Issue #28

SILLY LINGUISTICS THE MAGAZINE FOR LANGUAGE LOVERS
IS DUOLINGO the weirdest

USEFUL FOR (Grammatically
A LANGUAGE Correct)
LEARNER? Sentence in the
English
Language
Change
Your Shoes
Silent
Love
Letter
THE MAGAZINE FOR LANGUAGE LOVERS : ISSUE #28 : SEPTEMBER 2020

table of contents
3
S IS FOR … SYNTAX
By Chris Davy
6 22
DIARY OF A STUDENT TEACHER
By Giulia Raus THE LEGAL PERSON: PART 3
By David Wells
9
IS LANGUAGE INADVERTENTLY
30
SEXIST? SILENT LETTER LOVE
By Rachel James By Stefano Nunes
12 33
DISCRETIZING AND WELL-
DEFINING LANGUAGE CHANGING YOUR SHOES
By Gil Cohen By Camille Masson
16 36
THE WEIRDEST DISPATCHES FROM LINGUISTS:
(GRAMMATICALLY CORRECT) ROOM WITH A DIFFERENCE, COVID
SENTENCE IN THE ENGLISH FLORENCE
LANGUAGE By Aisla McArthur
By Ashleigh Hume
41
19 THE POETRY OF LANGUAGE: TO
MAKE A WORD
IS DUOLINGO USEFUL FOR A By Ed Bedford
LANGUAGE LEARNER?
By Valentin Pradelou
42
BABEL: A REVIEW
By Holly Gustafson
This week's numbers are in Italian!

Cover page photo by Annie Spratt & content page photo by Edward Howell on Unsplash
September 2020, Issue #28 Silly Linguistics: The Magazine for Language Lovers
3 | tre
S is for...
Syntax
BY CHRIS DAVY
@CHRISDAVY1985
I’ll be honest, on this one, I feel like I’m way So, for the thousandth time, I grew up in
out of my depth. But then again, what is Devon. I was born in Wolverhampton. I grew
depth anyway?! up in Devon from the age of 8. Studied in
Kingston, Greater London. All of this is
And with that statement, POW! I’m back in the important because it means I’m aware of
game! some of this weird stuff that we do in the UK
when it comes to language. Now in Devon, as
If you want to get better at language or I’m sure as is the case in a lot of other places
linguistics you have to be at least aware of where people speak English, we say often say,
what syntax is. ‘Where’s it to?’.
Truth be told, even if you didn’t know what the But when we say ‘Where’s it to?’, we just
word syntax meant, you are actually very mean...’Where?’. Which when you think about
aware of it if you’ve managed to make it this it is absolutely mental. Because the ‘ -‘s it to?’
far into my article; because syntax is basically bit is absolutely NOT NEEDED! And this is a
the study of sentence structure. So, I know very short sentence that I’m highlighting here.
you know a bit about what syntax is you The complexity of the syntax at play here is
rascals! OTHERWISE, you wouldn’t have been beyond minimal. But seriously, the addition of
able to read the article now would you!?! Holy just those extra noises blows people’s minds!
moly!
They look at you with that scrunched up query
Segue. face and are like...
4 | quattro
*engage cognitive processing*
“Where’s is to?”
*more pause*
“What do you mean ‘Where’s it to?’?”
And then will ensue an unnecessarily long conversation about the addition of words and
whether or not it is appropriate.
For example, you say...
“Oh Chris, I went to this lovely restaurant at the weekend.”
And I, being Chris, may respond by saying...
“Oh that sounds absolutely spiffing. Where’s it to?”
And that’s it. The conversation COULD continue on its merry little way. If you are so
inclined. Or we could start to debate the use of the additional words. If you are rude about
it, I then quickly lose interest in you and almost anything you have to say, but will likely
continue in said conversation because my mummy taught me not to be rude.
The weird bit is, if people were to say “To where?” I imagine the majority of people
wouldn’t even bat an eyelid. But say “Where’s it to?” and there’s every chance people will
malfunction and shut-down for a bit.
So, I’d hazard a guess and say other than English basically being the international trade
language. The other reason English people don’t necessarily learn other languages is simply
because we’re always struggling to actually come to terms with our own, let along anyone
else’s!
BUT, syntax is an interesting concept. Computer programmers will likely be more familiar
with the concept than a lot of people, because in the world of computer programming they
have to use the same concept to manipulate language in order to produce software and
analyse data and other computery based stuff.
5 | cinque
The whole point is that the set of rules and principles that are used to communicate in
different languages when it comes to sentence structure fall under to topic of syntax.
Do adjectives come before or after verbs? Is there some sort of weird order that describing
things tends to follow; size, colour, texture, and so on. Should sentences follow a general
pattern of subject-verb-object. When you include certain words in the same sentence are
you supposed to perform some sort of pagan ritual? That last one might not be a thing.
But, each language has got its own set of rules. Some languages share the same or similar
sets of rules. All you need to know is that it’s cool. It’s fine. It’s supposed to be there. It’s
relative to the language; the syntax of the language.
If you really want to get into it, then yes, there probably is a syntax that is more beneficial
for certain tasks, professions, and countries compared to others. Because the nature of the
syntax will naturally emphasise certain elements of the communication. Just by the
sequence of the words alone. And if the language is applied in a particular way we will get
‘better’ results.
But you know, unless you are going to get really stuck into it all, maybe just enjoy a little
chat instead? Don’t be so picky about whether or not it’s the right thing to say or the right
way to speak. Just be thankful your can just enjoy a conversation.
Have a right old thankful conversation!
6 | sei
Diary
of a
Student
Teacher
By Giulia Raus
7 | sette
The school year is over, it is August and teachers are on holiday. To be honest I
have been on holiday for a bit longer since I was not completely a teacher but as
the title suggests I was a student teacher which means University time (different
from school time) and graduation! I am officially a qualified teacher in the UK
since July, a fully licensed MFL teacher in the UK… on holiday for far too long!
I've forgotten my French, help!!

As you can see, and for all of you that followed me during my adventures I am not
a French native speaker and neither an English one. Spending my summer in Italy
did not help me if you know what I mean! Teachers and student teachers go on
holiday though, so what is the solution to keep up with languages and relax at the
same time?

Do not worry I am here for you “language-aholics”! First of all, a little bit of rest
has never killed anyone, do not worry too much, knowing a language is like riding
a bicycle, you will never forget it you just need to get used to it again after a
period of rest. Secondly, teacher or not, you can keep exercising your second or
third language during your period of rest by just watching or reading something
(the oldest suggestion ever, but yes, it always works) even listening to music in
that language is a good exercise just to keep in touch with the vocabulary and
some grammatical structures.
Last but not least, do not be afraid to speak! I will never get tired of saying it, it
doesn’t matter where you are or where you are going, you will always find
someone that speaks the language you are interested in it. Not long ago I was in a
tiny faraway Italian village on the Adriatic coast and behind me there was a
massive group of French people who didn’t mind speaking with me for a while
since I helped them find the best ice-cream shop around. Usually foreigners on
holiday love interacting with locals and exchanging information and jokes, it
definitely spices their adventure up, so do not be afraid and go for it, it will be a
remarkable experience and a fresh air of self-esteem.
Nevertheless, if you use languages to earn money and especially if you have to
teach them to others, it is fundamental to not forget them completely and be a
little bit more specific about suggestions to “stay in shape”. Luckily for me, I am a
fresh new teacher and I still remember all the good suggestions delivered by the
university and the schools where I have been in placement. If you teach
languages, in the UK, let’s be clear not everywhere is the same, you already know
you will have to teach through topics and according to the topics we will
introduce new grammar rules.
8 | otto
So here one of my easy to-do ideas: just prepare some lessons before September
following topics and creating Power-Points on that grammar rule, while you are
preparing them you will be able to revise, and everything will come back as
quickly as it disappeared two months ago! Secondly, do not take social media for
granted! Twitter is a huge resource for language teachers, there are plenty of
them out there spilling great advice and being supportive, the majority of them
are also native speakers which means they are even more precious. Also, never
underestimate the power of experience, experienced teachers are the best
advisers and supporters.

