsunami-prepared community?

3.2 Designing a tsunami evacuation map

Step 1: Acquire a tsunami hazard map
Acquire detailed community map
- update the community map (road
systems, elements-at-risk)
- determine the population to evacuate
How to develop a tsunami-prepared community?
3.2 Designing a tsunami
evacuation map
Step 2: Identify safe evacuation
areas
- site is outside identified
tsunami hazard zone
- site can be reached by foot
within the shortest possible
time
- total area of the site can hold
the community to be evacuated
- site can be easily identified
How to develop a tsunami-prepared community?

3.2 Designing a tsunami evacuation map

Step 3: Recommend evacuation routes
- safest, shortest/fastest
- wide streets
- if possible, no bridges
- away from other hazards
- limited overhead power lines and similar hazards
- “walk along routes” to check ground condition
How to develop a tsunami-prepared community?

3.2 Designing a tsunami

evacuation map
Step 4: Hold small
workshop for community
leaders to finalize maps
- create working map
with the tsunami inundation
zone, identified evacuation
areas and routes
How to develop a tsunami-prepared community?

3.2 Designing a tsunami evacuation map

Step 5: Develop complete version of the map
- finalize map out of inputs from the group
workshop
- should be simple and easy to read
- tsunami hazard zone
- safe evacuation areas
- recommended evacuation routes
- local landmarks
How to develop a tsunami-prepared community?
Tsunami evacuation map – shows areas
identified as safe and areas that are within the
hazard zone
How to develop a tsunami-prepared community?
4. Community education about tsunami
4.1 Community information campaign
• Which areas have high hazard for being flooded in a tsunami?
• List of natural tsunami warning signs
• Basic information on tsunami evacuation plan
• Causes of tsunami
• How tsunamis affect communities
• Ways to reduce tsunami damage
How to develop a tsunami-prepared community?

4. Community education about tsunami

4.1 Community information campaign

4.2 Putting up tsunami signages

4.3 Conduct of tsunami drill

160meters
Directional signage
Tsunami prone Evacuation area
How to develop a tsunami-prepared community?
4. Community education about tsunami
4.1 Community information campaign
4.2 Putting up tsunami signages

4.3 Conduct of tsunami drill

• Table top exercise
• Simple walk-through exercise
• Full-scale tsunami drill
Phases of a tsunami drill
1)Alarm phase
2)Reaction
3)Evacuation phase
4)Assembly phase
5)Headcount phase
6)Drill termination
7)Post-drill evaluation
How to develop a tsunami-prepared community?
5. Establishing a tsunami warning system
• Identify key offices and officials that will be part of the
communication flow for information and warning

• Identify existing equipment (telephone, SMS, fax, 2-way

radio, sirens, bells, megaphones, indigenous or locally
available equipment such as batingaw or church bells)
• Identify appropriate warning system
scheme and establish final warning system
procedure for the community

• Install additional equipment for warning

system

• Establish final flow chart of information

Community Tsunami early Warning System – PHIVOLCS
Tsunami Detection Stations

Cell Site

PHIVOLCS/ASTI and LGUs

Tsunami Visualization and Decision Tool Communities
Developing a Tsunami-
Prepared Community
Objectives:
At the end of this module, the participants will be able to:
1. define a tsunami;
2. distinguish a tsunami from tidal waves and storm surge;
3. explain how tsunami is generated;
4. differentiate locally generated tsunami from far field or
distant tsunami;
5. enumerate the 3 natural signs of an approaching local
tsunami;
6. enumerate some tsunami safety and preparedness
measures
7. differentiate the types of Philippine Tsunami Information
 Maraming Salamat po….

Referencse: PHIVOLCS Info materials. UNESCO-IOC. Tsunami, The Great Waves. IOC Brochure 2006-2. Paris,
UNESCO, 2006.
JlCruz-Salcedo
91
Empirical Formula for tsunami run-up height by Abe (1989)

Log H1 = Mw – log ∆ 5.55 + C

Mw : Moment magnitude
∆ : Propagation distance
C : Regional constant

Inundation: Maximum inundation (Hills &

Mader, 1997 and Prist, 1995)
Xmax = (Hs)1.33 n-2 k
Coastline roughness
n1 = 0.015 flat areas
n2 = 0.03 buildings
n3 = 0.07 dense forest