Ethiopians in India, Connect with the Aksum Empire and the

Mysterious Kingdom of Murud Janjira ?

Dr Uday Dokras, PhD Stockholm,SWEDEN

Prof. Dr. Ms Laurence Buzenot,
Docteure en géographie, Professeure d'histoire et géographie
Miss Kinjal Shah
PART II

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 The Mystery of the African Ruled fort-Janjira
In Murad District -Present day Maharashtra State in India

The origin of this state of Janjira is shrouded in mystery. The antecedents of the builder of
Janjira are just as romantic to say the least. These are several of the Players in this mysterious
journey.
1. The Maya- an extinct ethnic tribe from Ethiopia.
2. Oromo Tribe that battled the Maya
3. Pieter van den Broecke 
4. Malik Ambar
5. Creation of Aurangabad
6. Ottoman Trade links with Janjira?
7. Ottoman Wars with Janjira Neighbours but not Janjira
The Maya are an extinct ethnic group native to the old Wej province in Ethiopia. They were
renowned for their skilled archers, the services of which were available as mercenaries. The
Maya were primarily pastoralists and their livelihood was with their cattle.
Maya archers initially formed the core of the southern armies of Abyssinian Emperor Lebna
Dengel in resisting the Conquest of Abyssinia (Futuh al-Habash) by the forces of Ahmad ibn
Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Gurey or Gran), Imam of the Adal Sultanate. However, after the fall of their
homeland to Ahmed Gurey's armies, in true mercenary fashion, the Maya bowmen switched
sides.
Oromo Migrations: Maya bowmen were armed with spears. They tipped their arrows
with ouabain, a poison which caused death by cardiac arrest or respiratory failure.The Maya
homeland of Wej was one of the first lands to be invaded by the Oromo migrations. The Maya
repelled the weight of the Oromo for years due to their skill with the bow, until the Oromo
armies changed tactics and used thick oxhide shields and fixed shield formations.
Slavery: Between the 14th and 17th centuries, the Christian Abyssinian Kingdom (led by
the Solomonic dynasty) and adjacent Muslim states gathered much of their slaves from non-
Abrahamic communities inhabiting regions like Kambata, Damot and Hadya, which were
located on the southern flanks of their territory. Malik Ambar was among the people who
were converted to Islam, and later dispatched abroad to serve as a warrior. Both the Solomonic
dynasty and the Adal Sultanate were devastated after two decades of war with each other.
According to the Futuhat-i `Adil Shahi, Malik Ambar was sold into slavery by his parents. He
ended up in al-Mukha in Yemen, where he was sold again for 20 ducats and was taken to the
slave market in Baghdad, where he was sold a third time to the Qadi al-Qudat of Mecca and
again in Baghdad to Mir Qasim al-Baghdadi, who eventually took him to Deccan Plateau. He
was described by the Dutch merchant Pieter van den Broecke as, "a black kafir from Abyssinia
with a stern Roman face."
Pieter van den Broecke (25 February 1585, Antwerp – 1 December 1640, Strait of Malacca)
was a Dutch cloth merchant in the service of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), and one of
the first Dutchmen to taste coffee. He also went to Angola three times. He was one of the first
Europeans to describe societies in West and Central Africa and in detail trade strategies along the
African coast. That he described the Ethiopian slave soldier Malik Ambar points to the fact that
Malik Ambar was no ordinary man to capture the eye of Broecke. In 1611 he brought in a cargo

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of 29 tonnes (65,000 pounds) of ivory to Amsterdam from a captured Portuguese ship. In 1614
he visited the port of Aden in Yemen. He was the first Dutch merchant to make a journey to
the Arabian Peninsula. He went on to the port of al-Shihr in Hadramawt and left several Dutch
merchants at the port to engage in trade and learn the Arabic language. He returned to the
Arabian Peninsula in 1616 and visited the port of Mocha, where he attempted, unsuccessfully to
establish a permanent Dutch trading establishment. It was there that he drank "something hot and
black, a coffee".He was made the VOC's manager in Dutch Suratte in 1620.
He operated in Maritime Southeast Asia beside Jan Pieterszoon Coen and was present at
the battle of Jakarta in 1619. Pieter van den Broecke took over from Coen as head of the Banda
Islands. The islands were held to be important to trade due to their superior cloves and nutmeg,
and so the Dutch were at that time enforcing a trade monopoly on the unwilling local population
through drastic measures. So many inhabitants were killed on Banda that the island had to be
deliberately repopulated.

Pieter van den Broecke's 1617 drawing of a dodo, sheep, and red rail on Mauritius. RIGHT Pieter van den Broecke,
by Frans Hals (Kenwood House)

On his retirement he was honoured with a gold chain, which he wears in the portrait by his
friend Frans Hals (now hanging in Kenwood House). ABOVE RIGHT, His son was
a perkenier (plantation owner) on the Banda Islands. Descendants of the Van den Broecke family
continue to live on.
Malik Ambar (1548 – 1626) was born as a Maya under the birth name Chapu. As a child he was
sold into slavery by his parents and was brought to India as a slave. Malik Ambar was born in
1548 as Chapu, a birth-name in Harar, Adal Sultanate. Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one of his slave
owners eventually converted Chapu to Islam and gave him the name Ambar, after recognizing
his superior intellectual qualities. He was from the now extinct Maya ethnic group – a group
renowned in their homeland as skilled warriors, habitually serving as mercenaries in the region's
frequent wars.

