BY

DURAI ILAMURUGU

NUNMAI PATHIPPAKAM

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ANCIENT
TAMILNADU
 Trade And Coin
Trade and coins are like the two sides of a
coin, inseparable. More than that coins could
tell many stories which historians and
epigraphists may hide. Coins reflect not only
the economic environment that prevailed
during that period but also the condition and
lives of the common people. The very fact that
gold , copper leather and conch(kanam )coins
existed at the same time in a society indicates
there was definite social and economic
stratification existed in the society . And it has
to be remembered that though hordes of Roman
coins have been found in Tamilnadu
particularly in the Chera ruled areas , there is no
such hordes of native coins found either in
Tamilnadu or in foreign location . This factor
has to be accounted for. To explain this
authorities of coin studies ( numismatics ) have
suggested that the trade in Sangam age was
mainly through the barter system ( exchange of
products ) The difficulty in defining the exact
time period for the Sangam age also adds to
the woes of the of those interested in the study
of the Sangam age related issues .
Here we will see about the coin usage in
Tamilagam.
Coinage
The common understanding is that commerce
of the Sangam period was confined only to
barter trade. It has been suggested by N.
Subrarmanian a world-renowned authority on
Numismatics his 'Sangam Polity' that the coins
were used for purposes of exchange mostly in
the case of foreign trade. It is not possible to
agree fully with this view. Coins were also used
for internal and external trade. Maduraikkanchi
and Pattinappalai speak about the ships that
brought gold from west. Madurai Vennaganar
tells us that the coins were round like a berry
but slightly flattened. He hadexpressed that the
berries which were found stream on the
pathways under the trees in Palai looked like
the yellow gold coin. Kavan Mullai Butkanar
also had expressed that the gold coins looked
like the fruit of ooka tree. From Pathittuppattu,
we learn that gold and kanam were coins in use.
. While we were able to get Greeco-Roman
coins, we cannot find coins of Tamil Nadu in
any other parts of the world. This point needs
sangu from which were mader to be clarified.. There were
palingu coins for common use

Brahmi Inscriptions on the

coins made of lead found
and it is believed that such
coins were in the use
towards the end of the Sangam age. The term
palingu kasu occuring in the Akananuru
indicates that some material other than gold was
also used for making coins It is however
difficult to determine the material out of which
it was made ; perhaps it was shaped out of glass
leads or kauri shell (sangu shell) as may be
guessed from its name
Coins might have been used for internal and
external trade. A lot of literary quotes indicate
this. Unfortunately, there was no supportive
archeological evidence for this.
Maduraikkanchi and Pattinappalai speak about
the ships that brought gold from west. Madurai
Vennaganar tells us that the coins were round
like a berry but slightly flattened. He had
expressed that the berries which were found
stream on the pathways under the trees in Palai
looked like the yellow gold coin. But no source
of the coins have been found out yet.
Punch-marked coins, which represent India‘s
earliest known numismatic issues, have played
a vital role in ancient Indian economy for well
over five centuries, from the sixth to the first
century B.C.
Punch-marked coins are made generally in
silver and rarely in copper.They are of various
sizes and weights. They were in vogue when
writing was not usual in India and were rarely
used.
Symbols are the most conspicuous features of
these coins and they do not bear any legend or
inscription. Various forms of representations
like hills, birds,trees, animals, human figures,
floral and geometrical patterns etc, appear on
them, the exact importance of which is still not
clear and remain as mysterious as ever. The
punching devices of these coins may be
identified into several hundred varieties. Earlier
symbols were simple and bold, but later ones
tended to be comparatively small and complex
in design. The name” punch marked” is derived
from the fact that the coins concerned bear
symbols stamped by different punches and
these punch-marked symbols were generally
associated with villages, towns, cities,
mountains, river banks and mint masters..
Each of the symbol is found confined to the
coins of a particular area or on those of a
particular variety or type. Thus, they enable one
to isolate the coins of one area from those of
another, of one state from those of another and
of one period from those of another. In the
opinion of A.L.Basham, "the uninscribed
punch-marked coins were minted from the 6th
century B.C. onwards and were in circulation
for many centuries‖.
 Moreover, from a careful study of the symbols,
such as, the sun, mountains, trees, branches of
trees, human figures, rabbits, dogs scorpions,
snakes etc., it can be suggested that the punch-
marked coins were issued even earlier than the
6th century B.C, when the most primitive
Indians happened to worship sun, mountains,
trees, spirits, animals, snakes and the like. Some
scholars consider the punch-marked coins as of
indigenous origin. We do not know in which
part of India they were made and who were the
issuing authority of the punch-marked coins.
Some scholars held the view that this coinage
was issued by certain private authorities while
others considered it as a government, issue.
According to V.A.Smith, "The punch-marked
coinage was a private coinage issued by guilds
and silversmiths with the permission of the
ruling powers. This theory was also accepted by
D.C. Sircar. Durga Prasad strongly refuted the
view that the punch marked coins were private
issues. John Allan is of the view that these coins
were issued by a government authority and not
by private individuals. Romila Thapar opines
that punch-marked coins were issued by a
central authority and probably the imperial
mints were situated in the five major cities of
the Mauryan empire. She does not accept the
idea that these coins were trader's tokens which
gradually acquired the status of a national
coinage.
Kautilya‘s Arthasasthra speaks about the
officials, like Lakshanadhyaksha or
Rupyadhyaksha, etc., connected with coinage.
As indigenous silver was not available in much
quantity, there was the possibility of it being
imported from the West. The coins in copper
were most likely local issues, and they were
issued mostly in the post-Mauryan period. In
early periods the coins were manufactured
usually by three techniques - punching, casting
and striking Thousands of punch-marked coins
have been discovered virtually from all parts of
the Indian subcontinent, often in big hoards
consisting of five to eight thousand pieces.
