CHAPTER 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Mosquitoes have always been a threat to human health because they are the origin of several

deadly diseases around the world. Vector-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever,

Zika virus, and Chikungunya can be acquired through the bite of a mosquito.

According to Hines (2019) of USA TODAY, dengue fever is the most common vector- borne

disease that affects almost every country worldwide where it infects up to 400 million people per year,

with an average of 22,000 deaths. Dengue cases suddenly appeared as a result of gradual human

migration and travel, climate change, urbanization, and social changes. Dengue fever is currently

widespread in more than 100 countries, with America, Southeast Asia including Philippines, and the

Western Pacific being the most severely affected areas. According to state members, there were over 1.2

million reported cases of it in 2008 and over 3.2 million in 2015 on the regions mentioned previously.

Due to the alarming cases of vector- borne diseases caused by mosquitoes, people have created

different products to repel and eliminate them which are often called mosquito repellents. They come as

ointments, pump sprays, liquids, aerosols, wipes or lotions.

According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA), commercial mosquito repellents usually contained multiple active ingredients such as

DEET, picaridin, IR3535 And eucalyptus lemon oil.

Unfortunately, some ingredients used in mosquito repellents when inhaled in large doses or come

in contact to the skin for extended period of time can cause the user to develop irritation, redness, rashes,

stomach upset, nausea and rarely, seizures. These means that these products have the potential to be

harmful to the users' health and to the environment as well.

 Almost every commodity in today's industrialized world has been commercialized; however,

most consumers prefer products that are more natural, organic, and affordable In.line with this, Apple

cider vinegar and fresh parsley can be an alternative organic ingredients for mosquito repellent instead of

using chemicals.

Vinegar is one of the best ingredients to make a pest control spray. It is effective in repelling ants,

mosquitoes, fruit flies, and many others. Creating a mix is considered safe for humans and the

environment. Its acidity is potent enough to kill many pests. It is often used as a contact type of

insecticide which means that you need to spray it directly to make it effective (Kumar, and Uttekar,

2021).

Apple Cider Vinegar, also called as the  Malus pumila Mill, contains a lot of nutrients made from

the fermented juice of crushed apples, it contains vitamin B1, B2, B6, biotin and niacin. It also has small

amounts of potassium, magnesium, phosphorus and magnesium. With an acetic acidity level of 5%, its

fragrance is unpleasant to a mosquito’s keen senses. It’s mostly apple juice, but adding yeast turns the

fruit sugar into alcohol -- this is fermentation. Bacteria turn the alcohol into acetic acid. That’s what gives

vinegar its sour taste and strong smell (Migala, 2020).

Parsley, on the other hand, according to Ferguson (2020) is not generally use in the category of

natural mosquito repellents but it contain chemical that can repel bugs, asparagus beetle in particular.

Background of the Study

Historical Review

The first recorded use of repellents may be found among the writings of Herodotus (484 BCE—

ca. 425 BCE), who observed Egyptian fishermen. Herodotus stated that, The Egyptians who live in the

marsh-country use oil extracted from the castor-oil plant. This plant, which grows wild in Greece, they

call Kiki, and the Egyptian variety is very prolific and has a disagreeable smell. Their practice is to sow it

along the banks of rivers and lakes, and when the fruit is gathered it is either bruised and pressed, or else
boiled down, and the liquid thus obtained is of an oily nature and quite as good as olive oil for burning in

lamps, although the smell is unpleasant (Charlwood, 2003).

It was argued that the oils acted as an area repellent because high densities of nuisance

mosquitoes are active in the evenings in this region. This would have driven the Egyptians to their beds

(where Herodotus also observed that they slept under rudimentary bed nets) had the lamp not provided

protection from biting insects.

The Romans also recorded methods of repelling flying insects (gnats) that would have included

mosquitoes, as much of Italy was once swampland where the malaria vectors Anopheles labranchiae,

Anopheles sacharovi, and Anopheles superpictus were abundant prior to the malaria eradication program

of 1947 (Moore, 2016).