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Malik Ambar was then purchased by Chengiz Khan, a former Habshi slave who served as
the peshwa or chief minister of the Sultanate of Ahmadnagar.
Career: Once his master died, Malik Ambar was freed by his master’s wife. He got married, and
after getting freed, Ambar briefly served the Sultan of Bijapur and gained the title “Malik”
during this time. But Ambar quit this service after citing insufficient support before entering
service in the Nizam Shahi Army.
Malik Ambar was the regent of the Nizamshahi dynasty of Ahmednagar from 1607 to 1627.
During this period he increased the strength and power of Murtaza Nizam Shah II and raised a
large army. He raised a cavalry which grew from 150 to 7000 in a short period of time and
revitalized the Ahmadnagar sultanate by appointing puppet sultans to repel Mughal attacks from
the North. By 1610, his army grew to include 10,000 Habshis and 40,000 Deccanis. [14] Over the
course of the next decade, Malik Ambar would fight and defeat Mughal emperor Jahangir's
attempts to take over the kingdom.
Malik Ambar changed the capital from Paranda to Junnar and founded a new city, Khadki which
was later on changed to Aurangabad by the Emperor Aurangzeb when he invaded Deccan around
1658 to 1707.
Malik Ambar is said to be one of the proponents of guerrilla warfare in the Deccan region. Malik
Ambar assisted Shah Jahan wrestle power in Delhi from his stepmother, Nur Jahan, who had
ambitions of seating her son-in-law on the throne. Malik Ambar had also restored some
credibility to the Sultans of Ahmadnagar, who had been subdued by the earlier Mughals (Akbar
had annexed Ahmadnagar). However, he was defeated later when Shah Jahan led a massive army
against the dwindling Ahmednagar. Later Malik Ambar offered full control of Berar and
Ahmadnagar to the Mughal as a sign of surrender.[16]
Second conflict with Mughals
Malik Ambar defeated the Mughal General Khan Khanan many times and often attacked
Ahmadnagar. Lakhuji Jadhavrao, Maloji Bhosale, Shahaji Bhosale and other Maratha chiefs had
gained great prominence during this period. With the help of these Maratha chiefs, Malik Ambar
had captured Ahmednagar Fort and town from the Mughals. But in one of the battles Malik
Ambar was defeated by the Mughals and had to surrender the fort of Ahmadnagar. Many
Maratha Chiefs and especially Lakhuji Jadhavrao and Ranoji Wable joined the Mughals after
this. Shah Jahan once again laid a crushing blow to Malik Ambar in one of the battles and further
decreased his power.

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 Malik Ambar's Tomb 1860s Khuldabad

He died in 1626 at the age of 77. Malik Ambar had by his Siddi wife, Bibi Karima two sons;
Fateh Khan and Changiz Khan and two daughters. Fateh Khan succeeded his father as the regent
of the Nizam Shahs. However, he did not possess his predecessor's political and military
prowess. Through a series of internal struggles within the nobility (which included Fateh Khan
assassinating his nephew, Sultan Burhan Nizam Shah III), the sultanate fell to the Mughal
Empire within ten years of Ambar's death.
One of his daughters was married to a prince of the Ahmednagar royal family who was later,
through Malik Ambar's aid crowned as Sultan Murtaza Nizam Shah II. The eldest and youngest
daughters respectively were called Shahir Bano and Azija Bano, the latter of whom married a
nobleman named Siddi Abdullah.
The final daughter was married to the Circassian Commander of the Ahmednagar army,
Muqarrab Khan, who later became a general under the Mughal Emperor and received the title
Rustam Khan Bahadur Firauz Jang. He became famous for his involvement in several important
military campaigns, such as the Kandahar Wars against Shah Abbas of Persia. He was killed by
Prince Murad Baksh in the Battle of Samugarh during the Mughal War of succession in 1658.
Malik Ambar's tomb lies in Khuldabad, near the shrine of the famous sufi saint Zar Zari Baksh.
Legacy: Scholars subscribe to Harris's point of view to credit the former slave with creating a
long-lasting legacy of Africans rising to power in the eastern regions of the world, namely India.
Others agree more with historians like Richard Eaton. He cites Ambar's military prowess as the
reason he rose to such influence during his life, but claims that a string of decisive defeats at the
end of his career instigated distrust and resentment amongst those in his close administration.
Eaton and his proponents claim Ambar's journey is an impressive story of success, and gave
African's representation in India for a short while, but also believe his lack of positive leadership
in the final years of his tenure prevented him from solidifying his influence, as his successors
quickly worked to reverse many of Ambar's policies. Regardless of his posthumous impact on
the Deccan, and Indian states generally, it cannot be disputed Ambar was an avid supporter of
education and a patron of the arts. Historians Joseph E. Harris and Chand cite Ambar's patron
ship of the arts and learning as a shining achievement of his tenure as Malik of Deccan.
Malik Ambar cherished strong love and ability for architecture. Aurangabad was Ambar's
architectural achievement and creation. Malik Ambar the founder of the city was always referred
to by harsh names by Sultan Jahangir. In his memoirs, he never mentions his name without
prefixing epithets like wretch, cursed fellow, Habshi, Ambar Siyari, black Ambar, and Ambar
Badakhtur. Some historians believe that those words came out of frustration as Malik Ambar had
resisted the powerful Mughals and kept them away from Deccan."
Foundation of Aurangabad
He founded/inhabited the city of Khirki in 1610. After his death in 1626, the name was changed
to Fatehpur by his son and heir Fateh Khan. When Aurangzeb, the Mughal Emperor invaded
Deccan in the year 1653, he made Fatehpur his capital and renamed it as Aurangabad. Since then
it is known as Aurangabad. Two imperial capitals Viz. ‘Pratisthana’ (Paithan) i.e. the capital
of Satavahanas (2nd BC to 3rd AD) and Devagiri – Daulatabad the capital of Yadavas
and Muhammad bin Tughluq are located within the limits of Aurangabad District.

5
Aurangabad canal system
"Malik Ambar is especially famous for the Nahr or "Neher", the canal water supply system of
the city called Khadki now known as Aurangabad. Malik Ambar completed the Neher within
fifteen months, spending a nominal sum of two and a half lakh Rupiyahs. This city is situated on
the banks of Kham, a small perennial stream which takes its rise in the neighbouring hills."
Water was supplied to the city of Khadki from the famous Panchakki (Pan from
Hindi paani means water and Chakki means a treadmill) which drove the water down the Nahr e
Ambari (Ambar's canal) from the stream called Kham referred earlier here, to the city. The
blades of the Panchakki used to rotate by the water falling on them from that stream and with the
aid of a wooden valve turn the flow into that canal, the Nahr, for the city.
The Canal was an impressive engineering feat as it consisted of a 7 feet deep tunnel large enough
for a man to walk through. The Canal had 140 manholes and it worked efficiently without the
need for any maintenance or cleaning for 321 years until it finally needed cleaning in 1931.