Secondly, do not forget the fun part of teaching languages! Think with creativity
on how to improve your classroom, add maps, posters with basic sentences and
some reminders about genders (an evergreen), I will personally, in fact, revise
some geography of the country of the language you teach as on the first day the
new students will be pretty curious about that environment, its culture and
places.
In fact, many times the interest for a language can start from the fascination of a
person for a specific place, that is why it is necessary to show different
characteristics of a foreign country and not only focus or just introduce the
grammar aspect of it.

Going back to our preparation for September, as an Italian native speaker I will
be prepared to introduce myself to my new students, trying to show them some
Italian content as well because, in my opinion pupils need to be pushed and
exposed to different information, if there is the chance of it, as much as possible
to discover new interests, especially language wise (they might prefer Italian to
French, who knows!).

In conclusion, my year in Wales has come to an end and I am officially a teacher in
the outskirts London, where I will have to again face different teaching methods,
new ways of organising materials, for instance in England they use books to teach
languages, on the contrary they use booklets in Wales (made by the school’s
teachers).

So it is only on paper that I am a teacher because I still am, definitely, a student
teacher (scared and foreign). Stay tuned for my next very English adventure!
9 | nove
IS
LANGUAGE
INADVERTENTLY
SEXIST?
BY RACHEL JAMES
10 | dieci
The problem with traditional connotations and Neologisms like “girl-boss”, “entrepren-her” and
contemporary neologisms in the fight for gender “She.E.O” draw attention to the usual
equality. connotations of certain terminology. Until
phrases like these were created, there was
Most people will associate the same word with (arguably) a social consensus that bosses and
slightly different things – take the colour “red” for C.E.Os were jobs for which only men were truly
example. For me, red is the colour of the flowers suited.
on my favourite dress when I was 10, but for my
brother, it’s the colour of his football team. Numerous women nowadays caption pictures
#GirlBoss on social media, and in doing so,
Usually, these differences in associations aren’t highlight the fact that women are just as suitable
much of an issue (beyond the occasional as men for positions high up on the career ladder.
confusion during conversation) but when these Thus, we see how women have updated their
differences in connotations play into gender language to reflect our changing society and to
stereotypes, even subconsciously, what do we do? challenge stereotypical connotations.

A lot of people use terminology and phrases However.
which can be considered sexist without knowing Although phrases like “entrepen-her” do force us
that they are doing so – and I say “people” to question our assumptions about traditional
because it applies to both women and men. gender roles, they can, somewhat surprisingly,
have a harmful effect on the fight for gender
Let’s examine the word “manpower”. At first equality.
glance, it seems rather unremarkable, and
certainly not sexist. It just means the number of The use of ‘girl’ in “girl-boss”, for example, seems
people working together, right? Yep, got it in one! to infantilise women in positions of power, while
But what do you picture when you hear it? ‘boss’, instead of being an alternative to ‘manager’
or ‘leader’ etc, implies bossy – a somewhat
I asked this question to only a few people, so this negative adjective used far more commonly about
is not in any way a scientifically accurate survey, girls than boys. And that’s without mentioning
but the results are relevant all the same. that boss is now seen as a somewhat derogatory
Everybody I asked pictured armies of (male) term due to the implications of a tyrannical and
soldiers, or (male) hard-labourers and what I dictatorial leadership style. Its use as a hashtag is
think that this shows is that, though we might not also being used ever more ironically by women,
think so initially, the word “manpower” does consequently lessening the intended message
exclude women, precisely because of those about women breaking gender stereotypes in the
connotations. workplace.

Some people might say that taking offence at Moreover, by drawing attention to the fact that
“manpower” is political correctness gone mad, and the subject is a female entrepreneur or C.E.O, the
I understand their point of view – nobody uses speaker suggests that this is still a rarity, even if
the word manpower with the deliberate intention the intention is to normalise women having those
of offending or abusing women. But at the same jobs. And though there are more men than women
time, the word’s connotations mean that the role in positions of power, it doesn’t change the fact
of women in the modern, and even historical, that the women who are C.E.O.s are still being
workplace is diminished into non-existence. seen as exceptions to the rule in the general
understanding of what it takes to be a C.E.O.
In the case of “manpower” there is a gender-
neutral alternative available (“workforce”) and so A wise friend once told me that she was sick of
the easiest way to combat the unintentional being described as “a woman in engineering”
gender stereotype of the non-working female is because she was just as much of an engineer as
not only to normalise gender-neutral her male peers and wanted to be viewed as such. I
terminology, but also to educate people about think this shows us that, by highlighting the
gendered language like the word “manpower”. gender of our colleagues and leaders with
language like this, we play into society’s
That said, society also creates gendered language assumptions, even if such phrases intended
in order to question the connotations and ‘norms’ originally to emphasise the breaking of gender
of gender in day-to-day life. stereotypes.
11 | undici
But feminists have not just developed At the end of the day, we all use language to
terminology applicable only to women. The communicate our ideas and beliefs, meaning that,
movement has coined multiple phrases which if everybody has a gender-neutral understanding
highlight traditional male behaviours that of words like boss and engineer, and if neologisms
patronise women or force them to take an inferior cease to be used passively and ironically, gender
position. equality will be that much more achievable.

One such word is “mansplaining”. For those of you
who haven’t heard it before, it is used to describe
the moment when a man explains a concept to a
woman with simplified language and in a
patronising manner.
It was originally developed in order to draw
attention to the fact that such behaviour by men
is deeply rooted and unquestioned in society, and
to therefore encourage both men and women to
challenge mansplaining if they witness it and to
always try to treat the other gender as if they were
on the same intellectual level. If you’ve ever been
on the receiving end of somebody mansplaining,
I’m sure you’ll agree that it is incredibly
infuriating to be spoken to as if you have no
understanding of the world.

When it first entered society’s vernacular,
“mansplaining” was a novelty and so its use was
effective, but as time has moved on, it appears to
have lost of some of its impact, and, at least in my
experience, is now used in a somewhat resigned
manner after mansplaining has occurred.
This itself is potentially harmful because instead
of challenging sexist behaviour as it did originally,
“mansplaining” now enables us to describe and
accept it, thereby reinforcing gender stereotypes.
If one of the aims of gender equality is to fight
gender stereotypes, but the creation of words like
“mansplaining” and “manspreading” eventually
starts to reinforce them, then surely we have to
find a new way to use language in the battle
against long-accepted sexism and in the fight for
gender equality.
I’m not in any way an expert on feminism or
language, and there are obviously factors beyond
language which contribute to gender issues, but I
think that the only true way to make language as
gender-neutral and stereotype-free as it can
possibly be, is, when no acceptable alternatives
exist, to start changing the collective connotations
of words. And if we do find ourselves in a position
where creating new words to challenge
stereotypes is the only option, to be careful not to
let them become part of the problem by only
using them to actively fight for gender equality.
12 | dodici
Discretizing and
Well-defining
Language
By Gil Cohen
13 | tredici
W e, as humans, like to discretize the world, i.e. make it discrete. Discrete,

not discreet. That means that it’s easier for us to think of the world and our
surroundings as separate and distinct objects. How many fingers am I holding
up? It’s a specific number, like 2 or 3. What about non-countable objects, like
water or furniture? We still have a need to refer to them discretely, because
that’s the way our brains operate. Therefore, we define units of that object and
create a way to treat that same non-countable object in a discrete fashion: “I
drank 50 milliliters of water”, “I moved 10 pieces of furniture” etc.
What about our language? Is it discrete? One could say that it is: we can
divide our words into verbs, nouns, adjectives and many more categories, but
in some languages, the difference between adjectives and nouns or adjectives
and verbs is quite fuzzy. What’s the definition of “verb”, “noun”, “adjective”?
In mathematics, an expression is “well-defined” if it has a unique, unambiguous