In North America, native cultures relied heavily on plants, and many used plants to repel biting

insects. The Southern Carrier Tribe, or Dakelh, meaning “people who go around in boats,” live near rivers

in British Columbia where mosquito densities are extremely high. This group used an infusion of

common cow parsnip blossoms (Heracleum maximum) rubbed on the body to repel flies and mosquitoes;

however, the more common mode of use was burning. For instance, the Colville Indians based around the

Columbia River used leaves and stems of Common Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) as a smudge to keep

away mosquitoes. The Blackfoot tribe, whose territory stretched along the Saskatchewan River, put the

fringed sagewort (Artemesia frigida) plant on campfire coals to drive away mosquitoes. Apparently, it

was so effective that wild horses sheltered from insect pests in the smoke; consequently, the Indians used

it to attract horses. The use of smoke against biting insects was carried on by European settlers as

recorded by settlers to The Black Swamp in Ohio (Kinney, 2000)

Traditional Repellent Use Today

Smoke is still the most widely used means of repelling mosquitoes utilized throughout the rural

tropics. Waste plant materials are frequently burned in Sri Lanka as a mosquito repellent, even though
indoor residual spraying has been carried out by the government for many years In rural Guinea-Bissau,

86% of residents used an unimpregnated bednet in conjunction with mosquito coils or plant-based smoke.

In the Solomon Islands, a recent survey revealed that fire with coconut husks and papaya leaves was the

most prevalent form of personal protection from mosquitoes, being used by 52% of residents. Surveys

from South America found that 69 and 90% of respondents from Mexico and Guatemala, respectively,

burned waste materials to drive away mosquitoes. Smoke is also used to drive away biting insects in

Southeast Asia: wood-fires and smudge pots are used in Myanmar, whereas herbs are thrown on the fire

in Yunnan, China (Alpers etal.,2000).

Although these methods are crude, many traditional repellents do have a repellent effect. A recent

controlled field trial showed a comparable repellent effect produced by a 0.2% pyrethrin mosquito coil

and lemon gum (Corymbia citriodora) volatiles expelled by heating on metal plates. Several field

evaluations, where plants were burned to repel mosquitoes, have shown good reduction in mosquito

landings. One well-designed study in Papua New Guinea showed that burning local wood and leaves

(mango wood, coconut husks, wild ginger leaves, and betelnut leaves) repelled between 57 and 75% of

mosquitoes. Smoke also reduced indoor sand fly density by 1.7 times in East Africa (Meer etal.,2000)

The use of smoke, although effective, requires continuous production in order to repel biting

insects when used as an area repellent outdoors. Although smoke does have a residual repellent effect

when used within houses, the indoor combustion of biomass has severe health consequences. Therefore,

safer and more modern methods of repelling mosquitoes are desirable.

The Development of Modern Synthetic Repellents

The military has conducted significant research into modern repellents to protect their troops

from insect-borne disease. The first military repellents contained essential oils derived from plants. For

instance, the Indian Army was issued a repellent comprised of citronella, camphor, and paraffin.

However, these repellents had limited duration, and intensive research began during World War II to find
long-lasting repellents. The enormous burden of disease suffered by troops fighting in endemic areas

motivated this research. For instance, 821,184 cases of malaria were recorded among U.S. troops

involved in overseas campaigns, resulting in 302 deaths,53 and over 12 million lost duty days. With the

advent of large-scale jungle warfare, chigger-borne scrub typhus became an important medical problem

for troops in the Far East. Indeed, approximately 6,000 cases were to appear in U.S. forces alone during

the campaigns that followed the outbreak of war with Japan (Zarafotenis and Baker, 2000)

Chiggers were also the cause of considerable discomfort for soldiers training in the U.S.; this

resulted in the Surgeon General requesting the Orlando laboratory of the United States Department of

Agriculture (USDA) to study means and methods for controlling chiggers by repellents or insecticides in

the summer of 1941. Between 1942 and 1945, over 7,000 potentially repellent compounds were tested by

the USDA. One of the first chemical repellents to be developed was dimethyl phthalate (DMP; it was

patented in 1929 as a fly repellent), followed by Indalonew (butyl-3,3-dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-4-oxo-2H-

pyran-6-carboxylate; patented in 1937), and ethyl hexanediol (2-ethyl-1,3-hexanediol), also called

Rutgers 612, that became available in 1939 (Zarafotenis and Baker, 2000)

Deet—A Breakthrough in Repellents

Prior to the removal of 6-2-2 from the marketplace, its use was eclipsed by the discovery of deet

(N,N-diethyl-3-methlybenzamide or N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide) in 1953.64 This was perhaps the single

most important event in the evolution of repellents, and deet remains the principal, and the most effective

repellent in use today—more than 50 years after its discovery. Deet is a broad-spectrum repellent that is

highly effective against all mosquitoes: dengue vectors like Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus; malaria

vectors including Anopheles gambiae and so many more. It is, therefore, now used as the “gold-standard”

repellent against which other substances are compared in laboratory and field trials (Sadanandane etal.,