They are of numerous denominations and fabric
series,
earlier ones being local, found in restricted
areas, and later ones, 'universal' or imperial
punch-marked coins found almost throughout
the country.
The coins of the local series were
chronologically earlier than the coins of the
Imperial series and they mainly represented the
coinage of the various Janapadas of the early
Budhist age. The Imperial series was the
coinage of the Magadha Empire and it has
further been classified into six categories.
The hordes of the Imperial coins generally do
not include the local type of coins. The punch-
marked coins including the silver punch-
marked coins are found all over India,from
Kabul to the mouth of the Ganges and from the
Himalayas to Cape Comorin Punch-marked
coins which were so far considered to be the
earliest coins of India were known to have been
in circulation throughout India. South India was
no exception to this and it has been proved by
the discovery of these coins in different parts
of the south. The cowrie (cypraea moneta) or
Kavati in Malayalam, was used as money of the
smallest value from ancient times to recent
centuries throughout India, including south
India. On the Malabar coast, gold and silver
were the money of commerce, when Ibn Batuta
visited, but in the inland towns of the
subcontinent cowrie was in use as the money of
the poor. 'The palunku Kasu' of Sangam
literature is probably the cowries. 'Kanam' is
another name of the gold coin in usage butlike
'kasu' it also denoted gold in general. However,
the earliest metallic currency of Tamil land,
were known as copper globules. These globules
were in use, as a medium of exchange probably
before the arrival of copper and silver punch-
marked coins from the northern part of India.
Because of the influence of the north, the
punch-marked coins found in south India
sometimes reflect the similarity with the
northern technique of punch-marked coins. The
biggest hoard of silver punch-marked coins,
ever known in India was found at Amaravati in
Gundur district of Andhra. It was an exclusive
South Indian issue. In the peninsular region of
the south, punch-marked coins are found in
association with Roman coins. Many such
hoards have been recovered from the regions of
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala and new
discoveries are continuously reported from all
parts of the south. Several punch-marked coins
along with Roman coins were reported from
random exposures of Pandukulis (Megalithic
burial sites) in south India, especially from
Coimbatore - Erode areas. But the absence of
punch-marked coins in the western Megaliths
and relative paucity in later times show that
they might have reached the west coast rather
late, more or less at the same time as Roman
coins, the hordes of which far outnumber the
punch-marked coins hoards in the west coast.
But the actual date of the origin and circulation
of this coin and their commercial use is not
known .During the Sangam period (from the 3 c
B.C. to the 3 century A.D.),the Tamil country
was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the
Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras. They were
also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbors beyond the
Imperial borders. The Pandyans inhabited the
modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie.
the southeastern parts of Tamil country), the
Cholas the Coromandel coast(Cholamandalam),
ie., the north-eastern part of Tamil country, and
the Cheras,the kingdom in its developed form,
extended from the west to the eastincluding the
central portion of modern Kerala state and those
parts of Kongunatu, which now form the
Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present
dayTamil Nadu State. Although their frontiers
varied considerably during different periods,
this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a
study of their coin types.Scholars believe that
tiger, fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras or
Keralas respectively and the coins bearing the
aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola
occupation of the Pandyas and Kerala
kingdoms. The Sangam period also witnessed
the development of coinage under the native
kings and chieftains, influx of coinsof
Satavahanas, Kushanas, Romans, Seleucids,
Phoenicians, besides coins from the Greek
Island, kingdoms in the Sangam period, the
Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while
Pliny,the Roman historian of the first century,
calls it Caelabothras.It is generally believed that
the early gold coins of South India and the
Deccanwhich contained a boar on their obverse
were issues of the Calukyas of Badami. In early
Tamil literature the Cheras are referred to as
Cheralas and Cheramans. They had
tradecontacts with the traders of the Roman
Empire and Muziri was perhaps the leading port
for foreign ships.It is difficult to fix the date of
the origin of the early Chera kingdom. However
we consider its emergence during the period of
Emperor Ashoka, ie.,3rd century B.C. The
famous Ashoka-edicts, founded in the south,
mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the
southern boundary of the Mauryan Empire.
Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar
inscription and hisKalsi inscription gives the
name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman
Mauryan Empire. He hasalso mentioned the
three traditional kingdoms in the south, i.e., the
Pandyas,the Cholas and the Cheras, as
independent neighbours.
. However our earliest source of
knowledgeabout the Cheras, their kingdom,
society etc., in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four
centuries of the Christian era and travelogues of
foreigners who visited South India in ancient
times. Among the Sangam works, Patittupattu
gives more information about the early
historyof the ten Chera ruler2, their kingdoms
and the society of that time. Theearliest Chera
king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be
Udiyan Cheral, who assumed the title Perum
Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera
kingdom are small squarecopper coins with
symbols, similar to those found in silver punch-
markedcoins, like arched hill, elephant, trees,
umbrella, river with fishes, ‗swastika‘,‗sun‘,
‗srivatsa‘, wheel (chakra), garland, bull etc. on
the obverse, and bow and In some of the
coinsan ankusa (goad) is also found with bow
and arrow. These coins are die-struck.The
Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver
coins with the symbols like the Sun, square
tank, caducus and Sadacharachakra on the
obverse and thedynastic symbol 'bow and
arrow‘ on both sides. Such round coins were
foundat Amaravati river bed near KarurThe
discovery of many silver portrait coins of
Makkotai dynasty has also been reported from
different parts of Tamil Nadu All such coins
carried the legend'Makkotai' and it had some
similarities with Roman portrait type
coins.58Besides the silver portrait coins of King
Makkotai which belong to a periodstarting from
the third quarter of 100 B.C. to the end of 100
A.D., a counter struck silver coin of Makkotai
has been reported. Anyhow, the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai
interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in the
issues of silver portrait coins A coin of King
Kuttuvan Kotai, with a legend in Tamil Brahmi
Scriptis also available. There is a reference
about one circular copper coin, at Karurwhich
contains the legend Kollippavai.