value. What about languages and the definitions related to them? Are they
“well-defined”? I believe they aren’t, or perhaps they can’t be well-defined.
Before we explore this part, let’s assume that we can divide our language into
discrete and well-defined parts: we have a unique and unambiguous
definition of “noun”, “verb”, “adjective”, “preposition” and so forth. As we all know,
languages change all the time, and many words go through
grammaticalization, a process in which words become grammatical markers.
For example, a noun could become a preposition over time: the English
preposition “instead” originated from the noun “stead” and the preposition “in”,
and they merged and evolved into the preposition “instead” over time. Since
“noun” and “preposition” are well-defined, how has the preposition “instead”
emerged? It must have changed its category from “noun” to “preposition” at a
specific and exact point. Beforehand, it was a noun and afterwards, it became
a preposition, right?
14 | quattordici
Well, that’s not true. Historical Linguistics teaches us that language change,
including grammaticalization, is a gradual process. Therefore, “instead” didn’t
change its category overnight. It must have been both a noun and a
preposition at some point in time. So, the definition of “noun” and “preposition”
overlap, and consequently, they can’t be discrete and well-defined!
What about languages as a whole? Can we divide the languages and dialects
of the world into discrete and well-defined elements? There are many ways in
which we divide them, but none of them is linguistic. Sometimes we cluster
together language varieties and call them “dialects of the same language”
instead of separate languages, for cultural reasons. For example, there are
many varieties of Arabic, many of which are mutually unintelligible, and still,
they are all clustered together. For example, a Palestinian would have a hard
time understanding a Moroccan. At other times, we treat varieties as separate
languages, even if they are very similar and mutually intelligible. For example,
Urdu (spoken in Pakistan) and Hindi (spoken in India) are very similar and
their main difference is the lexicon; Urdu’s lexicon is influenced by Islam and
Hindi’s by Hinduism. Linguistically, both varieties are sometimes regarded as
single language, Hindustani.
How could this be? Why are languages misbehaving, while mathematics is a
goody two shoes? Well, the crux of the matter is that we invented
mathematics, as a way to explain the world. Mathematics is built upon a
certain set of axioms, which humans thought of, and doesn’t actually exist.
What are 2, -1 and pi? On the other hand, we didn’t invent languages, and as
such, languages don’t come with tags or information about their contents: a
language doesn’t go around, announcing it’s an SVO language or a language
without grammatical genders. No, that’s all on us. We take this magnificent
wonder, and as we aspire to make sense of it, we try to empirically define,
when it’s (nigh) impossible.
15 | quindici
In our linguistic adventure through the different languages, we create

definitions and rules, that don’t always make sense. For example, Classical
Latin had 6 fully functioning grammatical cases: Nominative, Genitive, Dative,
Accusative, Ablative and Vocative. For years, linguists have tried to describe
languages using the Latin case system, and it doesn’t really work, even for
languages that are somewhat close to Latin: Russian’s Genitive case is
similar to Latin’s, but not identical. So, should we really use “Genitive” to
discuss this Russian case?
That’s just one example for the problems that arise when we describe
languages. What should we do? On the one hand, no matter how we define
a certain concept, since we make it up, it’ll fit one language (and hopefully
more than one), but it won’t be suitable for all other languages. On the other
hand, if we describe each language on its own, with concepts and definitions
that are based entirely on that language, how would we be able to
effectively practice linguistics?

I believe that as much as our current way of thinking about linguistics is
problematic, it’s the best one we have so far. Could there be a better system
out there, waiting to be discovered or invented? That’s quite probable. In the
meantime, we should bear in mind that every language, dialect and variety
is unique and an entity of its own, and should be treated as one. In addition,
we should remember that grammar is comprised of rules of thumb with
exceptions and variants that attempt to describe language, and should be
seen as such, and not a set of well-defined rules.
16 | sedici
The
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By Ashleigh Hume
17 | diciassette
It’s a strange sentence, made even stranger by

the fact that you seemingly have to skip words
I
If there’s one thing everyone in the world can such as “the” and “and” in order to make it work;
agree on, it’s this: English is a very, very weird I’ve outlined why this is below. It’s this bit of
language. linguistic flexibility means that you can say the
word “buffalo” as many times in a row as you
How weird, I hear you ask? Well, apart from want and still make sense. You can even just yell
having more exceptions to rules than rules “buffalo!” like you’re telling someone to “look!”
themselves, I’ve recently discovered a sentence
that is both nonsensical and grammatically A Deep Linguistic Dive
correct. It contains the word “buffalo”... and
nothing else. Here’s where we get technical. The sentence is a
restrictive clause, meaning it doesn’t need a
That’s right: if you repeat the word “buffalo” comma to separate the main idea of the sentence
several times in a row, it makes a sentence. A from a non-essential bit of information (example:
sentence that makes perfect sense, if the experts “The butterfly, who had beautiful blue wings, sat
are to be believed. on a leaf” – the middle part of the sentence,
separated by commas, is an extra bit of
How does it work? information that isn’t needed for the sentence to
work). This is because all of the information in
The word “buffalo” has three different meanings. the sentence is necessary – despite how it may
It’s the name of an American city; it’s a name of look! Also, because it’s a restrictive clause,
an animal also known as bison; and it’s a verb, there’s no need for commas or articles like “a”
meaning “to bully, harass, or intimidate”. So and “the”.
“Buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo” would
mean something along the lines of “The buffalo It’s also important to note that in this case
from Buffalo buffaloes (bullies) the buffalo from “buffalo” the noun, referring to the animal, can
Buffalo” – two bison from Buffalo are in a turf be used in the singular or the plural: no
war, and one is harassing the other. “buffaloes” here!

The most common usage of this sentence is eight If you’re still a little confused about how this
“buffaloes” – Buffalo (the city) buffalo (animal) sentence works, don’t worry; I consider myself to
Buffalo (city) buffalo (animal) buffalo (verb) be very good with grammar and it’s still
buffalo (verb) Buffalo (city) buffalo (animal). somewhat baffling (or maybe buffaloing?) to me.
Translated into regular English, this sentence Maybe it’s because this sentence seems to be a
says something like: “The Buffalonian bison, who product of American English and I’m not
the other Buffalonian bison bully, also bully American. Either way, the experts say it’s
Buffalonian bison.” Goodness knows when you’d grammatically correct, and who am I to argue
ever need to use that sentence in real life, but it with people who have spent far longer
certainly helps to bump up your word count. researching this phenomenon than I have?
18 | diciotto
Where it comes from homonyms (words that sound the same but have
different meanings) can create complex
The history of this sentence is possibly even sentences. It shows how flexible, ever-changing,
crazier than the sentence itself. It was discovered and utterly mad the English language can be. Not
independently by several different people; to mention that “buffalo” is just a fun word to
however, the first written example was in a 1967 say.
book called Beyond Language: Adventures in
Word and Thought by Dmitri Borgmann. In the end, perhaps the discovery of this
Borgmann had originally written about this in his sentence hasn’t changed your life, but if
1965 book Language on Vacation: An Olio of anything, it has given you something to talk
Orthographical Oddities; however, this chapter about at parties. At least at the type of parties I
didn’t make it into the published book. go to.

Two other language nerds, William Rapaport and
Annie Senghas, were later credited with the
discovery of the sentence – Rapaport in 1972,
Senghas in 1994. Interestingly, both were
university students at the time of their
“discoveries” and neither knew about each other
or about Borgmann’s previous find.

I don’t know about you, but this seems insane to
me: three people, in three different decades, all
became obsessed with one word – or at least,
three words that are spelled exactly the same.
On top of that, should you stare at the word
“buffalo” for too long, it starts to look like it was
made up by Lewis Carroll.
So... why is this so fascinating?
Interesting question, my young apprentice.

Obviously the sentence is nonsense by anyone’s
standards; even if you were talking about buffalo
from Buffalo, you would surely use other words
in order to distinguish the three meanings!
However, it’s also a great example about how
19 | diciannove
Introduction
Well known among the community of language learners, Duolingo is

nowadays one of the most used application to learn a language. This app and
website, created in 2009 and developed for several years after, uses
translation as its central point: to make the user learn a language, they’ll have
to translate words, pieces of sentences or sentences from one target
language to one spoken language and vice versa. Its mascot (a green owl
named Duo) has even become the subject of a meme, harassing learners if
they don’t use the app enough.