2001).
 An estimated 15 million people in the U.K., 78 million people in the U.S.A., and 200 million

people globally use deet each year.102 There has been much speculation on the safety of deet following

reports linking it to seizures and encephalopathy, particularly in children, as well as neurotoxicity,

especially in combination with other pesticides.108 However, deet has been used for 50 years with a tiny

number of reported adverse effects, many of which had a history of excessive or inappropriate use of

repellent. Nonetheless, its toxicology has been more closely scrutinized than any other repellent, but it has

been deemed safe for human use, including use on children and pregnant women. The use of a

deet/permethrin repellent has recently been proven to reduce malaria incidence amongst users (Moore,

2016)

Recent Repellent Discoveries

IR 3535

Insect repellent 3535 (IR 3535), [3-(N-acetyl-N-butyl) aminopropionic acid ethyl ester], also

known as MERCK 3535, was developed in 1975 by Merck, and has been on the market in Europe for the

past twenty years. It has low toxicity, although it is irritating to the eyes and sometimes the skin. It

became available in the U.S. in 1999 after being passed by the EPA, classified as a bio pesticide, as it is

substituted B-amino acid, structurally similar to naturally occurring B-alanine. The World Health

Organization (WHO) has declared it a safe and effective repellent for human use. In fact, there is not a

single recorded incidence of an adverse reaction to this compound (Badolo etal., 2004).

Piperidine/ Picaridin Compounds

There has been a flurry of renewed interest in the piperidine-based compounds, leading to the

discovery of several new and highly effective repellents. Piperidines, as a chemical class, are cyclic

amines. The piperidine skeleton is present in piperine, the main active chemical agent in pepper (Piper

sp.). During the 1970s, approximately 600 synthetic compounds related to piperidines were developed by

scientists at the Gainesville and Beltsville research centers of the USDA. The data from these experiments
is now being re-examined using new, high-tech methodologies coupled with rapid-screening bioassays.

This interest in finding deet alternatives has been motivated by the controversy around the safety of deet,

its low user acceptability, and its plasticizing effect (Constantini etal., 2004).

Apple Cider Vinegar and Parsley

Although, generally, you wouldn’t put parsley in the category of natural mosquito repellents,

parsley does contain chemicals that repel asparagus beetles. So it makes sense to plant it around asparagus

and other susceptible to those bugs cultures (Fantastic Gardeners, 2016).

According to Mosquito Review (2020), all vinegar works to repel mosquitoes due to the

overpowering smell of vinegar.  The only exception to this is white vinegar, which must be mixed with

something like water to become 100% effective. Another reason that vinegars repel mosquitoes is due to

how mosquitoes taste through their legs, letting chemicals that give off a strong taste, such as DEET,

repel mosquitoes.  Also, vinegars like apple cider vinegar, if consumed enough, can strengthen your

body’s natural odor to repel mosquitoes and other insects. Consuming apple cider vinegar is also said to

give your body a natural, repelling odor, but using it in spray form is much more effective.  However, it’s

also possible to kill mosquito larvae with vinegar, putting an end to the problem before it can begin, only

problem being that a 15% vinegar, 85% water solution takes 18 hours to kill the larvae.  

Theoretical Framework

One of the problems posed in every country is the cases of vector - borne diseases. Life-

threatening virus can be transmitted just simply by a mosquito bite. According to WHO (2017), although

vector-borne diseases or VDB comprise 17% of all infectious diseases, it is estimated that 96 million

cases are recorded annually all over the globe leading to more than 700,000 deaths per year. Nevertheless,

WHO believes that mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria are preventable when prevention and control

measures are in place.

 With that being said, theories related to health behavior have been developed to understand

determinants of behavior and to provide a basis for effective health policy towards preventing the cases of

vector- borne diseases and those are the Health Belief Model (HBM) proposed by Howard Leventhal and

Stephen Meteors and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) proposed by Albert Bandura. Both theories

are validated, and effectively applied in preventive behavior interventions. Central concepts in the HBM

are the ‘perceived susceptibility’ and the ‘perceived severity’ of the condition, leading to the ‘perceived

threat’ of the condition. The HBM proposes that the perceived threat of a condition, the perceived

benefits and barriers of preventive behavior, the self-efficacy (a person’s perceived ability to perform the

behavior) cues to action predict behavior. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) combines the attitude

towards behavior, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control, resulting in behavioral intentions

and behavior (Elsinga etal., 2017).Through these theories, preventing vector- born diseases from inflating

would be possible.