The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was a late medieval Indian kingdom, located in the

northwestern Deccan, between the sultanates of Gujarat and Bijapur. Malik Ahmad,
the Bahmani governor of Junnar after defeating the Bahmani army led by general Jahangir Khan
on 28 May 1490 declared independence and established the Nizam Shahi dynasty rule over the
sultanate of Ahmednagar.[5] Initially his capital was in the town of Junnar with its fort, later
renamed Shivneri. In 1494, the foundation was laid for the new capital Ahmadnagar. In
1636 Aurangzeb, then Mugal viceroy of Deccan, finally annexed the sultanate to the Mughal
Empire.
History and Establishment: Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah I was the son of Nizam-ul-Mulk Malik
Hasan Bahri, originally a Hindu Brahmin from Beejanuggar (or Bijanagar) originally named
Timapa. After the death of his father, he assumed the appellation of his father and from this the

6
dynasty found by him is known as the Nizam Shahi dynasty. He founded the new
capital Ahmadnagar on the bank of the river Sina. After several attempts, he secured the great
fortress of Daulatabad in 1499.
Reigns of the successors of Malik Ahmad

Battle of Talikota. Map showing MURUD where Fort of janjira lies

After the death of Malik Ahmad in 1510, his son Burhan Nizam Shah I, a boy of seven was,
installed in his place. In the initial days of his reign, the control of the kingdom was in the hands
of Mukammal Khan, an Ahmadnagar official and his son. Burhan converted to Shi'i Islam under
the tutelage of Shah Tahir Husaini.Sohoni, Pushkar (2014). "Patterns of Faith: Mosque
Typologies and sectarian affiliation in the kingdom of Ahmadnagar". In Roxburgh, David J.
(ed.). Seeing the Past - Envisioning Islamic Art and Architecture: Essays in Honor of Renata
Holod. Brill, Leiden. pp.  110–127. ISBN 9789004264021. Burhan died in Ahmadnagar in 1553.
He left six sons, of whom Hussain Nizam Shah I succeeded him. Hussain was a leading
figurehead of the Deccan Sultanates during the Battle of Talikota.
After the death of Hussain in 1565, his minor son Murtaza Nizam Shah I ascended the throne.
During his minority, his mother Khanzada Humayun Sultana ruled as a regent for several years.
Murtaza Shah annexed Berar in 1572. On his death in 1588, his son Miran Hussain ascended the
throne. But his reign could last only a little more than ten months as he was poisoned to death.
Ismail, a cousin of Miran Hussain was raised to the throne, but the actual power was in the hands
of Jamal Khan, the leader of the Deccani/Habshi group in the court. Jamal Khan was killed in the
battle of Rohankhed in 1591 and soon Ismail Shah was also captured and confined by his father
Burhan, who ascended the throne as Burhan Nizam Shah II. But his sister Chand Bibi fought
him. Winning the kingdom, Chand Bibi ascended the throne as regent for the new infant
sultan, Bahadur Nizam Shah. She repulsed an invasion by the Mughal Empire with the
reinforcements from the Bijapur and Golconda Sultanates. After the death of Chand Bibi in July
1600, Ahmadnagar was conquered by the Mughals and the Sultan was imprisoned.

7
 JANJIRA
Malik Ambar is credited with the construction of the Janjira Fort in the Murud Area of present
day Maharashtra India. After its construction in 1567 AD, the fort was key to the Sidis
withstanding various invasion attempts by the Marathas, Mughals, and Portuguese to capture
Janjira.
There he became a Siddi military leader of great renown in the Deccan region and later a capable
administrator.He rose to become a Siddi military leader and prime minister of the Ahmadnagar
Sultanate in the Deccan region of India. Born in the Adal Sultunate, in present-day Ethiopia,
Malik a Maya, was sold as a child by his parents and brought to India as a slave, so it is said.
However I do not agree with this theorey. If a slave he could never become a military
commander.
While in India he created a mercenary force numbering up to 1500 men. It was based in the
Deccan region and was hired by local kings. Malik became a popular Prime Minister of
the Ahmadnagar Sultanate, showing administrative acumen. He is also regarded as a pioneer
in guerilla warfare in the region. He is credited with carrying out a revenue settlement of much of
the Deccan, which formed the basis for subsequent settlements. He is a figure of veneration to
the Siddis of Gujarat. He humbled the might of the Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur and raised
the low status of the Nizam Shah
Malik Ambar and the demise of the sultanate

Murtaza Nizam Shah II with an Malik Ambar

Although, Ahmadnagar city and its adjoining areas were occupied by the Mughals, an extensive
part of the kingdom still remained in possession of the influential officials of the Nizam Shahi
dynasty. Malik Ambar and other Ahmadnagar officials defied the Mughals and declared Murtaza
Nizam Shah II as sultan in 1600 at a new capital Paranda. Malik Ambar became prime minister
and Vakil-us-Saltanat of Ahmadnagar. Later, the capital was shifted first to Junnar and then to a
new city Khadki (later Aurangabad).
After the death of Malik Ambar in May 1626, his son Fath Khan surrendered to the Mughals in
1633 and handed over the young Nizam Shahi ruler Hussain Shah, who was sent as a prisoner to
the fort of Gwalior. But soon, Shahaji with the assistance of Bijapur, placed an infant scion of the
Nizam Shahi dynasty, Murtaza Nizam Shah III on the throne and he became the regent. In