In spite of these elements, Duolingo is under a large range of criticsim, as it’s
often considered not efficient at all. Some users complained about not being
able to perform and understand a language in a country speaking with native
speakers, even after several months of Duolingo. That is what we will discuss
here: what are the advantages and weaknesses of this application/website? Is
this a solid means to become fluent? Based on my own experience with the
application and website, I’ll try to give some elements of an answer. I
currently use Duolingo in order to learn Hungarian and Esperanto, and most
of the elements I’ll explain here will be based on my experience throughout
these online courses.

Duolingo also offers the learners the possibility to use its “Duolingo plus”, an
enhanced version with additional features, which I don’t use. Maybe it would
change the analysis a bit, but this article will be based on the basic use of the
application, not with the “plus” version.
20 | venti
Advantages and weaknesses
First, as we’ve said earlier, Duolingo is supposed to make you learn a language through
translation. Some criticisms target the app as it isn’t really making the learner learn useful
sentences. And... I think it’s true. Definitely true. Most of the sentences seen are not really
useful in real life. In fact, it seems like the pieces of lexicon are the central point of the
sentences: the app wants you to memorize the lexicon and just puts it into kind of random
sentences. Moreover, it unfortunately gives a laconic insight of the grammar. There is a forum
in which it’s possible to discuss grammar points with other users as much as there are
sometimes some tips with a lesson, but it remains really brief and not relevant for a learner
seeking fluency.
However, one element appears very important to me, briefly seen above: the lexicon. I think
this app is effective in making you learn the lexicon, and here is why. In a French article talking
about memories from Martial Van Der Linden and Arnaud D'argembeau published in 1999 in
Cerveau et Psycho, it is explained how emotions are a cornerstone in memories: the more
emotions you have in an event, the more memories you have from it. And here is my point: we
often see, especially on language meme groups (such as “The language nerds”, for example),
memes in which strange Duolingo sentences are to be translated. Think about it: if a sentence
is strange, it could be funny and make you laugh through a certain discrepancy from reality. In
this way, you remember it better, laughing and thus feeling an emotion.
I often remember such sentences, in the Hungarian course, as “The kindergarten teachers fly
among the buildings and that’s beautiful” or “I go in the kitchen; I open the refrigerator and sit
in it”. It made me kind of snigger and I still can remember such words as “building”, “beautiful”,
“refrigerator”, “kitchen”, etc…, because it made me laugh. Duolingo has the goal of being fun:
we couldn’t claim it failed.

We can also talk about the general aspect of the app, in relation with these fun previous
elements. With a colorful interface, its rewards, lingots, streak freezes and so forth, Duolingo
really shows its goal to be fun. You can even customize your green owl named Duo who
appears in lessons to cheerlead you in case of multiple mistakes, or support you if your
answers are good several times in a row.
The app always wants you to keep your streak alive (a streak starting with at least one course
completed a day), and sends you notifications around 11pm because it knows your streak will
pass away at midnight: it is challenging as well. Challenging through a system of divisions in
which the more you complete courses, the more points you earn, the more divisions you climb
21 | ventuno
up, in competition with other users. To me, the junction of challenge and fun is really
interesting, overseen by a good way to learn pieces of lexicon.
These are, to me, the big advantages of Duolingo. However, the final goal of learning a
language is supposed to be, most of the time, fluency. Is Duolingo a solid means to reach this
Holy Grail?
What about fluency?
Let’s be clear, we better forget it. As we’ll show, fluency can't be reached through Duolingo
courses only. As its creator said, Luis Von Ahn, Duolingo can pave the way from beginner to
intermediate level. Hence, Duolingo is a fun way to discover a language, and even a good way
to memorize some pieces of lexicon, combined with a more “serious” way to learn a language
such as real courses, books or travel in the related countries.

Only translating words or sentences, often not really useful in real life, can't be considered a
solid way to reach an advanced level. Duolingo wants to be fun, and is more about making the
learner discover some features of a new language, more than a real and serious course would.
Starting Duolingo and seeking an advanced level is then a mistake: Duolingo has to be
considered for what it is.
Conclusion
Even if Duolingo claims that 34 hours on the app is equal to a university language class
semester (proved wrong by Steven Sacco), most of the elements show that Duolingo should
only be considered light and fun, as we’ve tried to explain here. The biggest mistake is maybe
claiming that 34 hours on the app is equal to a semester of real university courses and so claim
that Duolingo is a serious way to reach a good level. It could make learners believe they can
handle discussions or real-life interactions with native speakers, only based on its courses, and
that is definitely wrong. It goes against the tide of what the whole app is displaying: fun and
lightness.

I have tried to provide some elements of advantages and weaknesses of Duolingo based on my
own experience here, but I wouldn’t claim these elements are to be considered exhaustive.
These are based on my experience and I’d be happy to hear other opinions about Duolingo. I
hope you guys enjoyed this article, and thanks for reading!
22 | ventidue
The Legal
Person: Part 3
By David Wells
23 | ventitré
I would like to return to the many

meanings of the word “person” for a third
round. Most English-speakers hear the word
“person” and think of an individual member
of the human species Homo sapiens.
Because lawyers like to make life
complicated for themselves and others, we
have extended the meaning of the word to
include non-corporeal entities like
corporations, although this is still a
controversial idea in many circles. The term
“personhood” has come to mean that
something possesses some or all of the
same legal rights as human persons. This is
also quite controversial, and it is likely to get
even more so. In the past few years, the idea
of “environmental personhood” has gained
attention and support, even becoming law
in some places. Before we get to that,
though, let us review a few points.
The Many Meanings of

“Person”: A Quick Recap
The English word “person” derives most
directly from Old French, and from Latin
before that. If you look at early uses of the
Latin word, the various meanings the word
can have today make a bit more sense.
“Person” comes from the Old French

persone, which had approximately the
“human” meaning commonly associated
with the English word. The Latin word
persona could refer to an individual human,
but it could also mean “assumed character,”
a meaning that continues in the English
word “persona.”
24 | ventiquattro
Earlier Latin uses of persona referred to a

“mask” or “false face.” Some linguists,
including Ernest Klein and Robert K.
Barnhart, have traced the Latin persona to
the Etruscan phersu, meaning “mask.”
Natural Persons and Legal

Persons
Legal systems in the English-speaking world
have used the word “person” in several ways
for quite some time. The term “natural
persons” is often used to refer to what I will
call “people persons,” as in actual living,
breathing people. “Legal persons,” also
known as “juridical persons,” can include
corporations, partnerships, trusts, and other
organizations. Under federal law in the U.S.,
the word “person” can “include corporations,
companies, associations, firms, partnerships,
societies, and joint stock companies, as well
as individuals.”
Initially, the point of this distinction was to

allow corporations, etc. to enter into
contracts and engage in other activities on
their own behalf. Allowing corporations and
other business entities. To exist separately
from their owners presents certain
advantages. For example, business owners
have protection from personal liability for
claims against the business. This type of
“personhood” for business entities seems to
be in keeping with the “assumed character”
meaning of the Latin persona, since it allows
individuals to act through their businesses.
25 | venticinque
The past few years have seen some rather

extensive growth in the concept of “legal
personhood,” at least in the United States.
The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in
Citizens United v. Federal Election
Commission, issued in 2010, essentially
recognized corporation’s right to free
speech under the First Amendment to the
U.S. Constitution. The court’s 2014 decision
in Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.
allowed a corporation to claim a religious
exemption from a statute. This is a concept
of “personhood” that goes beyond merely
allowing a business entity to sign a contract
or file a lawsuit. This idea of “personhood”
approaches the way we view the rights of
“natural persons.”
The Next Frontier in

Personhood:
Environmental Persons
The idea of legal personhood now extends

to natural objects, animals, and plants in
some places around the world. Many of the
ideas underlying this trend come from
indigenous peoples and their cultural and
legal traditions. In the English-speaking
world, it began with trees.
26 | ventisei
Standing for Trees

