Peopling of India

Peopling of India
The peopling of India refers to the migration of Homo sapiens into

the Indian subcontinent. Anatomically modern humans settled India
in multiple waves of early migrations, over tens of millennia.[1] The
first migrants came with the Coastal Migration/Southern Dispersal
65,000 years ago, whereafter complex migrations within south and
southeast Asia took place. West-Asian (Iranian) hunter-gatherers
migrated to South Asia after the Last Glacial Period but before the
Successive dispersal of human
onset of farming. Together with a minor number of ancient South
lineages during the peopling of
Asian hunter-gatherers they formed the population of the Indus
Eurafrasia.
Valley civilisation (IVC).
With the decline of the IVC, and the migration of Indo-Europeans,

the IVC-people contributed to the formation of both the Ancestral North Indians ("ANI"), who were
closely related to contemporary West-Eurasians, and the Ancestral South Indians ("ASI"), who were
descended predominantly from the Southeastern Indian hunter gatherers (known as "AASI", who were
distantly related to East-Eurasians such as Andamanese, Aboriginal Australians, and East Asians), but also
from West-Eurasian hunter gatherers from the region of Iran. These two ancestral populations (ASI and
ANI) mixed extensively between 1,900-4,200 years ago, after the fall of the IVC and their respective
southward migration,[2] and created the peoples inhabiting the Indian subcontinent today, while the
migrations of the Munda people and the Sino-Tibetan speaking people from East Asia also added new
elements.
Contents
First modern human settlers
Pre- or post-Toba
Impact
Pre-Toba tools
Post-Toba Southern Coastal dispersal
AASI
Relation to Andaman Islanders
Relation to "Negritos"
Sri Lankan Vedda
Latest Glacial Maximum
Pre-Indo Aryan West Eurasian ancestry
Pre-farming Iranian hunter-gatherers
Possible migration of Iranian neolithic farmers
Elamite-Dravidian hypothesis
Indus Valley civilisation
Indo-Aryans
Post-IVC: ANI and ASI ancestral components in the Indian population
Austroasiatic
Sino-Tibetan
Crossovers in languages and genetic ancestry
See also
Notes
References
Sources
External links
First modern human settlers
Pre- or post-Toba
The dating of the earliest successful migration of modern humans out of Africa is a matter of dispute.[3] It
may have pre- or post-dated the Toba catastrophe, a volcanic super eruption that took place between 69,000
and 77,000 years ago at the site of present-day Lake Toba. According to Michael Petraglia, stone tools
discovered below the layers of ash deposits in India at Jwalapuram, Andhra Pradesh point to a pre-Toba
dispersal. The population who created these tools is not known with certainty as no human remains were
found.[3] An indication for post-Toba is haplogroup L3, that originated before the dispersal of humans out
of Africa, and can be dated to 60,000–70,000 years ago, "suggesting that humanity left Africa a few
thousand years after Toba."[4]
Impact
It has been hypothesized that the Toba supereruption about 74,000 years ago destroyed much of India's
central forests, covering it with a layer of volcanic ash, and may have brought humans worldwide to a state
of near-extinction by suddenly plunging the planet into an ice-age that could have lasted for up to 1,800
years.[5] If true, this may "explain the apparent bottleneck in human populations that geneticists believe
occurred between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago" and the relative "lack of genetic diversity among humans
alive today".[5]
Since the Toba event is believed to have had such a harsh impact and "specifically blanketed the Indian
subcontinent in a deep layer of ash", it was "difficult to see how India's first colonists could have survived
this greatest of all disasters".[6] Therefore, it was believed that all humans previously present in India went
extinct during, or shortly after, this event and these first Indians left "no trace of their DNA in present-day
humans" – a theory seemingly backed by genetic studies.[7]
Pre-Toba tools
Research published in 2009 by a team led by Michael Petraglia of the University of Oxford suggested that
some humans may have survived the hypothesized catastrophe on the Indian mainland. Undertaking
"Pompeii-like excavations" under the layer of Toba ash, the team discovered tools and human habitations
from both before and after the eruption.[8] However, human fossils have not been found from this period,
and nothing is known of the ethnicity of these early humans in India.[8] Recent research also by Macauly et
al. (2005)[9][10] and Posth et al. (2016),[11] also argue for a post-Toba dispersal.[10]
Early Stone Age
hominin fossils have been found in the Narmada valley of Madhya Pradesh. Some have been dated to 200-
700,000 BP. It is uncertain what species they represent.[12]
Post-Toba Southern Coastal dispersal
By some 70-50,000 years ago,[13][11][14][15] only a small group, possibly as few as 150 to 1,000 people,
crossed the Red Sea.[16] The group that crossed the Red Sea travelled along the coastal route around the
coast of Arabia and Persia until reaching India, which appears to be the first major settling point.[17]
Geneticist Spencer Wells says that the early travellers followed the southern coastline of Asia, crossed
about 250 kilometres (155 mi) of sea, and colonized Australia by around 50,000 years ago. The Aborigines