8
1636 Aurangzeb, then Mughal viceroy of Deccan finally annexed the sultanate to the Mughal
empire after defeating Shahaji.
Revenue System of Malik Ambar
The revenue system introduced by Malik Ambar was based on the revenue system introduced in
Northern India and some parts of Gujarat and Khandesh subahs by Raja Todarmal. Lands were
classified as good or bad according to their fertility and he took a number of years to ascertain
accurately the average yield of lands. He abolished the revenue farming. At first, revenue was
fixed as two-fifths of the actual produce in kind, but later the cultivators were allowed to pay in
cash equivalent to approximately one-third of the yield. Although an average rent was fixed for
each plot of land but actual collections depended on the conditions of crops and they varied from
year to year.
Under the reigns of successive rulers of the dynasty, architecture and art flourished in the
kingdom. The earliest extant school of painting in the Deccan sultanates is from
Ahmadnagar. Several palaces, such as the Farah Bakhsh Bagh, the Hasht Bihisht Bagh, Lakkad
Mahal were built, as were tombs, mosques and other buildings. Many forts of the Deccan, such
as the fort of Junnar (later renamed Shivneri), Paranda, Ausa, Dharur, Lohagad, etc. were greatly
improved under their reign. Daulatabad, which was their secondary capital, was also heavily
fortified and constructed in their reign. Literature was heavily patronised in the kingdom, as seen
through manuscripts such as the Tarif-i Husain Shah Badshah-i Dakan. Sanskrit scholarship was
also given a boost under their rule, as demonstrated by the works of Sabaji Pratap and
Bhanudatta. The city of Ahmadnagar, founded by the Nizam Shahs, was described as being
comparable to Cairo and Baghdad, within a few years of its construction. It was modelled along
the great cities of the Persianate world, given the Shi'i leanings of the dynasty.
Attack on Janjira: Coming to Janjira fort it is said that once the order was given to attack the
fort, owing to the castle's fortifications, the Admiral could not attack conventionally. He and his
team disguised themselves as merchants and asked Ram Patil to safeguard their three hundred
large boxes containing silks and wines from Surat. As thanks, Piram Khan threw a party with
wine. Once Ram Patil and his soldiers were intoxicated, Piram Khan opened the boxes, which
contained his soldiers, and used the opportunity to capture the castle and the island on which it
stands.
In the century that followed the rulers put themselves under the overlordship of the Sultanate of
Bijapur. During the seventeenth and eighteenth century Janjira successfully resisted the repeated
attacks of the Maratha Empire.

9
Pen sketch 1885 Unknown artist( Ahmadnagar)
Cooperation with the Ottomans
Little is known of the contacts established between the ottoman empire and the janjira rulers.
Trade and sea logistics could be one track to go on. According to Ottoman records, a combined
force from the Ottomans and Janjira routed a Portuguese fleet in 1587 at Yemen. From this
moment onwards Janjira played an important role in resisting Portuguese influence in the region.
There's further record of Cooperation with the Ottoman Empire when the Ottoman fleet first
arrived in Aceh prior to Ottoman expedition to Aceh has included 200 Malabar sailors from
Janjira State to aid the region Batak and the Maritime Southeast Asia in 1539.
According to one records at one time Mughal emperor Aurangzeb supplied the Siddis of Janjira
state with 2,000 men, provisions, ammunitions along with two Frigates and two large Man-of-
war battleships. The ship arrived at Bombay harbor under the commands of Siddi Kasim and
Siddi Sambal in 1677. The largest Mughal ship named Ganj-I-Sawai which was equipped with
800 guns and 400 musketeer type soldiers also stationed in the port of Surat.
Another record from East India Company factory which written 1673 has reported the Siddis
fleet which wintered from Bombay has five Frigates and two Man-of-wars beside of
fifteen grabs vessels. It is because the formidable naval warfare skills of Siddis in Janjira that
Aurangzeb granting annual payment of 400.000 Rupee for the maintenance of their fleet.

10
 Damadi Masjid of the Ahmadnagar

Relations with the Marathas-Rivalry with the Marathas

The main competitor of the Sidis was the Angrias, a Maratha Koli family with sea forts and
ships, based in southern Konkan.
Treaty with Marathas
In 1733, Peshwa Bajirao of the Maratha Empire launched a campaign against the Siddis of
Janjira. Bajirao's forces, however, did not take Janjira fort, though they captured much of the
surrounding area; a favorable treaty gave the Marathas indirect control over virtually all of the
Sidi's lands.
ost Maratha-rule
When the British came to the Konkan area, the repeated attacks of the Marathas against Janjira
ceased. Janjira State was administered as part of the Deccan States Agency of the Bombay
Presidency, founded in 1799. In the nineteenth century the rulers maintained a military force of
123 men. Following the independence of India in 1947, the state was merged with India.

11
Ahmadnagar Fort

Janjira State ( map above) was a princely state in India during the British Raj. Its rulers were a
Sidi dynasty of Habesha descent and the state was under the suzerainty of the Bombay
Presidency. Janjira State was located on the Konkan coast in the present-day Raigad district of
Maharashtra. The state included the towns of Murud and Shrivardhan, as well as the fortified
island of Murud-Janjira, just off the coastal village of Murud, which was the capital and the
residence of the rulers. The state had an area of 839 km 2, not counting Jafrabad, and a
population of 110.389 inhabitants in 1931. Jafrabad, or Jafarabad state was a dependency of the
Nawab of Janjira State located 320 km to the NNW.

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History Cooperation with the Ottomans
According to Ottoman records, a combined force from the Ottomans and Janjira routed a
Portuguese fleet in 1587 at Yemen. From this moment onwards Janjira played an important role
in resisting Portuguese influence in the region. 

Theres further record of Cooperation with the Ottoman Empire when the Ottoman fleet first
arrived in Aceh prior to Ottoman expedition to Aceh has included 200 Malabar sailors from
Janjira State to aid the region Batak and the Maritime Southeast Asia in 1539. 
According to one records at one time Sultan Aurangzeb supplied the Siddis of Janjira state with
2.000 men, provisions, ammunitions along with two Frigates and two large Man-of-war
battleships. The ship arrived at Bombay harbor under the commands of Siddi Kasim and Siddi
Sambal at 1677. The largest Mughal ship named Ganj-I-Sawai Which equipped with 800 guns
and 400 musketeer type soldiers also stationed in the port of Surat. 
Another record from East India Company factory which written 1673 has reported the Siddis
fleet which wintered from Bombay has five Frigates and two Man-of-wars beside of fifteen grabs
vessels. It is because the formidable naval warfare skills of Siddis in Janjira that Aurangzeb
granting annual payment of 400.000 Rupee for the maintenance of their fleet.
                                     
History Rivalry with the Marathas
The main competitor of the Sidis was the Angrias, a Maratha Koli family with sea forts and
ships, based in southern Konkan.
                                     
History Treaty with Marathas
In 1733, Peshwa Bajirao of the Maratha Empire launched a campaign against the Siddis of
Janjira. Bajiraos forces, however, did not take Janjira fort, though they captured much of the

13
 surrounding area; a favorable treaty gave the Marathas indirect control over virtually all of the
Sidis lands.

           
  Maratha Ruler Sambhaji attempted to unsuccessfully storn Janjira     
                    
History Post Maratha-rule
When the British came to the Konkan area, the repeated attacks of the Marathas against Janjira
ceased. Janjira State was administered as part of the Deccan States Agency of the Bombay
Presidency, founded in 1799. In the nineteenth century the rulers maintained a military force of
123 men. Following the independence of India in 1947, the state was merged with India.
                                     