In 1971, Dr. Seuss published The Lorax, which tells the story of a short-sighted, greedy
character known as the Once-ler. Long ago, the Once-ler found a beautiful valley full
of Truffula trees, whose tufts were “much softer than silk, and...had the sweet smell of
fresh buttery milk.” Upon chopping down a Truffula tree to make a consumer
product out of its tuft, the Once-ler encounters the Lorax, a “shortish,” “oldish,”
“brownish,” and “mossy” fellow who informs him that he “speaks for the trees.” The
Lorax implores the Once-ler to leave the Truffula trees alone, but the Once-ler
ignores him.
The Once-ler’s business grows, and the Lorax continues to petition the Once-ler on
behalf of not only the trees, but the creatures that rely on the trees: the Brown Bar-
ba-loots, the Swomee-Swans, and the Humming Fish. The Lorax has to send them all
away, but the Once-ler is still not moved. It is only when the very last Truffula tree
falls that he sees the error of his ways. By then, of course, it is too late. The Lorax
leaves, as do the Once-ler’s family members and employees. The Once-ler stays
behind, living out his life in the ruins of the world he destroyed and waiting for
someone to come along who can offer hope for the future.
One year after the publication of The Lorax, the Southern California Law Review
published an article by Christopher D. Stone, a professor at the school, entitled
“Should Trees Have Standing? — Toward Legal Rights for Natural Objects.” Somewhat
like the Lorax’s advocacy on behalf of the trees, Stone proposed “that we give legal
rights to forests, oceans, rivers and other so-called ‘natural objects’ in the
environment-indeed, to the natural environment as a whole.”
Stone never uses the term “personhood,” but throughout the article he refers to the
same concept. His article caught the attention of Supreme Court Justice William O.
Douglas, who mentioned it in a dissenting opinion later that year in Sierra Club v.
Morton. Justice Douglas argued in favor of “the conferral of standing upon
environmental objects to sue for their own preservation.”
In an article entitled “Environmental Personhood,” published in the Columbia

Journal of Environmental Law in 2018, law professor Gwendolyn J. Gordon argues
that land can already, in a sense, be considered a “person” that can enter into
contractual agreements. She notes, for example, how easements and certain other
property interests “run with the land” instead of remaining with any human owner.
27 | ventisette
The Environment, Personified

According to Gordon, Ecuador became the first country to provide legal rights for
the natural world in its constitution in 2008. Article 10 of Ecuador’s constitution
states that nature (la naturaleza) is entitled to all of the rights established elsewhere
in the document. Articles 71 through 74 go into more detail about the rights of
nature. Article 71 also provides personification drawn from indigenous languages and
religion. It addresses “nature,” and provides another name: Pacha Mama.
In the Quechua and Aymara languages of

the Andes region, Pacha Mama translates
as “World Mother.” The closest concept in
English would be “Mother Earth” or
“Mother Nature.” Bolivia followed
Ecuador’s lead in 2010, passing the Ley de
Derechos de la Madre Tierra (“Law of
Rights of Mother Earth.”) My rough
translation of the first section of the law
begins with “The purpose of this Law is to
recognize the rights of Mother Earth, as
well as the obligations and duties of the
Plurinational State and of society to
guarantee respect for these rights.”
Environmental Persons
From these laws passed in South America
just a few years ago, others have followed.
Some successful efforts to establish legal
personhood for environmental features
derive from indigenous traditions that use
animate language to describe geographic
features. This is not something that occurs
much in the English language, where
these efforts have mostly relied on legal
terminology.
28 | ventotto
Animate Language and A Forest, and River, and a

“Folk Geography” Mountain in New Zealand
The way languages describe geographic The government of New Zealand has
features reflect cultural views of and recognized the legal personhood of three
relationships with those features. While areas in the country’s North Island,
English and other widespread languages although in doing so, it has mostly just
largely use impersonal terms to describe caught up to the Māori’s understanding of
mountains, rivers, and other geographic those areas. In 2014, the Te Urewera Act
features, some languages use terms that granted legal personhood to its namesake,
personify them. a heavily-forested area that had previously
been a national park. The area has great
Dr. Hong-Key Yoon of the University of significance for the Ngāi Tūhoe, the Māori
Auckland discusses geographic terms in iwi (tribe) that lives there. In Māori
the Korean and Māori languages in mythology, the North Island is a fish
“Indigenous ’Folk’ Geographical Ideas and caught by the mythological figure Māui.
Knowledge,” published in Advances in The Ngāi Tūhoe refer to Te Urewara as Te
Anthropology in November 2017. Korean Manawa o te Ika a Māui, “the heart of the
folk traditions, he writes, “used to conceive great fish of Māui.” Section 11 of the 2014
nature as a magical being that could bless law declares Te Urewara to be “a legal
or hurt people.” He describes how the entity, [with] all the rights, powers, duties,
Māori of New Zealand express an and liabilities of a legal person.”
“intense...sentiment for their ancestral land
and the bond with their home land” The Te Awa Tupua (Whanganui River
through their language. Not Claims Settlement) Act, passed in 2017,
coincidentally, New Zealand has done recognized the legal personhood of the
more than most countries to confer legal Whanganui River and “all its physical and
“personhood” on geographic features. metaphysical elements.” The law brought
29 | ventinove
an end to a legal dispute over the area Here in the United States, attempts to
that began in the 1870’s. The Māori tribes secure rights on behalf of rivers and lakes
that live along the river identify strongly have not been successful. A group of
with it, often saying “Ko au te awa. Ko te plaintiffs filed suit against the State of
awa ko au.” (“I am the river. The river is Colorado on behalf of the “Colorado River
me.”) Ecosystem.” They asked the court to issue
a declaration finding that, among other
Later in 2017, the government of New things, “[t]he Colorado River Ecosystem is
Zealand entered into an agreement with a ‘person’ capable of possessing rights,”
eight iwi to recognize the legal and that “[t]he Colorado River Ecosystem
personhood of Taranaki, a volcano located possesses the rights to exist, flourish,
near the west coast of the North Island. regenerate, be restored, and naturally
The Record of Understanding describes evolve.” The plaintiffs withdrew the suit
the longstanding relationship between after the Colorado Attorney General
the iwi and Taranaki, stating that “the threatened to seek sanctions against their
maunga [mountains] are pou [teachers, attorney.
pillars] that form a connection between
the physical and the social elements of Voters in Toledo, Ohio approved the Lake
our lived experience,” and that they Erie Bill of Rights (LEBOR) in February
“transcend our perception of time, 2019, which granted rights of legal
location, culture and spirit.” personhood to the 9,910 square mile
(25,667 square kilometer) Lake Erie. LEBOR
Rivers and Lakes Around was brought down by a lawsuit filed by a

group of farmers and a bill passed by the
the World Ohio Legislature. While neither effort
succeeded, the Colorado lawsuit and
In numerous countries, people have taken LEBOR got a dialogue started.
to the courts to seek legal protections for
rivers and other natural features. A court in
India recognized legal personhood for the
Ganges and Yamuna rivers in 2017,
although the nation’s highest court later
stayed the ruling. The Supreme Court of
Bangladesh ruled in 2019 that all rivers in
the nation have the rights of legal
personhood.
30 | trenta
Silent Letter Love
BY ED BEDFORD
Have you ever thought about how cool alphabets are? A collection of
different squiggles that you can arrange in thousands of different ways
to make all sorts of sounds. An infinity of possibilities! I like that some
very efficient languages (obviously, German) make very good use of
every single letter. If you see one written, you can bet it’s going to be
pronounced, even in weird combinations like weltanschauung
(worldview) where both “u”s are pronounced. In this article, however,
I’d like to turn my attention to the other type of language, the terribly
beautiful, horribly inefficient, exceedingly exclusive languages like
French, where silent letters reign supreme. Is there a sound more
beautiful than silence? Hardly.
Of course, before I start, I’d like to pause quickly to underline that,