of Australia, Wells says, are the descendants of the first wave of migrations.[18]
The oldest definitively identified Homo sapiens fossils yet found in South Asia are Balangoda man. Named
for the location in Sri Lanka where they were discovered, they are at least 28,000 years old.[19]
The predominant majority genome markers of South Asians are all closely related to West-Eurasians and
may have either originated in Western Asia or South Asia itself. Evidence for West-Eurasian ancestry dates
back to about 40,000 years ago. It is argued that an early Paleolithic population contributed to both
Europeans and Aboriginal Australians, outgoing from India. It is suggested that "Caucasoid" phenotype
originated among an early Indian population which later massively expanded all over Eurasia.[20][6][17]
AASI
Narasimhan et al. (2018) introduced the term AASI, "Ancient Ancestral South Indian"[note 1] (AASI) for
these oldest human inhabitants, which were possibly distantly related to the common ancestors of East-
Eurasians such as Andaman Islanders (such as the Onge), East Asians, and Australian
Aboriginals.[22][23][24][25] According to Narasimhan et al. (2019), "essentially all the ancestry of present-
day eastern and southern Asians (prior to West Eurasian-related admixture in southern Asians) derives from
a hypothetical single eastward spread, which gave rise in a short span of time to the lineages leading to
AASI, East Asians, Onge, and Australians."[26], a lineage often referred to as "East-Eurasians".[27]
Relation to Andaman Islanders
Several genetic studies have found evidence of a distant common ancestry between native Andaman
Islanders and the AASI/ASI ancestral component found in South Asians.[22] Modern South Asians have
not been found to carry the paternal lineages common in the Andamanese, which has been suggested to
indicate that certain paternal lineages may have become extinct in India, or that they may be very rare and
have not yet been sampled.[28] Chaubey and Endicott (2013) further noted that "Overall, the Andamanese
are more closely related to Southeast Asian Negritos than they are to present-day South Asians."[29][note 2]
Shinde et al. 2019 found either Andamanese or East Siberian hunter-gatherers fit as proxy for AASI "due
to shared ancestry deeply in time."[30] According to Yelmen et al. (2019) the native South Asian genetic
component (AASI) is distinct from the Andamanese and not closely related, and that the Andamanese are
thus an imperfect and imprecise proxy for AASI. According to Yelmen et al, the Andamanese component
(represented by the Andamanese Onge) was not detected in the northern Indian Gujarati, and thus it is
suggested that the South Indian tribal Paniya people (who are believed to be of largely AASI ancestry)
would serve as a better proxy than the Andamanese (Onge) for the "native South Asian" component in
modern South Asians.[31]
According to Narasimhan et al. (2019), the "AASI" component in South Asians shares a common root
with the Andamanese (as exemplified by the Onge) and is distantly related to the Onge (Andamanese), as
well as to East Asians, and Aboriginal Australians (with those groups and the AASI sharing a deep
ancestral split around the same time),[32] which would place them in the East-Eurasian lineage.
Relation to "Negritos"
The present-day Andamese are considered to be part of the "Negritos", several diverse ethnic groups who
inhabit isolated parts of southeast Asia.[33] Based on their physical similarities, Negritos were once
considered a single population of related people, but the appropriateness of using the label 'Negrito' to
bundle together peoples of different ethnicity based on similarities in stature and complexion has been
challenged.[34] Recent research suggests that the Negritos include several separate groups, as well as
demonstrating that they are not closely related to the Pygmies of Africa.[35]
According to Vishwanathan et al. (2004), the typical "negrito" features could also have been developed by
convergent evolution.[36] According to Gyaneshwer Chaubey and Endicott (2013), "At the current level of
genetic resolution, however, there is no evidence of a single ancestral population for the different groups
traditionally defined as 'negritos'."[29] Basu et al. 2016 concluded that the Andamanese have a distinct
ancestry and are not closely related to other South Asians, but are closer to Southeast Asian Negritos,
indicating that South Asian peoples do not descend directly from "Negritos" as such.[37]
Sri Lankan Vedda
Groups ancestral to the modern Veddas were probably the earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka. Their arrival is
dated tentatively to about 40,000–35,000 years ago. They are genetically distinguishable from the other
peoples of Sri Lanka, and they show a high degree of intra-group diversity. This is consistent with a long
history of existing as small subgroups undergoing significant genetic drift.[38][39]
A 2013 study by Raghavan et al. showed that the Vedda are closely related to other groups in Sri Lanka
and India, especially to Sinhalese and Tamils. They additionally found deep relations between the
indigenous Vedda and other South Asian populations with the modern populations of Europe, the Middle
East and Northern Africa, pointing to an shared origin possibly within the Indian Subcontinent and a
dispersal outgoing from India.[40]
Latest Glacial Maximum