The royal family of Janjira were Sidis, also known as Habshi, assumed to be from Abyssinia.
Initially the rulers of the state held the title of Wazir, but after 1803 the title of Nawab was
officially recognized by the British Raj. They were entitled to an 11 gun salute by the British
authorities.
                                     
2.1. Rulers Wazirs of Janjira
 1707 - 1732 Surur Yakut Khan II d. 1732
 1740 - 1745 Hasan Khan 2nd time s.a.
 1745 - 1757 Ibrahim Khan I 1st time d. 1761
 1732 - 1734 Hasan Khan 1st time d. 1746
 1676 - 1703 Kasim Yaqut Khan II d. 1703
 1757 - 1759 Ibrahim Khan I 2nd time s.a.
 1734 - 1737 Sumbul Khan
 1757 Mohammad Khan I d. 1757
 1737 - 1740 `Abd al-Rahman Khan
 1703 - 1707 Amabat Yaqut Khan II

2.2. Rulers Thanadars of Jafarabad and Wazirs of Janjira

 1761 - 1772 Yaqut Khan usurper to 6 Jun 1772 d. 1772

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 1759 - 1761 Ibrahim Khan I s.a.
 1772 - 1784 `Abd al-Rahim Khan d. 1784
 1784 - 1789 `Abd al-Karim Yaqut Khan
 - in dispute with -
 1784 - 1789 Jauhar Khan d. 1789
 1789 - 1794 Ibrahim Khan II d. 1826
 1794 - 1803 Jumrud Khan d. 1803
                                     
2.3. Rulers Nawabs
 28 Jan 1879 - 2 May 1922 Ahmad Khan b. 1862 - d. 1922 from 1 Jan 1895, Sir Ahmad
Khan
 2 May 1922 - 9 Nov 1933 Kulsum Begum f -Regent b. 1897 - d. 1959
 1826 - 31 Aug 1848 Mohammad Khan I d. 1848
 28 Jun 1879 – 11 Oct 1883. -Regent
 31 Aug 1848 – 28 Jan 1879 Ibrahim Khan III b. 1825 - d. 1879
 1803 - 1826 Ibrahim Khan II s.a.
 2 May 1922 – 15 Aug 1947 Mohammad Khan II b. 1914 - d. 1972

African Rulers in Indian History: Janjira, Maharashtra, India (1622-Present)

The princely state of Janjira fluttered its red flag with the crescent moon until India won
independence in 1947 and merged all the princely states with the union by the following year.
The state of Janjira is noted as being among the smallest of the princely States in Menon’s “The
Story of Integration of Indian Princely States.” However, compared to its size, the little state of
Janjira played a disproportionately large role in history. The people manning the fort came from
North Africa (Ethiopia/Somalia) and were followers of Islam. They were known to be the best
sea fighters anywhere among the Muslim races and called themselves Siddis (a North
African term of respect). While they were called Siddis in India’s west coast, they were known
as Habshis in the rest of India.
Janjira was established in 1489. The state Janjira was located in the Konkan of Rangai District of
Maharashtra. The area of Janjira was 981.61 Km². The state was ruled by Africans who were of a
Sidi dynasty. In 1941, the population of Janjira was 110,388.

The African Diaspora were not Slaves but Kings: Janjira state included the towns of Murud
and Shrivardhan, alongside the fortified island of Murud-Janjira. Murud-Janjira was known as
the capital and the residence of its rulers. The head of the state was called Wazir as at that time.
British Raj officially recognized the title “Nawab” in 1803. Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb
conferred the title of Nawab. The siddhis were the royal family of that state. They are also
known as ‘Habshi.’ A majority of the African rulers of this state were Muslim. Janjira was a
Muslim state at that time. Hence the African rulers were the Wazirs or Nawabs of Janjira.
Wazir often refers to Vizier or wazir, a high-ranking political advisor or minister whereas Nawab
is a Royal title indicating a sovereign ruler in many ways comparable to the western titles
of King. The relationship of a Nawab to the Emperor of India has been compared to that of the
Kings of Saxony to the German Emperor. In earlier times the title was ratified and bestowed by
the reigning Mughal emperor to semi-autonomous Muslim rulers of subdivisions or princely

15
states in the Indian subcontinent loyal to the Mughal Empire i.e. Nawabs of Bengal. The title is
common among Muslim rulers of South Asia as an equivalent to the title Maharaja, however it is
not exclusive to Muslims only.

"Nawab" usually refers to males and literally means Viceroy; the female equivalent is "Begum"
or "Nawab Begum". The primary duty of a Nawab was to uphold the sovereignty of the Mughal
emperor along with the administration of a certain province.The title of "nawabi" was also
awarded as a personal distinction by the paramount power, similar to a British peerage, to
persons and families who ruled a princely state for various services to the government of British
India. In some cases, the titles were also accompanied by jagir grants, either in cash revenues and
allowances or land-holdings. During the British Raj, some of the chiefs, or sardars, of large or
important tribes were also given the title, in addition to traditional titles already held by virtue of
chieftainship.
They have ruled Janjira since 1622 AD. They also played a very important role in the history
of India. This is a history of African rulers of Janjira. The ruling family of Janjira is of
Abyssinian origin. They came across the Arabian Sea to India and took service with their
countrymen under the then Nizam Shahi Kings of Ahmadnagar around the 15th century. Most of
them were appointed as captains of the island fortress after taking possession of Dandarajpuri
and the island of Janjira in 1490. This appointment was done by Malik Ahmad Shah and in 1618,
Sidi Surul Khan I secured the governorship of the island of Janjira. Another great highlight of the
Ahmadnagar Sultanate was the capture of the fort of Janjira which played a great role in the
resistance of the repeated attacks of the Maratha Empire.Janjira also combined forces with the
Ottomans to route a Portuguese fleet in 1587 at Yemen. After this event, Janjira continued
playing a great role in the resistance of the Portuguese influence in that region. An ironic event
happened during this period whereby the Portuguese, British and Dutch started to label certain
Indian mariners as pirate, who were acting legitimately to defend the trade rights of the polities
native to the area of Indian Ocean.