Furthermore, the researchers used Usability Theory to assess or measure the product’s usability

through quantitative methods. According to Sergeev (2010), usability theory evaluate the extent to which

the product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency, and

satisfaction in a specified context of use.

Conceptual Framework

The paradigm shows the relationship of the dependent and independent variable. The study wants

to make an organic mosquito repellent out of apple cider vinegar and fresh parsley and test it if it is an

effective choice over the commercially one. Furthermore, the study will determine the properties of the

organic mosquito repellent out of apple cider vinegar and fresh parsley in terms of: a.) odor, b.)

repellency, c.) safety, and d.) longevity.

 Independent Variable Dependent Variable

The study specifically wants to

determine the properties of
mosquito repellent out of ACV
Effectiveness of Apple Cider and fresh parsley in terms of:
Vinegar and Fresh Parsley as
an Organic Mosquito Repellent Odor;
Repellency
Safety; and
Longevity

Figure 1. Research Paradigm

Statement of the Problem

This study seeks to determine the effectiveness of Apple Cider Vinegar and Fresh Parsley as an

Organic Mosquito Repellent. Specifically, the researchers aimed to find out:

1. How effective are the properties of Apple Cider Vinegar and Fresh Parsley as an organic

mosquito repellent in terms of:

1.1. Odor,

1.2. Repellency,

1.3. Safety, and

1.4. Longevity?

2. Can Apple Cider Vinegar and fresh parsley be an alternative organic mosquito repellent for

commercial ones?

3. What are the implications that can be drawn from the results of the study?
Hypotheses

1. Apple Cider Vinegar and Fresh Parsley are not effective organic mosquito repellent in terms of

odor.

2. Apple Cider Vinegar and Fresh Parsley are not effective organic mosquito repellent in terms of

repellency against mosquitoes.

3. Apple Cider Vinegar and Fresh Parsley are not effective organic mosquito repellent in terms of

safety.

4. Apple Cider Vinegar and Fresh Parsley are not effective organic mosquito repellent in terms of

longevity.

Scope and Limitations

The study focuses on the implication of apple cider vinegar and fresh parsley as an organic

mosquito repellent. It seeks to determine the effectiveness of Apple Cider Vinegar and Fresh Parsley to

repel mosquitoes both at home and in the community.

This study is experimental research focusing on the effects of the by-product. As the study's

captive, the researchers concentrated primarily on mosquitoes. Furthermore, researchers are limited to

doing experiments due to pandemic and strict protocols of communities.

This study limits its coverage to the discussion of mosquito repellent production and the impact

of ACV and fresh parsley as an organic mosquito repellent on the environment and on the people.
Significance of the Study

This research aims to determine the effectiveness of apple cider vinegar and fresh parsley as an

organic mosquito repellent. The findings of the study will be beneficial to the following:

The Consumers. This study may help provide cheaper alternatives for mosquito repellents in which

consumers could spend less.

The Environment. This study could help lessen the cases of mosquito- borne diseases occurring in the

environment.

The Future Researchers. This study will serve as a useful reference to their own study.

The Researchers. This will help the researchers determine the effectiveness of their study.

Definition of Terms

The following words are defined conceptually and operationally to further understand the study.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Also known as CDC which is a federal agency that

conducts and supports health promotion, prevention and preparedness activities in the United States, with

the the goal of improving overall public health.

(https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://searchhealthit.techtarget.com/

definition/Centers-for-Disease-Control-and-Prevention)

DEET. A brand of diethyltoluamide which is a colorless oily liquid with a mild odor used as the most

common active ingredient in any insect repellent.

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://languages.oup.com/google-dictionary

Eucalyptus Lemon Oil. Also known as p-menthane-3,8-diol, or PMD derived from the leaves of lemon

eucalyptus trees and chemically synthesized, usually in the form of a sprays.

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.health.com/home/oil-of-lemon-

eucalyptus-extract-natural-mosquito-repellent

Environmental Protection Agency. Also known as EPA which is responsible for the protection of

human health and the environment. EPA: Provides technical assistance to support recovery planning of

public health and infrastructure, such as waste water treatment plants.

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.doi.gov/recovery/about-us/

primary-agencies/EPA

Mosquito Repellents. A chemical substance, such as a spray or lotion, applied to the body

to prevent mosquitoes biting.

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/

dictionary/english/mosquito-repellent

Parsley. It is a popular herb often used in American, European, and Middle Eastern cooking. It’s

commonly used to elevate the flavor of dishes like soups, salads, and fish recipes.

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/parsley