while there are actual silent letters that are written but not
pronounced, there are some languages where a letter marks a silence.
In the Squamish language of British Columbia, for example, there is a
letter to mark a small silence called a glottal stop. It’s right there in the
name, Skwxwú7mesh (Squamish, in Squamish), the “7” represents a
glottal stop, similar to the one represented by the “t” in British, when
pronounced with a cockney accent, or in Uh-oh!
31 | trentuno
Nevertheless, I write in praise of the true silent letters, those whose presence
is obfuscated in speech completely, making them beautiful specters,
skeuomorphs, left over from ancient evolutions in language, and kept for no
reason other than tradition, or some sense of linguistic aesthetic, like a sort of
museum piece, proudly displayed only in the written form. The greatest
museum, the Louvre, if you permit me, of silent letters, is of course, the most
ridiculously inefficient language of all: French. French is the opposite of
German. While the engineers who build the machine that is the German
language made every single cog do a specific job, the French built a glorious
monument to history, one that makes every single learner of the language,
including little French children, rip out their hair in desperation while they
roam the corridors painted Frankish, Occitan and Latin. French will have you
writing ten letters and pronouncing five.
In French, you will find silent “e”, silent “b”, silent “c” silent “d”, silent “f”, silent
“g”, silent “h” ( and also, not so silent “h”, which is even more exasperating),
silent “l”, silent “m”, silent “n”, silent “p”, silent “r”, silent “s”, silent “t”, silent
“x”, and silent “z”. These silent letters are not even rare, in a common place
sentence you could find all of them:
Chez moi, mon chien choisit toujours de manger les choux roux, mais laisse
souvent trop de dégâts pour que je trouve ça mignon. Il pourrait manger les
choux blancs, mais il préfère hanter les roux. Il faut que je ferme la porte du
jardin à clef, il n’est pas gentil. Je pète les plombs.
(In my house, y dog always chooses to eat the red cabbages, but he often leaves
too much destruction for me to find it cute. He could eat the white cabbages,
but chooses to haunt the red ones. I need to lock down the garden, he’s not
nice. I’m going crazy.)
I underlined all the letters that are silent. Some of these are not quite silent, as
they are noted as a nasalization, such as in “blanc” /blɑ̃/; note however that the
“c” is 100% completely silent, a mere etymological remnant of times past, from
the Frankish *blank. Note the last word “plombs” and how beautifully it links
back to the Latin plumbus (lead), even though the French pronounces neither
the “m”, (except nasalized) the “b” (purely a skeuomorph), nor the “s” (the
marker of the plural). For all of you anglophones tuned into chemistry, this is
why lead is Pb in the table of elements.
32 | trentadue
Even better than silent consonants are the complex combinations of different
vowels to make sounds that already exist in other vowels. French will use three
letters when one is needed. The word for “bull” for example, is “taureau” (plural
“taureaux”, with a silent x), pronounced /to.ʁo/, written “toro” in Spanish, a
language that chooses to make sense; this is particularly strange when there is
already a letter that expresses the sound/o/, it’s called “o”. The French word for
“tail” is “queue”, pronounced /kø/, which means the only letter pronounced is
“q” and the rest are just along for the ride, or patiently standing in line. French
insists, as if the word for ox, “boeuf” (/bœf/), wasn’t full enough of superfluous
letters, the plural boeufs (/bœ/) chooses to turn the “f” silent and instead of two
superfluous letters, offer you the luxury of having four.
The best part about all the silent letters in French is being able to feel like you
are part of a very special club. Somehow you passed the grueling crucible that
is learning how to speak and write fluently in French, and you are part of a
select group who writes in a cryptic code. In fact, like little spies, French
children are submitted to rigorous training in orthography, through a soul-
crushing process called dictée. This is like a crazy, elite spelling bee where the
teacher will dictate a text to the class, full of words that sound similar, and the
children are supposed to know how to spell the words, silent letters included.
Eventually, little Francophone children learn to navigate where the exact same
sound in the conjugation (/e/) of a verb is written “er”, “ez”, or “é”, they even
learn the subjunctive of avoir (to have), written “ais” “ait” “aient”, pronounced
exactly the same way: /ɛ/. How could you not feel like part of an exclusive club?
The only club more special, though, is that tough group of anglophones who
managed to plough through the challenges and thoroughly learn English
spelling through and through. If French is the Louvre of silent letters, English
is definitely a Little Shop of Horrors of loan words, skeuomorphs and fossils.
I’ll leave this exploration for next time, but you can try to find all the silent
letters I hid in this article, just for fun.
33 | trentatré
Changing
Your Shoes
BY CAMILLE MASSON
Photo by Florian Schmetz on Unsplash
34 | trentaquattro
Linguistic insecurity, aka the perception that your use of language is a lesser form
of language, is far from being a new phenomenon. As someone whose first
language is not the one spoken by the majority of their country, I experience
linguistic insecurity first-hand and also see its impact on my peers. I am a French-
Canadian, grew up speaking french in a francophone environment and learned
English formally in school when I was around 13. There is a lot of emotion and
history related to French in Canada, and one of those very strong emotions is
linguistic insecurity. Linguistic insecurity starts with the establishment of a "norm"
that one should aspire to meet. Not meeting that norm engenders a feeling of
insecurity and inadequacy.
Let's start by brushing over what linguistic insecurity is. The term "linguistic
insecurity" in itself is pretty straightforward. It refers to the feeling of anxiety or
uneasiness associated with your use of language. It can be observed in various
types of people and different situations. For example, I experience it when talking
French in a formal setting with someone I don't know well. I'm afraid that my
speech will not be perceived as being of high quality, or that it will not portray me
as someone who has an education and therefore my ideas would not be taken into
consideration. This insecurity sometimes results in my speech being,
unconsciously, modified. I have been told by different people that my accent tends
to become more neutral when in a more formal situation. This is an example of the
impact linguistic insecurity can have on speech. Speech can be modified
phonologically (like in my case), but also stylistically.
For example, one could change the wording of the vocabulary used to "cover-up"
what they feel is inadequate. In my situation, one would tend to use France-
French words rather than Quebecois-French words, even if the later is well
known, understood, and of an appropriate register at that moment. Funnily
enough, even though I myself feel inadequate so very often in formal settings, I
recently noticed my interlocutors expressing linguistic insecurity behaviour as
well. For example, I recently met an old neighbour. She knew me from when I was
a child, I babysat the kids and therefore I felt very weird when she started using
formal vocabulary, hesitating and changing her accent (all of which happened after
I told her I was finishing my studies as a speech and language pathologist). It made
me realize that feeling pressured to speak a certain way is not, in fact, reserved to
20-something new professionals...
35 | trentacinque
Now let's overview what impacts linguistic insecurity can have. First of all,
someone might refuse or avoid speaking in their first language because of it. The
feeling of speaking “wrong” and of being judged for it can be so strong that one
would prefer to avoid the language altogether. This phenomenon has been
observed in French-Canadians living in other provinces than Quebec. Modification
of speech can also happen, as mentioned earlier, phonologically and stylistically. I
personally did not experience this phenomenon as I live in Quebec, the only
province of Canada that is French-dominated. I did, however, feel a lot of pressure
on my use of French and English.
As I mentioned before, I started learning English properly quite late in my school

years, when I integrated an “enriched English” school program. With time, I got
more comfortable with the language to the point where I would consider myself
somewhat bilingual. And with this ability comes code-switching (this concept was
discussed in a previous article but here’s a quick definition straight from
Wikipedia: In linguistics, code-switching or language alternation occurs when a
speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the
context of a single conversation). As someone who grew up in a very prescriptivist
environment, needless to say code-switching isn’t really well perceived in my
environment. Hence an heightened feeling of inadequacy in both languages.
It is, of course, appropriate and necessary to change your language register