After the Last Glacial Period, human populations started to grow and migrate. With the invention of
agriculture, the so-called Neolithic revolution, larger numbers of people could be sustained. The use of
metals (copper, bronze, iron) further changed human ways of life, giving an initial advance to early users,
and aiding further migrations, and admixture.
According to Silva et al. (2017), multiple waves of migration from western Eurasia took place after the last
Ice Age, both before and after the advent of farming in South Asia.[41] According to Narasimhan et al.
(2019), people related to Iranian hunter-gatherers were present in South Asia before the advent of farming.
They mixed with Ancestral Ancient South Asians (AASI) to form the Indus Valley population. With the
decline of the IVC after 1900 BCE and the arrival of the Indo-Aryans, IVC-people mixed with incoming
Indo-Aryans, forming the Ancestral North Indians (ANI). Other IVC-people mixed with AASI forming the
Ancestral South Indians (ASI).[21][42][43][44]
These two ancestral groups mixed in India between 4,200 and 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE – 100 CE),
whereafter a shift to endogamy took place,[44] possibly by the enforcement of "social values and norms"
during the Hindu Gupta rule.[24] Reich et al. stated that "ANI ancestry ranges from 39–71% in India, and is
higher in traditionally upper caste, martial races and Indo-European speakers.
".[42]
Basu et al. (2016) note that mainland India harbors two additional distinct ancestral components which
have contributed to the gene pools of the Indian subcontinent,[note 3] namely Ancestral Austro-Asiatic
(AAA) and Ancestral Tibeto-Burman (ATB).[24]
Pre-Indo Aryan West Eurasian ancestry
Pre-farming Iranian hunter-gatherers
Narasimhan et al. (2019) and Shinde et al. (2019) conclude that west Eurasian ancestry was already present
before the advent of farming in South Asia.[41][21][note 4]
Metspalu et al. (2011) detected a genetic component in India, k5, which "distributed across the Indus
Valley, Central Asia, and the Caucasus".[46] According to Metspalu et al. (2011), k5 "might represent the
genetic vestige of the ANI", though they also note that the geographic cline of this component within India
"is very weak, which is unexpected under the ASI-ANI model", explaining that the ASI-ANI model
implies an ANI contribution which decreases toward southern India.[47] According to Metspalu et al.
(2011), "regardless of where this component was from (the Caucasus, Near East, Indus Valley, or Central
Asia), its spread to other regions must have occurred well before our detection limits at 12,500 years."[48]
Speaking to Fountain Ink, Metspalu said, "the West Eurasian component in Indians appears to come from a
population that diverged genetically from people actually living in Eurasia, and this separation happened at
least 12,500 years ago."[web 1][note 5] Moorjani et al. (2013) refer to Metspalu (2011)[note 6] as "fail[ing] to
find any evidence for shared ancestry between the ANI and groups in West Eurasia within the past 12,500
years".[53] CCMB researcher Thangaraj believes that "it was much longer ago", and that "the ANI came to
India in a second wave of migration[note 7] that happened perhaps 40,000 years ago."[web 1]
Possible migration of Iranian neolithic farmers
According to Gallego Romero et al. (2011), their research on lactose tolerance in India suggests that "the
west Eurasian genetic contribution identified by Reich et al. (2009) principally reflects gene flow from Iran
and the Middle East."[54] Gallego Romero notes that Indians who are lactose-tolerant show a genetic
pattern regarding this tolerance which is "characteristic of the common European mutation."[55] According
to Romero, this suggests that "the most common lactose tolerance mutation made a two-way migration out
of the Middle East less than 10,000 years ago. While the mutation spread across Europe, another explorer
must have brought the mutation eastward to India – likely traveling along the coast of the Persian Gulf
where other pockets of the same mutation have been found."[55]
According to Broushaki et al. (2016), evidence indicates that the neolithic farmer component forms the
main ancestry of many modern South Asians. These neolithic farmers migrated from the fertile crescent,
most likely from a region near the Zagros mountains in modern day Iran, to South Asia some 10,000 years
ago.[56][57]
Mehrgarh (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE), to the west of the Indus River valley,[58] is a precursor of the Indus
Valley Civilisation, whose inhabitants migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley
Civilisation.[59] It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia.[60][61]
According to Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between the neolithic and chalcolithic
(Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the chalcolithic population did not descend
from the neolithic population of Mehrgarh,[62] which "suggests moderate levels of gene flow."[62] They
further noted that "the direct lineal descendents of the Neolithic inhabitants of Mehrgarh are to be found to
the south and the east of Mehrgarh, in northwestern India and the western edge of the Deccan plateau",