Janjira state had always faced rivalry with the Marathas especially with the Angrias, a Maratha
Koli family with forts and ships. In 1733, the Maratha Empire took aggressive action and
embarked on a campaign against the siddis of Janjira. They couldn’t take the Janjira fort but
captured much of the surrounding area.Most of the attacks on Janjira by the Marathas ceased
with the introduction of the British rule. Janjira became a part of the Bombay Presidency around
1799.

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 Nawab

Wazirs of Janjira( From the list above but with details)

Nawab Sidi Amber Sanak (1612 – 1642)

Sidi Amber Sanak was the Nawab of Janjira from 1621 to 1642. He declared independence in
1621. Issue:

 Nawab Sidi Yusuf Khan (Son)

Nawab Sidi Amber Sanak died in 1642.

Nawab Sidi Yusuf Khan (1642 – 1648)

Sidi YUSUF KHAN was the Nawab of Janjira from 1642 to 1648. He was the son of Sidi
Amber Sanak.
 Nawab Sidi Fateh Khan
Nawab Sidi Fateh Khan (1648)
Sidi Fateh Khan was the Nawab of Janjira in 1648.

Nawab Sidi Surul Khan (Rasul Khan) (1706 – 1732)

Surul khan was the Nawab of Janjira from 1706 to 1732. He had eight sons, some including:

 Nawab Sidi Abdurrahman Khan (2nd son)

 Nawab Sidi Abdurrahim Khan (7th son)
 Nawab Sidi Hasan Khan (Little son)
 Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan I

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  Nawab Sidi Muhammed Khan
 He died in 1733.
Nawab Sidi Qasim Yaqut Khan II (1676 – 1703)
Yakut Khan was the administrator of Janjira. Qasim Yakut Khan was the real name of him, but
Emperor Alamgir was given the title of Yakut Khan.
In 1672 Yakut khan attacked the Marathas and after destroying the towns of Pen and Nagothane,
he returned on 10 October 1673. In 1689, He attacked Bombay for the third time. Nawab Qasim
Yakut Khan died in 1733

Nawab Sidi Hasan Khan (1st time) (1732 – 1734)

He was the Nawab of Janjira from 1732 to 1734 and for the second time from 1740 to 1746.
Nawab Sidi Sumbul Khan (1734 – 1737)
He was the Nawab of Janjira from 1734 to 1737. Sumbul Khan died in 1737.

Nawab Sidi Abdur Rahman Khan (1737 – 1740)

He was the Nawab of Janjira from 1727 to 1740. Abdur Rahman Khan died in 1740.

Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan I (1st time) (1745 – 1757)

Sidi Ibrahim Khan I was the Nawab of Janjira from 1746 to 1757 for the 1 st time and from 1757
to 1759 for the 2nd time. 
Nawab Sidi Mohammad Khan I (1757) 
Sidi Muhammed Khan was the Nawab of Janjira in 1757. He died in 1757. He could not rule
Janjira for a long time.
Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan I (1762 – 1770) (s.a.)
Sidi Ibrahim Khan I was the Nawab of Janjira from 1762 to 1770. He ruled Janjira for almost
eight years. He died in 1770.

Nawab Sidi Yaqut Khan (1761 – 1772)

Nawab Sidi Yaqut Khan was the Nawab of Janjira in 1772. In 1759, on the coast of Kathiawar,
he obtained possession of Jafrabad, and on his behalf, he was appointed officials to manage its
affairs.

 Nawab Sidi Abdur Rahim Khan (1772 – 1784) 

Sidi Abdur Rahim Khan was the Nawab of Janjira from 1772 to 1784. He was forced into a
treaty with the Peshwa around 1776 by which he had to surrender five and a half of
eleven mahals. Issue:
 Nawab zadi (unknown) she was married to Nawab Sidi Jauhar Khan
 He died in 1784.
Nawab Sidi Jauhar Khan (1784 – 1789)
Sidi Jauhar Khan was the Nawab of Janjira from 1784 to 1789, and he died in 1789.

He ruled Janjira for five years.

Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan II (1789 – 1794)

18
 Sidi Ibrahim Khan II was the Nawab of Janjira from 1789 to 1794 and 1803. He died in 1826.
Nawab Sidi Jumrud Khan (1794 – 1803)
Sidi Jamrud Khan was the Nawab of Janjira from 1794 to 1803. He died in 1803.

Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan II (1803 – 1826) (s.a.)

 Sidi Ibrahim Khan II was the Nawab of Janjira from 1803 to 1826. Issue:
 Nawab Sidi Muhammed Khan I
 Sidi Hasan Khan
 Sidi Abdurrahman Khan
 Sidi Abdurrahim Khan
He died in 1826.

Nawab Sidi Muhammed Khan I (1826 – 1848)

Sidi Muhammed Khan I was the Nawab of Janjira from 1826 to 1848, he got the title of Nawab
in 1840. Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan II was his father. Issue:

 Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan III

 Sidi Abdurrahman Khan
 Sidi Yusuf Khan
 Sidi Kasim Khan
 Sidi Muhammed Khan
Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan III (1848 – 1879)
Nawab Sidi Ibrahim Khan III was the Nawab of Janjira from 1848 to 1879. In 1870, several Sidi
Sardars of Janjira revolted and deposed him, placing his minor son on the throne. However, he
was reinstated by the Government provided he fulfilled certain conditions, his Sardars submitted
to him in 1873. He died in 1879. Issue:

 Nawab Zada Sidi Muhammed Buxi Khan, a son of a Nika wife of inferior rank, he was
selected as Nawab by some nobles of the state, but his younger brother was selected
instead as he was a legitimate son by a lady of equal rank.
 Sahibzada Sidi Dawood Khan was born 21st May 1873, and he also had studied in
Marathi and Urdu.
 Nawab Zada Sidi Abdurrahman Khan.
 Sahib Zada Sidi Ibrahim Khan was born in 1884, and he also had studied in Marathi and
Urdu. He was appointed as a Customs Inspector of Janjira.
HH Nawab Sidi Sir Ahmed Khan Sidi Ibrahim Khan (1879 – 1922)
HH Nawab Sidi Sir Ahmed Khan Sidi Ibrahim Khan G.C.I.E. was the Nawab of Janjira from
1879 to 1922. He was born in 1862. He was Educated at Rajkumar College, Rajkot.
He succeeded to the Gadi on 28th January 1879, his salute was raised from 9 to 11 guns in 1903,
and for his services during WW1 a personal salute of 13 guns was granted on 1st January 1918,
and a local salute of 13 guns was granted on 1st January 1921, Firstly he married with
Ahmedbibi . But Ahmedbibi died in 1885, and then he married Nazli Begum at 1886. In 1913,
he got married to HH Nawab Kulsum Begum Sahiba. (Kulsumbibi).