Porayan is the assumed name of the the ruler
of Kolli hills, In many of his coins his name
written in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse
and a prominent bow and arrow with the minute
symbols like arched-hill, fishes and a seated
tiger on the reverse. No doubt, it is clear from
the prominent 'bow and arrow' symbol that the
coin is an issue of the Chera ruler. Other minute
symbols on the coin like fishes and tiger
probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed
among the Cholas and Pandyas The portrait
coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic
emblems of them, ie.,the bow and arrow. It had
only a portrait on the obverse and the legend
Makkota iabove the head in Tamil-Brahmi
Script. The reverse is blank.. The kings of
Kottayam royal family were also called
Poraikizhar, who wereprobably the descendants
of the Kongu Cheras, and the Scholars consider
thatthe Porains of Kollimalai were directly
connected to the Irumporai lineagewhich was
one of the prominent members among the three
collateral lines ofthe Cheras namely Cheral,
Irumporai and Makotai.
In the coin under discussion the three emblems
are under the same During the past decade a
number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil
country have been brought to light.Among
these were many varieties of uninscribed
rectangular die struck Chera coins made of
copper. A good number of Chera coins have
been taken from theAmaravathi river bed close
to Karur, which was the seat of the Chera
dynasty during its heydays. Six varieties of
Sangam period Chera coins were described by
Krishnamurthy.
 Most of the available coins of the early Cheras
mainly exhibit the elephant figure on the
obverse and bow and arrow symbol on
thereverse. Such types of three double-die
copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the
District of Ernakulam, Kerala.66Among them
two coins are almost semi-circular and the third
is more or lesssquare which is slightly thicker
than the other two in shape. The obverse has the
standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a
staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it. The reverse of all the coins
bears a lamp-stand or a goad and arrow strung
to a bow, the top string of the latter being very
visible.
It has been pointed out that "the presence of the
elephant on the obverse and the bow and arrow
on the reverse distinctly suggested that the
coins must be of Chera origin. It is interesting
that in the Sangam works the Chera kings are
said to ascend the neck of the elephants.
However, the elephant symbol was adopted by
several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra,
Yadava, Kongu, Ganga and Vijayanagara.69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearlyreflects
the presence of Chera origin. The bow is a
Chera symbol, but it could be employed by the
Cheras of Makkotai
The three copper coins recovered at Parur
probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras,
who issued these types of coins that we knew
from the previous accounts. During the Sangam
period Cheras maintained trade connections
with foreign countries, especially with the
Roman Empire, and Muziri was their important
centre of their exchange. One copper coin, with
the figure of an elephant, ankusa, and bow and
arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam, near Paravur in Ernakulam district. It
gives further evidence for thepresence of the
Cheras of the Sangam period in
MuzirisNaturally the indigenous merchants
reached this port town and actively participated
in the exchange with the foreigners during this
period. Thus, probably they carried their native
coins, not for foreign trade but only for internal
purpose, and sometimes it got deposited in the
soil of Parur, which was near Muziris. It is also
believed that the above mentioned three copper
coins are not the issue ofthe Cheras of
Mahodayapuram because they never struck any
coins of their own . So the three copper coins
were not the issue of the Cheras
ofMahodayapuram and probably it was closely
related to the Cheras of Sangam period. Several
lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant
and bow Among the Sangam rulers, Cheras
were the most powerful rulers who controlled a
vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli
district to Muziris inthe west coast which
covered a part of southern Karnataka and
Konkan. They maintained close connections
with foreign traders, especially with the
Romans The Sangam works mention that the
large and beautiful ships of the Romans came to
the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to
obtain spices in exchange. The ports were even
more numerous on the west coast than on east
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with
the Cheras of Sangam age whose capital was
Karur. It has been referred to in the Periplus of
the Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy. From
this site, a large number of Roman coins of
gold, silver and copper had been discovered
along with the findings of Satavahanas.The
discovery of a punch-marked die and Roman
coin die in bronze has been recently reported
from Karur. This die also leads one to infer that
Karur was probably a mint site where punch-
marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially.
Several hoards of Roman coinswhich include
"aurei" and "denari" of Augustus, Tiberius,
Claudius, MarcusAurelis etc. have come from
south India.Several coins which belong to the
Greeks, Phoenicians, Syrians, and Jews have
been discovered from Karur and surrounding
areas.
Ancient coins issuedby Greek islands like
Rhoes, Crete etc., have been obtained recently
from theAmaravati river bed near Karur which
was a prominent centre of the Cheras ofSangam
age All the coins from the Greek city states
Rhodes, Crete, Thrace and Thessaly furnish the
details of their trade contacts with the Cheras.
There are many references in the early Sangam
literature about the Yavanas. Certain copper
coins originated from the city states of
Phoenicia, which is on the eastern sea-boards of
the Mediterranean, have been reported from
theAmaravati riverbed. Phonecians were the
greatest commercially advanced people of
antiquity and they they carried the trade with
the Mediterranean before the advent of the
Greeks.After the premature death of Alexander
of Macedonia in 323 B.C. Phoenecia formed a
part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids.
By 64 B.C.,Seleucid rule was replaced by
Roman rule. The available Phoenecian coins
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean, have
been reported from the Amaravati river bed.85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially
advanced people of antiquity and they carried
the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks.86After the premature
death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 B.C.