with neolithic Mehrgarh showing greater affinity with chalcolithic Inamgaon, south of Mehrgarh, than with
chalcolithic Mehrgarh.[62]
Elamite-Dravidian hypothesis
While the IVC has been linked to the early Dravidian peoples, some scholars have suggested that their
neolithic farmer predecessors may have migrated from the Zagros mountains to northern South Asia some
10,000 years ago.[63] According to David McAlpin, the Dravidian languages were brought to India by
immigration into India from Elam.[64][65][66][67] Franklin Southworth also states that the Dravidian
Languages originated in western Iran and that publications and research are "further evidence of [the
relationship between Dravidian languages and Elamite] viability".[68] According to Renfrew and Cavalli-
Sforza, proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile
Crescent,[69][70][71][note 8] but more recently Heggerty and Renfrew (2014) noted that "McAlpin's analysis
of the language data, and thus his claims, remain far from orthodoxy", adding that Fuller finds no relation
of Dravidian language with other languages, and thus assumes it to be native to India.[72] Renfrew and
Bahn conclude that several scenarios are compatible with the data, and that "the linguistic jury is still very
much out."[72][note 9]
Indus Valley civilisation
Shinde et al. (2019) and Narasimhan et al. (2019), analysing remains from the Indus Valley civilisation (of
parts of Bronze Age Northwest India and East Pakistan) and "outliers" from surrounding cultures, conclude
that the IVC-population was a mixture people related to Iranian herders and AASI:[21]
The only fitting two-way models were mixtures of a group related to herders from the western
Zagros mountains of Iran and also to either Andamanese hunter-gatherers or East Siberian
hunter-gatherers (the fact that the latter two populations both fit reflects that they have the same
phylogenetic relationship to the non-West Eurasian-related component likely due to shared
ancestry deeply in time)[30]
According to Shinde et al. (2019) about 50–98% of the IVC-genome came from people related to early
Iranian farmers, and from 2–50% of the IVC-genome came from native South Asian hunter-gatherers
sharing a common ancestry with the Andamanese.[30] Narasimhan et al. (2019) found the IVC-genome to
consist of 45–82% Iranian farmer-related ancestry and 11–50% AASI (Andamanese-related hunter-
gatherer) ancestry.[21] Narasimhan et al. (2019) conclude that the Iranian farmer-related ancestry is related
to but distinct from Iranian agri-culturalists, lacking the Anatolian farmer-related ancestry which was
common in Iranian farmers after 6000 BCE.[78][note 10] Those Iranian farmers-related people may have
arrived in India before the advent of farming in northern India,[45] and mixed with people related to Indian
hunter-gatherers c. 5400 to 3700 BCE, before the advent of the mature IVC.[81]
The analysed samples of both studies have little to none of the "Steppe ancestry" component associated
with later Indo-European migrations into India. The authors found that the respective amounts of those
ancestries varied significantly between individuals, and concluded that more samples are needed to get the
full picture of Indian population history.[30][21]
Indo-Aryans
In the second millennium BCE people from the Sintashta
culture[83][84] migrated through Bactria-Margiana culture and into
the northern Indian subcontinent (modern day India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh and Nepal). The Indo-Aryan migrations started in
approximately 1,800 BCE, after the invention of the war chariot,
and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the Levant and
possibly Inner Asia. [85][86][note 11]
Scheme of the theoretical Indo-
The Proto-Indo-Iranians, from which the Indo-Aryans developed, European migrations, of which the
are identified with the Sintashta culture (2100–1800 BCE),[88] and Indo-Aryan migrations form a part,
the Andronovo culture,[89] which flourished c. 1800–1400 BCE in from c. 4000 to 1000 BCE according
the steppes around the Aral sea, present-day Kazakhstan, to the Kurgan hypothesis.
Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. The proto-Indo-Iranians were
The magenta area
influenced by the Bactria-Margiana culture, south of the
Andronovo culture, from which they borrowed their distinctive corresponds to the
assumed Urheimat
religious beliefs and practices. The Indo-Aryans split off around
(Samara culture, Sredny
1800–1600 BCE from the Iranians,[90] whereafter the Indo-Aryans
Stog culture) and the
migrated into the Levant and north-western India and possibly subsequent Yamna culture.
Inner Asia.
The red area corresponds
Lazaridis et al. (2016) notes that the demographic impact of steppe to the area which may have
related populations on South Asia was substantial and forms a been settled by Indo-
major component in northern India.[91] Lazaridis et al.'s 2016 study European-speaking
estimates 6.5–50.2% steppe related admixture in all modern South peoples up to c. 2500 BCE.
Asians with higher caste and Indo-Aryan speaking groups having The orange area to 1000
more steppe admixture than others.[note 12] BCE.[82]
Post-IVC: ANI and ASI ancestral