depending on the context you are in, but you should never be ashamed of your
accent or that the language you use is not exactly like the "norm" is. After all, no
one speaks to their boss the same way they speak to their best friend. There is a
difference between choosing different language registers in different contexts and
depreciating a whole dialect. We can see the language register as pairs of shoes.
When at home, you wear comfy slippers. At work, you wear your work shoes. For a
run, you wear your running shoes. None of these footwear is "bad" or lesser than
the other. They simply serve different purposes. The same goes for our language
register. So maybe, we could simply appreciate every register of a language for
what it is. And, while we're at it, why not acknowledge the fact that a prescriptivist
norm never did any good and should not impact our perception of speech.
36 | trentasei
DISPATCHES
FROM
LINGUISTS: F L O R E N C E
F F E R ENCE, C O V I D
ROOM W I T H A D I
Photo by Cristina Gottardi (top) & davide ragusa (bottom) on Unsplash
37 | trentasette
BY AISLA MCARTHUR
This month's dispatch, after a brief summer hiatus, is
from Italy as Aisla McArthur discusses her experience
of language learning in Florence, during the pandemic,
as she also learns the role of non-formal language
acquisition.
A trip to Florence in 2020 seemed like a pipe

dream just a few weeks ago. This year was hardly
the prosperous start to a new decade that most of us
had anticipated. Having been cooped up in
quarantine, like the other responsible citizens of the
UK, I was understandably itching to get out of the
house. Between endless quizzes, cocktail nights
and gardening, the days had really started to blur
together. The plan to return to Italy became a real
possibility, and a strong desire, when my university
sent me extra work to do as reparation for not
spending the required time in Italy.

To explain, for my year abroad as a language
student, I am required to spend at least three
months in a French-speaking country and three in
an Italian-speaking one, although this was reduced
to four weeks due to Covid-19. Having had to
return home from Lyon in March followed by a
lock-down until August, even four weeks seemed
almost impossible. However, if you think I am
going to take extra work laying down, you would
be sorely mistaken. Thus, I desperately searched for
a way to visit Italy, complete my required time,
and return home before university starts – all while
upholding safety measures and avoiding the virus.
After that lengthy introduction, allow me to share

some thoughts on post-lockdown Florence. My
four weeks were spent at an Italian language
school, near the incredible Cathedral of Santa
Maria del Fiore in the historic centre of the city. I
have to admit, I am glad to have had the
opportunity to see Florence without the tourists (if
I am allowed to see the selfish silver lining of the
pandemic). Of course, many people had already
flocked here after restrictions were lifted, and many
more arrived during my stay, but it is nothing
compared to the usual frenetic state of the city,
vying for space and queueing endlessly to enter
any museum or church.
Photo by Igor Oliyarnik (top) & Heidi Kaden (bottom) on Unsplash
38 | trentotto
As in most countries that aren’t run by used their eyes to demonstrate understanding. In
incompetent, egotistical leaders (not naming any the beginners’ class, one Scottish man often
names), masks are required in all shops, bars and stared at the teacher with owl-like eyes,
museums, as well as in busy streets and piazzas bewildered by indirect pronouns and the sheer
after six in the evening. The school was no velocity with which Italians speak.
exception. For three hours every morning we Unfortunately for him, there were limited
strained desperately to hear each other through classes on offer due to a lack of demand this year
masks as we conversed in Italian and stared so, although he had signed up for a beginners’
blankly at pages of grammar exercises. Unlike class, he really was thrown into the Tyrrhenian
those who took the initiative to cut a breathing Sea on day one. Hence his understandably
hole in their masks, I do not find it difficult to strigine eyes. Happily, the teachers wore clear
wear one/a mask for that length of time, nor did visors, so the problem of communication only
the majority of my classmates. The minor but really went one way. I think the school has
very apparent difficulty was in the language adapted incredibly well as there is little
learning itself. Facial expressions are vital to detriment to language learning.
communication and comprehension. When half
your face is not visible, it is hard to signal to Besides the three hours of grammar and
teachers and classmates that you are listening and conversation lessons each morning, we also
that you care about what is going on around you. received daily homework which consisted of
grammar exercises and worksheets. These
As a former teaching assistant at a high school in became increasingly difficult as the weeks went
France, I understand how frustrating and tiring it on, until eventually I had to ask for help in a
can be to teach a room full of students that do not bar. Stigliamo, the owner of said bar, of which
care or are not paying attention. With that in we were regulars, is one of the kindest, most
mind, it becomes all about the eyes. At 21 years generous people I have ever met. He often gave
old, I now have crows’ feet from smiling so us free drinks when we were the only ones there
vigorously and creasing my eyes to signal my and made us some of the best paninis I have ever
contentment and understanding. I would also eaten. However, he turned out not to be Italian.
have appreciated a rocking chair so as not to Not only is he not a native Italian speaker but he
strain my neck from nodding like an 80s has never studied the language in formal
teenager at a Metallica concert. Not everyone education.
Photo by Luca Lago (left) & Jonathan Bean (right) on Unsplash
39 | trentanove
Despite this, he gladly took my grammar

book and disappeared for quite some
time, before returning with the missing
answers. Well, sow the wind and reap
the whirlwind. Having essentially
cheated on my homework I had the
slight embarrassment of reading out
wrong answer after wrong answer in
class the next day. That experience
demonstrated the importance of formal
language learning, on the one hand, to
ensure accuracy but also its superfluity,
on the other. Accuracy does not always
indicate fluency. I, for one, would rather
sound natural and confident, than worry
about which preposition to use (although
I suppose that, as a language student, I
should not really say that). I also learned
to do the homework myself and get the
answers wrong on my own.
Although the lack of students is certainly

damaging to the school’s finances, it
certainly made for an excellent social
climate. Until my final week, there were
fewer than fifteen students in the whole
school, divided between two classes. I
truly believe that my incredibly positive
experience at the school was largely
dependent on the social aspect. While
the quality of teaching still would have
been excellent, the friendships forged
and the comradery between classmates
had an amazing impact on my language
learning. It motivated me to work
harder at my Italian because I wanted to
sound like them, nimbly passing
between tenses without hesitation. It also
motivated me to go out and really live in
Florence, rather than just be a tourist.
Photo by Caroline Minor Christensen (top) & Taylor Smith (bottom) on Unsplash
40 | quaranta
We explored bars and restaurants together, sparking Surprisingly, the social distance did not hinder
up conversations with waiters and strangers in the interactions with locals or limit the number of
street. I loved every second of it. This is coming people that approached our oddball group. All in all,
from a lifelong introvert, but something about being I was so pleasantly surprised by my time in Florence.
in a house with the same four people for months on Not only has my Italian improved (lo spero), but I
end really changed me. Being such an unlikely have learned how to make the most of travelling and
group of friends – from a 66-year-old retired expanded my social horizons. So, if you can do it
biologist to a 21-year-old mechanic – we attracted safely, I highly recommend getting back out there.
plenty of attention from locals which gave us endless
opportunities to speak Italian, as well as some
beautiful experiences. Furthermore, it seems that the
Florentines are aching for people to return to the
city. They almost seemed excited to have tourists in
their bars, in contrast to the peak seasons of previous
years when they struggled to keep their eyes
unrolled as we butchered the language.

It is a city that relies on tourism, like most major
cities in Italy, but the people themselves, who in my
experience are among the warmest in the country,
are certainly looking forward to a bustling autumn.
The point of all this is that going abroad to learn a
language is a great opportunity in its own right, and
can improve your language ability much more than
in your own country, but it is the people you meet
and the experiences you open yourself up to that
allow true development.
So, some final thoughts on my post-lockdown

excursion to Florence. Italy has definitely dealt with
this better than the UK, that is a given, but more
than that, I think they have adapted to this new
lifestyle incredibly well. In terms of learning a
language, without relying on an app, there is really
little difference. The mask limits communication
from student to teacher but teaching itself is
unaffected. Compared to my previous visits to Italy,
I think I have benefited from this experience much
more.
The social aspect of travelling is certainly an essential

part. It probably helps being a young student with
the stamina to stay out in the city all day and night,
but even the more mature students really engaged
with and benefited from it. It gives opportunities for
practice as well as facilitating cultural exchanges
with locals and is just good fun – that is what
travelling is all about.
41 | quarantuno
To Make a Word
BY ED BEDFORD
This is the first of a new column showcasing poems
playing with language and its use. This month Ed Bedford
explores the conscious act of creating of words.
Reach out for a word on the tip
of your tongue,
Even when that word is not real.