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom
under Seleucids. The available Phoenecian
coinsfrom the Amaravati riverbed indicate the
contact of the Mediterranean traders with the
Sangam period rulers, may be the Cheras,
during the early 2nd centuryB.C. Some
Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate
other trade connections The availability of
Phoenician coins from the Amaravati river bed
indicate the contact of the Mediterranean
traders with the Sangam period rulers, may be
the Cheras, during the early 2nd centuryB.C.
Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also
indicate other trade connections of the Sangam
period Cheras during the 3rd century B.C. After
the death of Alexander, Seleucus I founded
Seleucids dynasty in Syria. During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with
other countries like India which reflect through
the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur
Besides allthese coins, an ancient Jewish bronze
coin in round shape has also beenreported from
Karur. Like all the foreign coins found at this
place, we can assume from the Jewish coin that
the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign
contacts signify the fact that the main centre of
export trade was Karur, which was the seat of
the Cheras in the Sangam period. . The
discovery of a punch-marked die and Roman
coin die in bronze has been recently reported
from Karur. This die also leads one to infer that
Karur was probably a mint site where punch-
marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or clandestinely.
The Cheras of Karur eventually became the
first great navigators and international
traders,exchanging goods of the east for those
of the west. By the 6th century B.C. thePersian
army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and
later it came unde thecontrol of the Persian
Empire. Persian Empire had established a
connection with India during the reign of
Darius. A large number of silver punch-marked
coins have also been discovered from different
parts of Kerala. Mainly three hordes of such
coins wereunearthed from the state. They were
Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district,Iyyal
hoard in Trichur district89 and Kodusserry
hoard from Angamali inErnakulam district.
Scholars generally considered that they were
not of Kerala origin, but of pan Indian nature
and they were current even in the days of the
Buddha. Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins
were discovered from the first two hoards viz.,
Kottayam and Iyyal, in the year 1946 A.D. of
which184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam
in which only 162 coins have been unearthed.
Roman Coins confirm the commercial
contacts between India and the Roman Empire
are true and fairly well attested The available
Roman coins from different parts of India have
announced the mutual contact of the Roman
traders and the Indians which throws light on
the social, political, economic and cultural
conditions of that period. Roman trade with
India started as early as the 1st century B.C. and
grew fast to sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2
centuries A.D. A commercial network
involving Rome, Egypt and Arabia, which were
major participants in the trade with India and
south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of
the Christian era. A major part of India
contributed to this trade activity. Roman gold
ands Majority of the Roman coins were found
in the form of hoards, which may be the result
of some local fear or panic of some sudden
attack or war or some natural phenomenon
which forced the people to bury their
treasures100 of the large number of Roman
coins found in India, majority of which were
discovered in south India particularly Andhra
region, Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Kerala.
Roman coins were rarely found in north India
because silver reached the north , north -west,
west from south India in return for luxury
items.Mmost of these coins were melted and
restruck by the Kushan rulers Roman coins
proper fall into two classes, corresponding to
the two main periods of Roman history. The
first class includes the money of the
Republic,often called the ‗Consular‘ or
‗Family series‘; the second, those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time
of Augustus to the capture of Constantinople by
the Turks in A.D. 1453. The introduction of a
coinage in Rome has by ancient authority been
attributed to Servius Tullius, who is said to
have been the first to mark copper pieces with
the representations of an ox or some other
animal symbol No coin of this remote period
has, however, been preserved, and the tradition
is not properly supported by evidences. Rome
began to strike money directly when she
became the dominant power of central Italy.
The Romans borrowed all their ideas of
painting and sculpture from the Greeks; and no
doubt resorted to the same source for the types
of their coinage. During the period of the
Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals, but apart from military issues the
Republic had no gold coins. The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued
outside Rome for only military purposes and
the first purely Roman gold money was struck
by Sulla in B.C.. The Republican coins carry no
obvious evidence of data, and their
arrangements in chronological order, though
highly desirable, is not always easy.
The Roman empire is considered to have begun
in 27 B.C., when Caius Octavius received from
the senate the title of Augustus . It is usual to
classify with the Republican series such coins
of this Emperor as they do not bear the title
AVGVSTVS, though some prefer to regard all
his money as Imperial. During his period gold
became part of the regular currency. The gold
money of Augustus consisted principally of
‗aurie‘, though there are some rare half-
aurie,and rarer still, some ‗quarterniones‘, or
pieces of ‗four aurie‘. The ‗aureus‘ was equal
to twenty five silver ‗denari‘, and any variation
of the aureus insucceeding reigns involved a
corresponding variation of the denarius, so
thatthe proportion of 25 to 1 should always be
maintainedThe denarius remained the chief
silver coin until the reign of Caracalla.The
‗quinarius‘ or half-denarius also continued in
use, but the ‗Sestertius‘,which, under the
Republic, was struck in silver, become a copper
coin, thoughstill employed as the unit of
account. The imperial copper money is
generallydivided, according to its size, into
large, middle, or small brass; otherwise
first,second, or third brass, but the classification
is mainly for convenience. The coins are (1) of
pure or red copper; (2) of orichalcum, or yellow
copper, i.e.copper mixed with one fifth of zinc,
which was more valuable.
The‗dupondius‘ and ‗As‘ were of similar size
and weight, and both came under thehead of
middle or second brass, but the yellow copper
or brass ‗dupondius‘ was worth double the red
copper ‗As‘.118 An arrangement which
includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate, but
occasionally convenient, since itis sometimes
difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from
the red. The term The‗dupondius‘ and ‗As‘
were of similar size and weight, and both came
under thehead of middle or second brass, but
the yellow copper or brass ‗dupondius‘
wasworth double the red copper An
arrangement which includes these two
small or third brass is also elastic, as it includes
any subdivisions of the ‗As‘.The Imperial
period also witnessed the emergence of some
minor
coinslike Consecration coins, Legionary coins,
Posthumous coins, Restitution coins,Votive
coins, Medallions etc. Apart from this,
provincial and colonial coins were also spread
during the period of Empire, especially in the
reign ofAugustus.1Throughout the period when
the imperial money was in use, the obverse of
the coins bore principally of the Emperors head
or bust, or thatofthe Empress or some other
member of the imperial family. The type also
variedwith period.121 The reverse designs are
numbr less, and refer to nearly every The
reverse designs are numberless, and refer to
nearly every department of the public life of the
Roman people.