19
She was appointed Regent of Janjira during her son’s minority. He had one son. He died 2nd
May 1922. Issue:

 HH Nawab Sidi Muhammed Khan II Sidi Ahmad Khan

 HH Nawab Sidi Muhammed Khan II Sidi Ahmad Khan (1922 – 1972)
HH Nawab Sidi Muhammed Khan II Sidi Ahmad Khan was the Nawab Saheb of Janjira
from 1922 to 1972. He was born on 7th March 1914. He was the son of Sidi Sir Ahmed Khan
Sidi Ibrahim Khan
On 2nd May 1922, He succeeded to the Gadi (meaning “throne” in India). He reigned until the
9th November of 1933, and he was invested with full ruling powers. In 1930, he completed his
diploma education at Rajkumar College, Rajkot and the Deccan College, Poona.
In Mysore State, he undertook administrative training. He also had a permanent local salute of 13
guns.He was married to Nawab zadi Rabia Sultan Jaha Begum Sahiba (HH Nawab Pari Bano
Begum Sahiba of Janjira) on 14 November 1933. She was born in Jaora on 23rd December 1913.
Also, Mumtaz Mahal Begum Sahiba was his 2nd wife. He had four daughters and one son.He
died First April 1972. Issue:

 HH Nawab Sidi Shah Mahmood Khan, Nawab of Janjira

 Nawab zadi Fatima Jaha Begum Sahiba, (b 1934.)
 Nawab zadi Ahmadi Jaha Begum Sahiba, (b 1935.)
 Nawab zadi Mumtaz Jaha Begum Sahiba, (b 1939.)
 Nawab zadi Qamar-uz-Zamani Sultan Begum Sahiba,( b 1943.)

Nawab Sidi Shah Mahmood Khan(1972) who was the nawab of Janjira since 1972. He was
born on 1952.

Styles of the ruling prince and ruling family

The ruling prince and his consort were respectively referred to with the styles His Highness and
Her Highness. While the ruling prince held the title Nawab Sidi, his consort held the title Nawab
Begum. Male descendants of the ruling prince were called Khan, while female descendants of
either Begum for daughters or Begum Sahiba for granddaughters and other female descendants.

https://thinkafrica.net/african-rulers-in-indian-history-janjira-maharashtra-india-1622-present/

Commercial relations between India and the Ottoman Empire: In Chapter “5 - Commercial
relations between India and the Ottoman Empire (late fifteenth to late eighteenth centuries): a few notes
and hypotheses” Gilles Veinstein says that these relations went back to before the establishment
of the Mughal Empire and the Ottoman seizure of the Middle East and its borders with India: the
states of Sultan Mehmed II emerged as an outlet for Indian textiles at least from the end of the
fifteenth century, according to documents from Bursa that are among the oldest Ottoman
economic sources. Not only did the Bahmani sovereign of north Deccan, Shah Mohammed III
Lashkari (1463–82), exchange ambassadors with Mehmed the Conqueror, but his vizir, Ḫoğa
Maḥmūd Gawan (1405-81), sent representatives to trade with the Turks: two of them, Ḫoğa 'Ali
and 'Abd ül-'Azīz, were mentioned in 1476. When the latter arrived at Bursa, the former went off
to the Sultan's European possessions, leaving him with 877 pieces of fabric given to him by the

20
vizir to sell. From 1479 we have a second reference: in that year the Bahmani vizir entrusted to
four persons ‘all kinds of fabrics and other merchandise’ to sell in the ‘country of Rūm’, the
name for the Ottoman territories. These merchants had gone through Arabia: one had died on the
way, while another died at Bursa. Finally, from 1481 we have a third reference: to a trade
mission sent by the vizir to Bursa. Its members appear as his employees and one of them seems
to be the leader, with the title of re'īs.( Edited by Sushil Chaudhury, University of Calcutta, Michel Morineau, Université de Paris
XII, Publisher: Cambridge University Press)

The Ottoman expeditions in the Indian Ocean (Turkish: Hint seferleri or Hint Deniz

seferleri, lit. "Indian Ocean campaigns") were a series of Ottoman amphibious operations in
the Indian Ocean in the 16th century. There were four expeditions between 1538 and 1554,
during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. It is quite possible that these or at least some of
these had contacted Murad Janjira fort on the west Coast and established gtrade links with the
Siddhi Empire of India.

21
Ottoman fleet in the Indian Ocean in the 16th century.An Ottoman Xebec with three lateens and oars.

After the voyages of Vasco da Gama, a powerful Portuguese Navy took control of the Indian
Ocean in the early 16th century. It threatened the coastal cities of the Arabian
Peninsula and India. The headquarters of the Portuguese Navy was in Goa, a city on the west
coast of India, captured in 1510.
Ottoman control of the Red Sea meanwhile began in 1517 when Selim I annexed Egypt to the
Ottoman Empire after the Battle of Ridaniya. Most of the habitable zone of the Arabian
Peninsula (Hejaz and Tihamah) soon fell voluntarily to the Ottomans. Piri Reis, who was famous
for his World Map, presented it to Selim just a few weeks after the sultan arrived in Egypt. Part
of the 1513 map, which covers the Atlantic Ocean and the Americas, is now in the Topkapı
Museum. The portion concerning the Indian Ocean is missing; it is argued that Selim may have
taken it, so that he could make more use of it in planning future military expeditions in that
direction. In fact, after the Ottoman domination in the Red Sea, the Turco-Portuguese
rivalry began. Selim entered into negotiations with Sultan Muzaffar II of Gujarat, (a sultanate in
North West India), about a possible joint strike against the Portuguese in Goa. [2] However Selim
died in 1520.