components in the Indian population
A series of studies from 2009 to 2019 have shown that the Indian subcontinent harbours two major
ancestral components,[42][43][44] formed in the 2nd millennium BCE,[21] namely the Ancestral North
Indians (ANI), which is closely related to contemporary West-Eurasians, and the Ancestral South Indians
(ASI) which is distinct from any outside population.[42][21][note 13] ANI formed out of a mixture of IVC-
people and migrants from the steppe, while ASI was formed out of IVC-people who moved south and
mixed further with local hunter-gatherers.[21]
These IVC-people did not carry steppe admixture and were instead a mixture of mostly Neolithic Iran-
related ancestry and minor AASI (native South Asian hunter-gatherer) ancestry. According Narasimhan et
al. 2019, the genetic makeup of the ASI population consisted of about 73% AASI and about 27% from
Iranian-related peoples.[21] This estimate is similar to that of Reich et al., who in 2018 note that the ASI
have a West-Eurasian ancestry component (derived from Iranian-related farmers) which Reich estimates at
about 25% of their ancestry (not detected in his initial 2009 analysis), with the remaining 75% of the
ancestry of the ASI deriving from native South Asian hunter-gatherers.[92]
ANI formed out of a mixture of IVC-people and migrants from Bronze age steppe.[21] Lazaridis et al.
(2016)[note 14] notes that the demographic impact of steppe related populations on South Asia was
substantial. According to the results, the Mala, a south Indian Dalit population with minimal Ancestral
North Indian (ANI) along the 'Indian Cline' have nevertheless c. 18% steppe-related ancestry, showing the
strong influence of ANI ancestry in all populations of India. The Kalash of Pakistan are inferred to have
c. 50% steppe-related ancestry, with the rest being of Iranian farmers ancestry.[93][note 15] Reich et al. stated
that "ANI ancestry ranges from 39–71% in India, and is higher in traditionally upper caste and Indo-Aryan
speakers".[42]
Austroasiatic
According to Ness, there are three broad theories on the origins of the Austroasiatic speakers, namely
northeastern India, central or southern China, or southeast Asia.[94] Multiple researches indicate that the
Austroasiatic populations in India are derived from (mostly male dominated) migrations from southeast
Asia during the Holocene.[95][96][97][98][99][note 16] According to Van Driem (2007),
the mitochondrial picture indicates that the Munda maternal lineage derives from the earliest
human settlers on the Subcontinent, whilst the predominant Y chromosome haplogroup argues
for a Southeast Asian paternal homeland for Austroasiatic language communities in India.[100]
According to Chaubey et al. (2011), "AA speakers in India today are derived from dispersal from Southeast
Asia, followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations."[96][note 17] According to
Zhang et al. (2015), Austroasiatic (male) migrations from southeast Asia into India took place after the lates
Glacial maximum, circa 10,000 years ago.[98] According to Arunkumar et al. (2015), Y-chromosomal
haplogroup O2a1-M95, which is typical for Austroasiatic speaking peoples, clearly decreases from Laos to
east India, with "a serial decrease in expansion time from east to west", namely "5.7 ± 0.3 Kya in Laos, 5.2
± 0.6 in Northeast India, and 4.3 ± 0.2 in East India". This suggests "a late Neolithic east to west spread of
the lineage O2a1-M95 from Laos".[99][101]
According to Riccio et al. (2011), the Munda people are likely descended from Austroasiatic migrants from
southeast Asia.[97][102] According to Ness, the Khasi probably migrated into India in the first millennium
BCE.[94]
According to a genetic research (2015) including linguistic analyses, suggests an East Asian origin for
proto-Austroasiatic groups, which first migrated to Southeast Asia and later into India.[98]
Sino-Tibetan
According to Cordaux et al. (2004), the Sino-Tibetan possibly came from the Himalayan and north-eastern
borders of the subcontinent within the past 4,200 years.[103]
The ancient people, who lived in the upper-middle Yellow River basin about 10,000 years ago and
developed one of the earliest Neolithic cultures in East Asia, were the ancestors of modern Sino-Tibetan
populations.[105] The O-M122 has high frequency (41.8% on average) in East Asians, especially in Han
Chinese (52.06% in northern Han and 53.72% in southern Han) and it is generally absent outside East
Asia.[106] Haplogroup O2-M122 is primarily found among males of Sino-Tibetan ancestry in the
Himalayas and Northeast India and which is generally absent among other linguistic families other than
Northeast India. O-M134, a subclade of O-M122, has a high percentage, 86.6%, among Tamangs of
Nepal, with similar frequencies, ∼85%, among the northeastern Indian Tibeto-Burman groups, including
Adi, Naga, Apatani, and Nyishi.[107] In Assam, Tibeto-Burman expansion throughout Brahmaputra Valley
associated with the patrilinial lineage of O-M134[109] which occurs at a high frequency of 85% in Kachari
(Boro Kachari) peoples and 76.5% in Rabha peoples.[110][112] The predominant existence of two
haplotype groups in the gene pool of Tibetan populations, one from East Asia (the M122C haplotypes) and
the other from Central Asia (the YAP+).[114] The YAP+ is not observed in Baric people (Brahmaputran) of
Northeast India (also absent in Lolo-Burmese and Karen populations) indicates that the Y chromosome
contribution to Tibetan from Central Asia is a relatively recent event as compared to the early habitation of
populations with dominant East Asian Y chromosome haplotypes which indicates Baric people
(Brahmaputran) were probably the first residents of the Himalayan region while Tibetans arrived later.[116]
It has a significant presence among the Khasis (29%), despite being generally absent in other Austroasiatics
of India, and it shows up at 55% among the neighbouring Garos, a Tibeto-Burmun group.[117]
A wide variety of Sino-Tibetan languages are spoken on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Sizable
groups that have been identified are the West Himalayish languages of Himachal Pradesh and western
Nepal, the Tamangic languages of western Nepal, including Tamang with one million speakers, and the
Kiranti languages of eastern Nepal. The remaining groups are small, with several isolates.
The Newar language (Nepal Bhasa) of central Nepal has a million speakers and a literature dating from the
12th century, and nearly a million people speak Magaric languages, but the rest have small speech
communities. Other isolates and small groups in Nepal are Dura, Raji–Raute, Chepangic and Dhimalish.
Lepcha is spoken in an area from eastern Nepal to western Bhutan.[118] Most of the languages of Bhutan
are Bodish, but it also has three small isolates, 'Ole ("Black Mountain Monpa"), Lhokpu and Gongduk and
a larger community of speakers of Tshangla.[119]
Crossovers in languages and genetic ancestry