Religious subjects, personifications of virtues,
architecture, arts, amusements, all kinds of civil
and military affairs etc. were represented. Gold
and silver, under the direct control of the
Emperors, naturally showed their portraits.
Brass and copper were coined theoretically by
direction of the senate, and until Gallienus‘
reign they bore the letters ‗S‘ (senate) ‗C‘
(consulato) on the reverse. But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the
senate resulted, almost from the very beginning,
in the appearance of the imperial portrait and
titles on the S,C coinage as well Greek
influence on Roman coinages is very strong
because it reflects the artistic style of the
Greeks. Most of the rulers in the period of the
Empire followed the Greek style of arts and
architecture. With the Augustan age there came
a visible change, and Greek artists were
encouraged to visit Rome, not only to decorate
the temples of the Gods, but also to embellish
the villas of the rich, into many of which
numerous original works from Greece, Asia,
and Egypt had already found their way. The
effect of Greek influence is very marked on the
coins of the Augustus age, and especially on
those of the two Agrippinas, Caligula and
Claudius.124 The mythological figures which
we meet with on these coins often strike us very
forcibly as copies of Greek statues.The coins of
the early Christian Emperors show light artistic
revival, and when,in the later times, the artists
of the west poured into Constantinople,
carryingwith them all that remained of the
artistic life in the ancient world, they imported
into the coinage, that style of ornament so
peculiarly Byzantine, the traces of significant
that Roman contacts with India began only in
the time of Augustusand it flourished in the
entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius. It
isevident from this fact that the peak period of
this trade was during the reigns ofthese two
Emperors. There was a decline in Roman trade
from the death ofNero till the time of Caracalla
and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India.The period after the death
of Caracalla in A.D. was most critical inthe
history of Rome, not only in political and
military, but also in economic andother spheres.
The empire had almost collapsed due to the
internal and externalpressures, commercial
enterprises had received a set back and trade
had practically ceased. It is also reflected in the
trade connection between the Romans and
Indians. However, there was a revival during
the Byzantine Emperors. A few gold coins of
this period are known in India, but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the
scholars. Roman merchants had trading
settlements in India, especially in the south. Of
these, Arikamedu , two miles south of
Pondicherry and Muziris were-the most
important trading stations between the 1st
century B.C and secondcentury A.D. Large
numbers of the remains of Roman import items
were unearthed from here. Different views
prevailed regarding the appearance of Roman
coins in considerable numbers during this
period. According to one of them, the terminal
trade included commodities produced in India
itself and the transit trade dealt mainly with
objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia. As a result of the
commercial transactions with India,most of the
Roman coins were in circulation here.
Whatever may be the trade,there was a regular
flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in
order to buythe Indian commodities.The early
Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold
and silvercoins which were more attractive and
highly valuable and they were used for their
trade with India. Naturally it attracted the local
merchants of India ,especially of south India,
and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity.
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire
maintained a flourishing barter deal with
Tamilakom, exchanging their gold and silver in
the form ofcoins, along with luxury goods such
as lamps, wine, glassware etc for spices such as
pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones,
ivory, muslin and soon. If the metallic content
of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable
the Indian merchants sometimes rejected such
coins and they were forced to continue the trade
through the exchange of other commodities. It
is not clear how the natives used the coins.
Had they used the coins not so much as
currency, but as bullion, i.e. for the value of
their metals melted then they would not have
survived for us to tell about the Indo-Roman
trade. Their survival itself is clear evidence that
they were not treated as bullion but were
accepted as coins into local currency. Gupta
also argues that the fact that the Roman coins
were used in India as currency is also seen
from those finds where the ‗punch-marked
coins‘ and the Roman coins are found together..
Again, some of the Roman coins are noticed
counter-stamped.It is alsosignificant to note that
the coins from certain hoards were
approximately of the same weight as the
indigenous silver punch-marked coins. They
weigh about50 to 54 grains. Besides these,
certain rulers in India also imitated the
Romanstyle. For instance, the Kushana ruler
Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head, which is identified
with Augustus, on his issues.146in this country
for their own use. Through these evidences,
Gupta came to the conclusion that Indians
maintained a harmonious relation with the
Romans and also recognized their coins as
currency. He further pointed out that if the
Indian merchants needed only the metal of the
Roman coins, it would have been much more
convenient for the Roman traders to bring in
lots of gold or silver and not the coins of their
own country. But it is true in the case of gold,
silver and
copper in Rome that, in order to control the
output of coinage, the Emperors had controlled
the sources from which the raw copper, silver
and gold were obtained, i.e. mines. It also
signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines. Naturally the traders
could not use the ingots for their trade purpose.
So they used the valuable Roman coins to
collect luxury commodities from the East. Thus
the Roman gold, silver and copper coins spread
in India, not as a currency but as bullion and
there existed a ―goods for goods‖ system of
exchange. It is also true that in south India the
gold coin circulated as it came, which
satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the
total absence of any early Indian gold coins.