Force the misremembered
meaning into sound–

Then write it,
And better if it sounds akin to others.
Steal the spelling.
Mutate the form of reality.
Once the word is there,

Act as if it always has

Do not consider that you have made it,
For this is a word you have heard before.
(Be it only in the echoey chambers of your head.)

If it helps derive it,
Find cognates, and parent words.
Or perhaps it is an archaic form,
Long forgotten by all but you.
42 | quarantadue
BABEL:
A REVIEW
BY HOLLY GUSTAFSON
43 | quarantatré
The numbers speak for themselves:
There are approximately six thousand languages spoken or signed in the world today
(that’s an average of about one language for every 1.25 million people). Of those six
thousand languages, twenty stand out as the world’s biggest; seventy-five per cent
of the global population can communicate in one of these twenty languages, and half
of humankind claims one of them as a first language. Over ninety per cent of the
world’s population lives in countries where one or more of the twenty largest
languages are routinely used.
These twenty linguistic monoliths, which author Gaston Dorren calls the Babel Twenty,
are the subject of his book Babel: Around the World in Twenty Languages. Through
twenty chapters, Dorren recounts the theatrical sagas – historical, political,
grammatical, and cultural – of each of the world’s largest languages, each one the
protagonist in its own linguistic drama.
While Dorren begins each chapter with a handy synopsis of the language in question
– including number of speakers, pedigree, a brief grammar profile, and some basics
on phonology and orthography – he also creatively introduces a different linguistic
quandary with every language. For example, what constitutes a tone language, and
can Punjabi, with 125 million speakers, be considered one? What is gendered
language, or “genderlects”, and do the 130 million speakers of modern-day Japanese
still abide by its rules? What’s the rags-to-riches story behind Portuguese, “the small-
town boy who has cleaned up on a truly impressive scale”, that somehow birthed a
staggering 275 million speakers from one tiny, colonial country? What makes a
linguistic entity a distinct language, and not a dialect, and is Hindi-Urdu, or “Hirdu” as
it is referred to by one exasperated linguist, with its combined 550 million speakers,
one language or two? And why is German, with 200 million speakers, so weird?
Perhaps the biggest question that Dorren attempts to answer, or at least explore, is
how English, with its 1.5 billion speakers, surpassed them all, becoming the world’s top
linguistic performer. Of the three avenues that Dorren suggests languages take to
becoming more and more widely spoken – being used as a trade language (like
Swahili and Malay), existing in compact but densely populated regions (like Japanese
and Korean), or becoming a lingua franca between people with different mother
tongues (like Persian and Portuguese) – English clearly took the latter route, serving
as the preferred “gap-bridger” between speakers of different languages across the
globe.
But why English, whose difficult pronunciation and worse orthography, overabundant
vocabulary due to excessive borrowing, and, as Dorren calls it, “pretty outlandish
grammar”, does not render it a particularly suitable world language? British
colonialism certainly helped, but can’t take all the credit, since the English language’s
rise to fame didn’t truly begin to gain momentum until after World War II. Its few
grammatical endings and lack of gender might make it slightly easier to master, but as
Dorren suggests, “English has spread in much the same way as lingua francas always
spread: it has followed the power, the money, and the good things in life."
44 | quarantaquattro
But the main reason English made it to the top of the Babel Twenty? At 1.5 billion
speakers, it has, Dorren posits, reached “critical mass,” spoken not just in one highly
populated region (like India’s Tamil), but across the globe. “Languages are like other
communication devices: the more people that have access to them, the more useful
they become,” says Dorren of the English language’s rising popularity. “I suspect we
have passed a threshold beyond which no other language stands a chance of
becoming a new lingua franca.” In other words, English may enjoy its position at the
top for quite a while.
However, in reading the stories of the top twenty, it’s hard to ignore the other,
quieter story being told: as the world’s twenty biggest languages grow even bigger,
there are hundreds, if not thousands, of smaller ones in rapid decline. “This is the
tragedy,” admits Dorren, “as smaller languages fall out of use across every continent,
wiping out valuable knowledge codified in words, stories, and names.”
For this reason, the author calls his own creation a bittersweet book: “the twenty
tongues portrayed herein are delicious and dangerous in equal measure.” Each one
has its own unique linguistic history, culture, and journey to the top. “They are worlds
unto themselves,” says Dorren, and provides an intimate and inventive peek inside.
Dorren, Gaston. (2018) Babel: Around the World in Twenty Languages. New York:
Grove Atlantic.
Image from: https://www.amazon.com/Babel-Around-World-Twenty-Languages/dp/0802128793
THANKS FOR READING SILLY
LINGUISTICS ISSUE #28
We hope you enjoyed it!
Send any questions or comments you might have to
magazine@sillylinguistics.com
Do also get in touch if you fancy writing for us!
Check out Steve the Vagabond on Facebook at:

facebook.com/stevethevagabond,
also check out Silly Linguistics online at:
Sillylinguistics.com
Silly Linguistics Magazine was brought to you by, Silly Linguistics Pty Ltd.
Editor: Ed Bedford
Graphic Designer: Kristel Ho
Photo by Anna Sullivan on Unsplash

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SILLY LINGUISTICS THE MAGAZINE FOR LANGUAGE LOVERS

IS DUOLINGO the weirdest

THE MAGAZINE FOR LANGUAGE LOVERS : ISSUE #28 : SEPTEMBER 2020

This week's numbers are in Italian!

depth anyway?! up in Devon from the age of 8. Studied in

Kingston, Greater London. All of this is

game! some of this weird stuff that we do in the UK

when it comes to language. Now in Devon, as

what syntax is. ‘Where’s it to?’.

They look at you with that scrunched up query

Segue. face and are like...

*engage cognitive processing*

“What do you mean ‘Where’s it to?’?”

whether or not it is appropriate.

For example, you say...

“Oh Chris, I went to this lovely restaurant at the weekend.”

And I, being Chris, may respond by saying...

“Oh that sounds absolutely spiffing. Where’s it to?”

continue in said conversation because my mummy taught me not to be rude.

malfunction and shut-down for a bit.

analyse data and other computery based stuff.

relative to the language; the syntax of the language.

way to speak. Just be thankful your can just enjoy a conversation.

Have a right old thankful conversation!

W e, as humans, like to discretize the world, i.e. make it discrete. Discrete,

In mathematics, an expression is “well-defined” if it has a unique, unambiguous

In our linguistic adventure through the different languages, we create

It’s a strange sentence, made even stranger by

So... why is this so fascinating?

Interesting question, my young apprentice.

Well known among the community of language learners, Duolingo is

Advantages and weaknesses

What about fluency?

I would like to return to the many

The Many Meanings of

“Person” comes from the Old French

Earlier Latin uses of persona referred to a

Natural Persons and Legal

Initially, the point of this distinction was to

The past few years have seen some rather

The Next Frontier in

The idea of legal personhood now extends

Standing for Trees

In an article entitled “Environmental Personhood,” published in the Columbia

The Environment, Personified

In the Quechua and Aymara languages of

Animate Language and A Forest, and River, and a

Rivers and Lakes Around was brought down by a lawsuit filed by a

Silent Letter Love

Of course, before I start, I’d like to pause quickly to underline that,

Photo by Florian Schmetz on Unsplash

As I mentioned before, I started learning English properly quite late in my school

It is, of course, appropriate and necessary to change your language register

Photo by Cristina Gottardi (top) & davide ragusa (bottom) on Unsplash

A trip to Florence in 2020 seemed like a pipe

After that lengthy introduction, allow me to share

Photo by Igor Oliyarnik (top) & Heidi Kaden (bottom) on Unsplash

Photo by Luca Lago (left) & Jonathan Bean (right) on Unsplash

Despite this, he gladly took my grammar

Although the lack of students is certainly

So, some final thoughts on my post-lockdown

The social aspect of travelling is certainly an essential

Reach out for a word on the tip

engage cognitive processing