One complication in studying various population groups is that genetic and linguistic affiliations in India
only are partially correlated: while the Oraon adivasis mostly have Austric-related ancestry, their language,
called Kurukh, is Dravidian.[120] The Nicobarese are considered to be a Mongoloid group,[121][122] and
the Munda and Santals Adivasi are "Austric" groups,[123][124] but all four speak Austro-Asiatic
languages.[121][122][123] The Bhils and Gonds Adivasi are frequently classified as "Austric" groups,[125]
yet Bhil languages are Indo-European and the Gondi language is Dravidian.[120]
See also
Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia
Early Indians
Early human migrations
Andamanese
Irulas
Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis
List of R1a frequency by population
Notes
1. ASI was synonymous to AASI before 2018.[21]
2. Chaubey and Endicott (2013):[29]
"these estimates suggest that the Andamans were settled less than ~26 ka and that
differentiation between the ancestors of the Onge and Great Andamanese commenced
in the Terminal Pleistocene." (p.167)
"In conclusion, we find no support for the settlement of the Andaman Islands by a
population descending from the initial out-of-Africa migration of humans, or their
immediate descendants in South Asia. It is clear that, overall, the Onge are more closely
related to Southeast Asians than they are to present-day South Asians." (p.167)
3. Basu et al. (2016): "By sampling populations, especially the autochthonous tribal
populations, which represent the geographical, ethnic, and linguistic diversity of India, we
have inferred that at least four distinct ancestral components—not two, as estimated earlier
have contributed to the gene pools of extant populations of mainland India."[24]
4. According to Narasimhan et al. (2019) Iranian farmer related people arrived before 6000
BCE in Pakistan and north-west India, before the advent of farming in northern India. They
suggest the possibility that this "Iranian farmer–related ancestry [...] was [also] characteristic
of northern Caucasus and Iranian plateau hunter-gatherers."[45]
5. Note that according to Jones et al. (2015), Caucasian Hunter Gatherers and "the ancestors
of Neolithic farmers" split circa 25,000 years ago: "Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG) belong
to a distinct ancient clade that split from western hunter-gatherers ~45 kya, shortly after the
expansion of anatomically modern humans into Europe and from the ancestors of Neolithic
farmers ~25 kya, around the Last Glacial Maximum. CHG genomes significantly contributed
to the Yamnaya steppe herders who migrated into Europe B3,000 BC, supporting a
formative Caucasus influence on this important Early Bronze age culture."[49]
6. The reference is to a "recent study", and gives Kivisild et al. (1999). Kivisild (1999) does not
mention the number 12,500, nor does it explicitly make such a statement. What it does state
is that western-Eurasian and Indian mtDNA lineages overlap in haplogroup U;[50] that the
split between the western-Eurasian and Indian U2 lineages appeared circa 53,000 ± 4,000
years before present;[50] and that "despite their equally deep time depth, the Indian U2 has
not penetrated western Eurasia, and the European U5 has almost not reached India."[51]
They further note that wester-Eurasian mtDNA lineages did spread in India at the time of the
spread of agricultural crops from the fertile Crescent.[52] Metspalu et al. (2011) do refer to
12,500 years ago.[48] Apparently, the reference to Kivisld (1999) is incorrect, and was not
noticed by the authors.
7. After the initial settlement of India by the ASI.
8. Derenko: "The spread of these new technologies has been associated with the dispersal of
Dravidian and Indo-European languages in southern Asia. It is hypothesized that the proto-
Elamo-Dravidian language, most likely originated in the Elam province in southwestern Iran,
spread eastwards with the movement of farmers to the Indus Valley and the Indian sub-
continent."[71] Derenko refers to:
Renfrew (1987), Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins
Renfrew (1996), Language families and the spread of farming. In: Harris DR, editor, The
origins and spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, pp. 70–92
Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi, Piazza (1994), The History and Geography of Human Genes.
9. The Elamite-hypothesis has drawn attention in the scholarly literature, but has never been
fully accpeted:
According to Mikhail Andronov, Dravidian languages were brought to India at the
beginning of the third millennium BCE.[73]
Kivisild et al. (1999) note that "a small fraction of the West Eurasian mtDNA lineages
found in Indian populations can be ascribed to a relatively recent admixture"[50] at c.
9,300 ± 3,000 years before present,[74] which coincides with "the arrival to India of
cereals domesticated in the Fertile Crescent" and "lends credence to the suggested
linguistic connection between the Elamite and Dravidic populations."[74]
According to Palanichamy et al. (2015), "The presence of mtDNA haplogroups (HV14
and U1a) and Y-chromosome haplogroup (L1) in Dravidian populations indicates the
spread of the Dravidian language into India from west Asia."[75]
According to Krishnamurti, Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus

civilization, suggesting a "tentative date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the
third millennium."[76] Krishnamurti further states that South Dravidian I (including pre-
Tamil) and South Dravidian II (including Pre-Telugu) split around the eleventh century
BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at around the same time.[77]
10. Narasimhan et al.: "[One possibility is that] Iranian farmer–related ancestry in this group was
characteristic of the Indus Valley hunter-gatherers in the same way as it was characteristic of
northern Caucasus and Iranian plateau hunter-gatherers. The presence of such ancestry in
hunter-gatherers from Belt and Hotu Caves in northeastern Iran increases the plausibility
that this ancestry could have existed in hunter-gatherers farther east."[45] Shinde et al.
(2019) note that these Iranian people "had little if any genetic contribution from ... western
Iranian farmers or herders";[79] they split from each other more than 12,000 years ago.[80]
See also Razib Kkan, The Day of the Dasa (https://www.gnxp.com/WordPress/2019/09/05/th
e-day-of-the-dasa/): "it may, in fact, be the case that ANI-like quasi-Iranians occupied
northwest South Asia for a long time, and AHG populations hugged the southern and
eastern fringes, during the height of the Pleistocene."
11. Pathak et al. (2018) concluded that the Indo-Aryan speakers of Gangetic Plains and some
Dravidian speakers in central India have significant Yamnaya Early-Middle Bronze Age
(Steppe_EMBA) ancestry. The "North-Western Indian and Pakistani" populations (PNWI)
showed additionally significant Steppe_MLBA ancestry along with Yamnaya
(Steppe_EMBA) ancestry. The study also suggested that the Rors could be used as a proxy
for the ANI.[87]
12. Lazaridis et al. (2016) Supplementary Information, Table S9.1: "Kalash – 50.2%, Tiwari
Brahmins – 44.1%, Gujarati (four samples) – 46.1% to 27.5 %, Pathan – 44.6%, Burusho –
42.5%, Sindhi – 37.7%, Punjabi – 32.6%, Balochi – 32.4%, Brahui – 30.2%, Lodhi – 29.3%,
Bengali – 24.6%, Vishwabhramin – 20.4%, Makrani – 19.2%, Mala – 18.4%, Kusunda –
8.9%, Kharia – 6.5%."
13. Basu et al. (2016) discern four major ancestries in mainland India, namely ANI, ASI,
Ancestral Austro-Asiatic tribals (AAA) and Ancestral Tibeto-Burman (ATB).[37]
14. According to Lazaridis et al. (2016) ANI-related ancestry in South Asians can be modeled as
a mix of ancestry related to both early farmers of Iran and to people of the Bronze Age
Eurasian steppe (Yamnaya component).[93]
15. Lazaridis et al. (2016) Supplementary Information, Table S9.1: "Kalash – 50.2 %, Tiwari
Brahmins – 44.1 %, Gujarati (four samples) – 46.1 % to 27.5 %, Pathan – 44.6 %, Burusho –
42.5 %, Sindhi – 37.7 %, Punjabi – 32.6 %, Balochi – 32.4 %, Brahui – 30.2 %, Lodhi –
29.3 %, Bengali – 24.6 %, Vishwabhramin – 20.4 %, Makrani – 19.2 %, Mala – 18.4 %,
Kusunda – 8.9 %, Kharia – 6.5 %."
16. Nevertheless, according to Basu et al. (2016), the AAA were early settlers in India, related to
the ASI: "The absence of significant resemblance with any of the neighboring populations is
indicative of the ASI and the AAA being early settlers in India, possibly arriving on the
"southern exit" wave out of Africa. Differentiation between the ASI and the AAA possibly
took place after their arrival in India (ADMIXTURE analysis with K = 3 shows ASI plus AAA
to be a single population in SI Appendix, Fig. S2).[24]
17. See also:
"Origin of Indian Austroasiatic speakers" (http://dienekes.blogspot.nl/2010/10/origin-of-in
dian-austroasiatic-speakers.html). Dienekes Anthropology Blog. 27 October 2010.
Khan R (2010). "Sons of the conquerors: the story of India?" (http://blogs.discovermagazi
ne.com/gnxp/2010/10/sons-of-the-conquerers-the-story-of-india/#.UQfBCVQR-Sp).
Khan R (2013). "Phylogenetics implies Austro-Asiatic are intrusive to India" (http://blogs.
discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2013/01/phylogenetics-implies-austro-asiatic-are-intrusive-
to-india/).
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External links
Overview
Akhilesh Pillalamarri, Where Did Indians Come from, part1 (https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/