Different Kinds Of Roman Coins
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen
vertically divided into three
periods; (1) Early Julio-Claudian period, i.e. up
to the time of Nero (A.D 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period, i.e. Vespasian
to Nerva (A.D. 69-98);
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period, i.e. A.D. 98
onwards. Likewise, they should also be
distinguished horizontally into three
geographical areas, viz; (a)
southern peninsular region, i.e.; the land of the
Chera, Pandyas and Cholas(broadly the present
states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu;) (b) south
Deccan, i.e.;the kingdom of the Andhra
Satavahanas (broadly the present states
ofKarnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some
parts of southern Maharashtra; and(c) north
Deccan and above, i.e. northern part of the state
of Maharashtra andthe state of Gujarat,
Madhyapradesh and to their north.
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found inAs
we had seen earlier Roman coins found in
northern India are very few, compared to those
found in the south. The significant
numismaticdiscoveries in different parts of
south India reveal that the majority of
theRoman coins were found in the form of
hoards, a few as stray ones in the Megalithic
tombs and a few others from excavations. The
analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to
Augustus and the latest toMarcus Aurelius.The
above table gives a clear idea of the Roman
coin finds in Kerala and it also shows the
importance of further studies in it
. It may be observed that in the long span of two
millennia the innumerable Roman goldand
silver coins discovered throughout the length
and breadth of the state might straight have
gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert
the pieces intofascinating ornaments. However
we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala, through the
available evidence. First it is clear that the
available Roman coin finds in Kerala, includes
either gold aurie or silver denari, but the copper
coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins
unearthed from Pattanam near NorthParavur,
Ernakulam District of Kerala, about eight
kilometers south ofKodungalloor and the mouth
of riverPeriyar. Apart from other finds, the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested
bimetallic hoard and it also contained 34 silver
punch-marked coins.
Second , the reported finds are absent in the
northern-most and the southern most districts of
modern Kerala state. It indicates the scarcity
ofRoman trade connection with these areas.
Third, most of the sites belong toIdukki district
in modern Kerala, but a large number of Roman
coins camefrom Cannannore in Malabar area,
which contained no less than ‗five coolie loads‘
Last but not least the availability of Roman
aurie and denari in modern Kerala statereveals
the fact that it was a great centre of valuable
commodities like pepper, cinnamon etc. and the
Roman merchants established trade contacts, in
order tocollect the spices and other
commodities in return to their gold and silver
coins,
The ancient Tamil Sangam poems speak
about Muziris as the premier port of Chera
country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and
Tamil country. ―The thriving town of Muchiri,
where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas
bringing gold
come, splashing the white foam in the waters of
the Periyaru which belongs to the Chera of the
Periyaru, the beautifully built ships of the
Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris
resounded with noise‖ ―Sacks of pepper are
brought from the houses to the market; the gold
received from the
ships, in exchange for articles sold, is brought
on shore in barges at Muchiri,where the music
of the surging sea never ceases and where
Kuttuvan (theChera king) presents to visitors,
the rare products of the seas and mountains‖.
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold
coins namely .aurie were looked upon by the
natives as gold, pure and simple. Possession of
these coins would have been a measure of their
wealth, and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted
attention. It is also clear that as aresult of the
progressive foreign trade contact Muziris
became the important port town in ancient
Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed
the emergence of other trade centres like
Tyndis, Naura, Bekare, Nelkinda etc. Most
historians believe that Muziris was in
Kodumagalloore. It is also consideredas the seat
of the Cheras in Sangam period.Above all most
of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest
the advent ofpeople and ideas into the region
from the western world.The Roman coins found
in Kerala belong to several categories. Thefirst
significant hoard reported in Kerala is the
Kottayam hoard, located inKannur district in
Malabar. Hundreds of excellently preserved
aurie were foundon the slope of a hill by the sea
named Vaniyamkadavu, at Kottayam. The coins
which belong to early Julio-Claudian period
were all of gold, amounting to no less than
‗five cooie loads‘Probably the coins were
preserved in five separate large containers, each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load.
Taking into account the averageweight of the
Roman gold coins, and if a coolie could carry a
weight of about 25-30 kg including the
container, the total five coolie load would
amount to
approximately 15,000 coins; but the actual
quantity could not be assessed fully.A major
chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the
news reached the authorities. The coins seem to
have been in fine condition, that is, not
worn,and local jewellers were impressed by the
quality of gold . Like the Pudukottai hoard in
Tamil Nadu, Kottayam hoard is also more
informative because both being particularly
vast.We get some references about the number
of coins, by which, from the available coins
nine (9) were of Augustus, 28 of Tiberius, two
of Caligula, andsixteen each of Claudius and
Nero. This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor.
Despite the lack of numbers for coinsof
particular types in the Kottayam hoard, it seems
likely that the numbers ofcoins of each Emperor
were proportionately similar to those of
Pudukottai.
Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of
Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and a few
of Gaius. Apart from a big hoard two coins of
gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available
from the surface or stray finds. Thus, in every
sense the Roman coin finds in Kottayam give
evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar
region in modern
Kerala.
Apart from these large hoards, several minor
hoards also were reportedfrom different places
of Kerala. Among them the notable one is
theNedumkandam hoard which contains both
the Republican and Imperial coins of Rome.
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola
Taluk in Idukkidistrict on the ghat-route. More
than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992, but the reported coins are few in
number; and all of them belongto the Julio-
Claudian period.182 Compared to the number
of coins reported from Iyyal the percentage of
Republican issue is low. Only 4 silver coins of
theRepublican period are reported from Iyyal
and it is datable to B.C 123-91. But the
Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50% of the
silver coins from theRepublican period, and it is
datable to C.190 B.C. Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds
were reported, in Lakshadweeps The discovery
of coinage associated with the remnants of
civilization isoften cited as proof of the
existence of a marketing system in that society.
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the
demands of a market system thathas evolved
beyond previous localized commodity
exchange. While earlier exchange was largely
reciprocal, the use of coinage implies less
personalized market transactions and likely
exchange with external economic agents.
Goldand silver coinage often had prestige and
value in early societies and might beused for
large scale exchange. It is generally believed
that trade is the mainfactor responsible for the
movement of coins from one country to another
commercial field of south India from about the
3rd century B.C., which can be proved through
the Tamil names of south Indian articles
borrowed by the Hellenes. So also, the Asian
countries had maintained a flourishing
tradeconnection with the early South Indian
kingdoms. On the basis of theChinese annals,
their trade flourished prior to the early Christian
era. TheChinese imported south Indian spices
largely and exported their silks, sugar etc. to
India. But the real glory in the trade connection
started with the dawn of the Roman Empire,
which is evident from the available Roman coin
finds in different parts of South India Roman
republic did not have a flourishing contact with
India and thecoins belonging to this period
circulated in India only during the time of
theEmpire. During the time of the consulate or
Republican period, most of theexport items
from India to Europe probably went to Greece
rather than to
Rome. These conclusions are based on the fact
that very few consular coins have been
unearthed so far in India, but most of those
coins circulated in Indiaonly during the time of
the empire. The Roman contacts with India
began during the reign of Augustus, as it is
clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India, although a
considerable antiquity has beenassigned to the
commerce between the ancient Tamil country
and the west. Land trade routes were also tried.
However, the land trade route had to pass
though Parthia which was a hostile country
Because of the disturbances from the robbers,
the Romanemperors encouraged the sailors to
discover new sea routes to the eastern countries.
Thus, by about the middle of the First century
A.D.. Hippalus discovered the secrets of the
existence of monsoon winds blowing
regularlyacross the Indian Ocean and with the
help of these monsoon winds Roman ships
reached Muziris and other ports of south India.
Romans alsodiscovered another route to south-
west India through cape Guardafui. Generally
three indirect sea routes to India were familiar
to the sailorsand the merchants from the East
Mediterranean coast. The first route may
havebegun from the Phoenician cities, second
from Greece and third fromAlexandria in
Egypt. With the help of these trade routes,
foreign traderscould reach India in a shorter
time and return with goods from peninsular
India without the fear of robhers. With these
advantages and facilities about
ships were sailing annually to India, according
to Strabo, from the port of Myos Hormos. The
south Indian rulers at that time, mainly Cheras,
Cholas,
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all
protection and help to the Roman tradersand
thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed
between the Indian and theRoman world. It was
also responsible for the emergence of port
towns likeMuziris, Nelcynda etc in South India,
which greatly facilitated the Romans to conduct
a smooth trade with India.At the same time
there existed highways called ‗peruvazhi‘
whichconnected villages and towns and tolls
were levied at the entrance to towns and at
crossroads. Obviously the Roman coin finds
mark out a trade route fromKerala coast
through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula
to the Romantrading stations on the east coast.
The rivers had a great significance in
theprogress of trade in south India. The river
Periar served as the most important means of
transportation of pepper and other spices
produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from
the Roman Empire There are some references
about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early
period. he‗puram‘ songs refer to a Pandya
prince who was drowned in the sea
(KadalulMainta Glam Peruvaludi) fighting the
pirates of sea.A Chola ruler who plied a fleet
across a long rope to the either end of which a
big stone was attached. The smaller boats used
in river transport were known as ‗ambi‘,
‗pahri‘ and ‗odai‘ andlarger boats as ‗kalam‘
‗vangam‘ and ‗navay‘.225 The harbour
Pukar(Puhar) orKaveripumpattinam was
generally safe even for bigger vessels
Warehouseswere built on the beach near the
quarters of fishermen. The two kinds of
goods(export and import) were found heaped on
the quay. Lighthouses called―Kalam Kari
ilangu Cudar‖ the light that beckons the ship are
referred to.sThe most significant commercial
settlements of south India, like Puhar, Muziris
are no less important in understanding the
nature of their contact and interaction, which is
clear from the Roman pottery and other
associate findsdiscovered by the excavation .
There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect
their trade The Peutingeriantable, a collection
of ancient maps composed in third century.A.D.
mentionsTyndis and Muziris and refers to a
temple of Augustus on the west coast But there
is no reference in the Sangam literature about a
temple for Augustus South India, especially
Kerala, is famous for spices, which attracted
theforeign merchants like the Mesopotamians,
Egyptians, Arabians, Phoenicians,Greeks etc.
and they carried on an extensive trade with the
west coast from very ancient period onwards.
The Sangam works mention the native
merchant class like ‗Vanigan‘ Chetti. etc and
they had a significant role in the commercial
field. The articles of Roman trade mainly
comprised of animal products, plant
products,minerals etc. 235 at the same time,
according to Periplus a few male and female
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and
masons were brought to India.
The products mainly exported from the west
coast of India were: pepper, malabathrum
(Cinnamomum tamala) , indigo, cinnamon and
cardamom, allgrown in Malabar. Among the
spices pepper, which was used chiefly
asmedicine by the Greeks and was called by
Hipocratus as ―Indian remedywas an
important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne
trade.. According to Pliny, pepper had come
very much in Roman fashion. Pepper
sometimes made up 3/4 of the total bulk of the
average ‗Rome bound cargo‘ or any way it
would be more than half.
The ships that visited the Western ports during
the first century A.D were of large size on
account of the pepper that was being carried.