unraveled-where-indians-come-from-part-1/), part 2 (https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/where-i
ndians-come-from-part-2-dravidians-and-aryans/), part 3 (https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/w
here-did-indians-come-from-part-3-what-is-caste/)
Genetics
Tony Joseph (16 June 2017), How genetics is settling the Aryan migration debate (http://ww
w.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/how-genetics-is-settling-the-aryan-migration-debate/article
19090301.ece), The Hindu
Tony Joseph (2018), How We, The Indians, Came to Be (https://www.thequint.com/voices/op
inion/genomic-study-vedic-aryan-migration-dravidian-languages-sanskrit) (summary of
Narasimhan (2018)
Scroll.in, "Aryan migration: Everything you need to know about the new study on Indian
genetics" (https://scroll.in/article/874102/aryan-migration-everything-you-need-to-know-abou
t-the-new-study-on-indian-genetics)., on Narasimhan (2018)
The Economic Times (12 October 2019), Steppe migration to India was between 3500-4000
years ago: David Reich (https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/steppe-migrati
on-to-india-was-between-3500-4000-years-ago-david-reich/articleshow/71556277.cms?fro
m=mdr)
Negritos
thepeoplingofindia.wordpress.com, Negrito (https://thepeoplingofindia.wordpress.com/tag/ne

grito/)
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Peopling of India

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Peopling of India

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Peopling of India

The peopling of India refers to the migration of Homo sapiens into

With the decline of the IVC, and the migration of Indo-Europeans,

First modern human settlers

Post-Toba Southern Coastal dispersal

Relation to Andaman Islanders

Sri Lankan Vedda

Latest Glacial Maximum

Pre-Indo Aryan West Eurasian ancestry

Pre-farming Iranian hunter-gatherers

Possible migration of Iranian neolithic farmers

Indus Valley civilisation

Post-IVC: ANI and ASI ancestral

Crossovers in languages and genetic ancestry

According to Krishnamurti, Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus

Akhilesh Pillalamarri, Where Did Indians Come from, part1 (https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/

thepeoplingofindia.wordpress.com, Negrito (https://thepeoplingofindia.wordpress.com/tag/ne

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peopling_of_India&oldid=1105255677"

This page was last edited on 19 August 2022, at 10:04 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

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