The Sangam literatures refer to the prosperity of
the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it. Apart
from Muziris the Cheras maintained trade in
both black and white pepper through the ports
likeNelcynda, Tyndis etc and thereby earned
considerable profit from the Western
countries, especially from Rome.Cardamom,
yet another important spice exported to the
west, is found in interior southern Kerala,
Malabar and the highlands bordering the district
ofMadurai, Thirunelveli and Dindigal.243
Cardamom commanded a ready market in the
Roman world for its use as medicine and
funerary perfume. Another
important export item was cinnamon, which is
the bark of a tree, an aromatic substance with
combined taste of sweetness and pungency. It
was in high demand among the Romans as
perfume, incense, condiment and
medicine.‗Malabathrum‘ identified as ‗betel
leaf‘ (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast Nard (Nardus) seems
to be a grass or leaf which was yet another item
of export along with Malabathrum. It was used
to extract an oil for cosmetic purposes. A large
variety of Indian wood were also exported from
west coast toRome. They were generally
divided into two classes viz. 1) ornamental
timber wood, 2) and fragrant wood; sometimes
used as medicines. The most noticeable forest
products exported from south India were sandal
wood, teak, ebony and eagle wood that mainly
comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Malabar regions. The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of
Augustus and continued till the time of Marcus
Aurelius. It is recorded that silk was worth its
weight in gold. So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese
silk trade with the west. In south India the
muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control
of the Cholas.However, it was exported from
the Malabar Coast.
There was a great demand for the mineral
products, particularly precious stones which
were most valuable and also attractive. South
Indian pearls were rated among the best and
highly valued in the ancient world and the
Roman ladies wore them as finger and ear
ornaments and also used to decorate their shoes.
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular
in the pearl industry and they also reached in
considerable quantity to the Malabar ports,
where they were exported to Rome. They were
used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards. In south
India the Cholas and Pandiyas. tried to control
the pearl coast. Among them Cholas had special
interest to control the valuable export goods
like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom, and pepper which was abundant in
the regions of the Cheras. Plunder mechanism
was one of the most successful means of
acquiring such valuables for exchange and
consumption.Other items of south Indian trade
with the west were ‗beryl‘. The beryl mines of
Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are well
known . Excavations in the Coimbatore region
have brought tolight six-sided beryl prisms, that
have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins. Beryl
mines have also been located atVaniyambadi in
the Salem district. Diamonds, sapphires, rubies
etc were the most precious items to the
Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India, particularly from
the Chola-Pandya regions.
However ,most of them came from Sreelanka,
which was famous for the best quality gems.
Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the
precious stone mines, but a great export trade in
all kinds of precious stones was conducted from
the Malabar ports . Steel industry, particularly,
Kodumanam near ‗Noyyal‘ river was famous
for its jewelers Besides the valuable precious
stones, large quantities of Indian iron andsteel,
called”woortz” which armed the Roman
soldiers . Romans came and waited at
Kodumanam to order the woortz. The woortz
were made in a different technology which
made it extraordinarily strong . the mode of
production steel ( woortze ) was kept as a
closely guarded secret.
Different kinds of Indian animals were
exported from south India. Animals like
elephants,?? lions, tigers, rhinoceroses,
buffalos, monkeys etc, and birds like parrots,
peacocks were the important items of export
from the Tamilagam. clothing, muslin, copper,
tin, lead, crude glass and figured linens and also
wheat for the sailors.
The Purananuru refers to the import of
delicious wine and buatiful woman. Both were
eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling
elites. The excavations conducted at different
places in south India reveal the existence of
pottery particularly with amphoras, as a main
part of the import items of the Romans to
India. The Periplus did not list many
manufactured goods that were brought to India
by the Roman traders. To the West Coast.
Other important items of export were tortoise
shell and ivory Most of the imported items were
not the product of the Romans, but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian
countries. However, the Roman gold and silver
coins had a considerable role in the exchange
trade with the Eastern countries. As discussed
earlier, their circulation and use as a medium of
exchange have been one of the major points of
dispute among the scholars. The Periplus gives
a list of export and import commodities and
also gives information about the important trade
centres in the East. But the export items of the
Roman Empire were negligible in comparison
to the Indian exports. So, the balance of trade
was very unfavorable to the west.
 The Roman Empire drained much of its
treasure as the pure gold and silver coins into
the south Indian markets as bullion. This drain
and wasteful extravagance of the richer classes
in Rome was condemned by Pliny He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India
did not drain the Roman Empireof a hundred
million sesterces‖ This was presumably the
value of articles imported into India, but the
articles purchased in India were paid in
Roman,coins.
Pliny had made another reference that the goods
from India were soldat hundred times their
original cost, which would mean that the
quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times
more than what reached India. We have no
doubt that a large number of Roman gold and
silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the
Roman coin finds in different partsof the
country. Many hoards have also been unearthed
from various parts of the modern Tamilnadu
and Kerala region. Why so many Roman gold
and silver coins are found here and there in
different parts of Kerala state so far away from
Rome?
. The important question is: what was the role
of the native people in India inorganizing the
trade relation with the outsiders? No doubt,
without any helpfrom the native people the
foreigners could not have collected
commodities from India. The indigenous
merchants must have functioned as middlemen.
between the rich merchants of Rome and the
forest dwellers of South India.By using the
available facilities in India the Roman traders
established closerelation with the native people
and collected the wealth‖ of India. Probably, the
native people gave their help to carry the goods
from thehinterland to the port towns and also
for loading them in the foreign ships. If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native
people received the Roman coinsas wages for
their service, which they happily kept both for
reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value. These coins as forms
of wealth were used both forexchange purpose
as currency and as bullion and some of these
were carriedfrom place to place for trade when
they got converted as metals for bullion oras
coins. In some places they were stored as non-
depreciable form of wealth for reasons of
proved security. Fortunately, most of them
came to hoards or strayfinds to the surface and
provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman
tradeconnection that existed from the early
Christian centuries onwards.
Roman_gold_coins_excavated_in_Pudukottai_I
ndia_one_coin_of_Caligula_31_41_

and_two_coins_of_Nero_54_68.