22
Route of Piri Reis in 1552./The Ottoman admiral Selman Reis defended Jeddah against a Portuguese attack in
1517
In 1525, during the reign of Suleiman I (Selim's son), Selman Reis, a former corsair, was
appointed as the admiral of a small Ottoman fleet in the Red Sea which was tasked with
defending Ottoman coastal towns against Portuguese attacks. In 1534, Suleiman annexed most
of Iraq and by 1538 the Ottomans had reached Basra on the Persian Gulf. The Ottoman Empire
still faced the problem of Portuguese controlled coasts. Most coastal towns on the Arabian
Peninsula were either Portuguese ports or Portuguese vassals. Another reason for Turco-Portugal
rivalry was economic. In the 15th century, the main trade routes from the Far East to Europe, the
so-called spice route, was via the Red Sea and Egypt. But after Africa was circumnavigated the
trade income was decreasing. While the Ottoman Empire was a major sea power in
the Mediterranean, it was not possible to transfer the navy to the Red Sea. So a new fleet was
built in Suez and named the "Indian fleet”.  The apparent reason of the expeditions in the Indian
Ocean, nonetheless, was an invitation from India.
Expedition by Hadim Suleiman Pasha 1538: Bahadur Shah, the son of Muzaffer II, the ruler
of Gujarat who had negotiated with Selim, appealed to Constantinople for joint action against the
Portuguese navy. Suleiman I used this opportunity to check Portuguese domination in the Indian
Ocean and appointed Hadim Suleiman Pasha as the admiral of his Indian Ocean fleet. Hadim
Suleiman Pasha's naval force consisted of some 90 galleys. In 1538, he sailed to India via the
Red and Arabian Seas, only to learn that Bahadur Shah had been killed during a clash with the
Portuguese navy and his successor had allied himself with Portugal. After an unsuccessful siege
at Diu, he decided to return. On his way back to Suez, however, he conquered most of Yemen,
including Aden. After the expedition, Hadim Suleiman was promoted to grand vizier.

23
 The arrival of Portuguese ships in Hormuz
Expedition bycPiri Reis 1548-1552: After the first expedition, the Portuguese navy had
captured Aden and laid siege to Jeddah (in modern Saudi Arabia) and tried to penetrate the Red
Sea. The aim of the second expedition was to restore Ottoman authority in the Red Sea and
Yemen. The new admiral was Piri Reis, who had earlier presented his World Map to Selim.
He recaptured Aden in 1548 from the Portuguese, thus securing the Red Sea.
Three years later he sailed out from Suez again with 30 ships and the goal of wresting Hormuz
Island, the key to the Persian Gulf, from Portugal. Piri Reis captured Muscat on his way,
therefore extending Ottoman authority as far as Oman. He laid siege to Hormuz but was
unsuccessful. He captured the town, but the citadel remained intact. After
capturing Qatar peninsula he faced with reports of an approaching Portuguese fleet, Piri Reis
decided to withdraw the fleet to Basra. He returned to Suez with two galleys which were his
personal property. The sultan sentenced Piri Reis to death for these acts, and had him executed in
1553.
Expeditions of Murad Reis the Elder: 1553: The elder of the two Reis brothers,the purpose of
this expedition was to bring the fleet back to Suez. The new admiral was Murat Reis the Elder,
the former sanjak-bey (governor) of Qatif. While trying to sail out of the Persian Gulf, he
encountered a large Portuguese fleet commanded by Dom Diogo de Noronha. the largest open-
sea engagement between the two countries, Murat was defeated by the Portuguese fleet and had
return to Basra

24
The Portuguese attack on the Turkish fleet, in Livro de Lisuarte de Abreu// Map of Diu 1729
Expeditions by Seydi Ali Reis  1553 : He was appointed as the admiral after the failure of the
third expedition, in 1553. But what he found in Basra was a group of neglected galleys.
Nevertheless, after some maintenance, he decided to sail. He passed through the Strait of
Hormuz and began sailing along Omani shores where he fought the Portuguese fleet twice. After
the second battle Seydi Ali Reis flead the battle would eventually reach Gujarat, and was forced
into the harbour of Surat by the caravels of Dom Jerónimo, where he was welcomed by the
Gujarati governor. When the Portuguese Viceroy knew in Goa of their presence in India, he
dispatched a two galleons and 30 oarships in October 10 to the city, to pressure the governor to
hand over the Turks. The governor did not surrender them but proposed to destroy their ships, to
which the Portuguese agreed. The remainder of the fleet was unserviceable, resulting in his
return home overland with 50 men. Seydi Ali Reis then arrived at the royal court of the Mughal
Emperor Humayun in Delhi where he met the future Mughal emperor Akbar who was then 12
years old.
The route from India to Turkey was a very dangerous one because of the war between the
Ottoman Empire and Persia. Seydi Ali Reis returned home after the treaty of Amasya was signed
between the two countries in 1555. He wrote a book named Mirror of Countries (Mir’at ül
Memalik) about this adventurous journey and presented it to Suleiman I in 1557 . This book is
now considered one of the earliest travel books in Ottoman literature.
The naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean were only partially successful. The original goals of
checking Portuguese domination in the ocean and assisting a Muslim Indian lord were not
achieved. This was in spite of what an author has called "overwhelming advantages over
Portugal", as the Ottoman Empire was wealthier and much more populous than Portugal,
professed the same religion as most coastal populations of the Indian Ocean basin and its naval
bases were closer to the theater of operations.

25
On the other hand, Yemen, as well as the west bank of the Red Sea, roughly corresponding to a
narrow coastal strip of Sudan and Eritrea, were annexed by Özdemir Pasha, the deputy of Hadım
Suleiman Pasha. Three more provinces in East Africa were
established: Massawa, Habesh (Abyssia) and Sawakin (Suakin). The ports around the Arabian
Peninsula were also secured.
Sometimes, Ottoman assistance to Aceh (in Sumatra, Indonesia), in 1569 is also considered to be
a part of these expeditions (see Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis). However, that expedition was not a military
expedition. It is known that Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, the grand vizier of the empire between
1565–1579, had proposed a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Seas. If that project could
have been realized, it would be possible for the navy to pass through the canal and eventually
into the Indian Ocean. However, this project was beyond the technological capabilities of the
16th century. The Suez Canal was not opened until some three centuries later, in 1869, by the
largely-autonomous Khedivate of Egypt.
Siege of Indian Ports by Ottomans: The Siege of Diu occurred when an army of the Sultanate
of Gujarat under Khadjar Safar, aided by forces of the Ottoman Empire, attempted to capture the
city of Diu in 1538, then held by the Portuguese. The Portuguese successfully resisted the four
months long siege. It is part of The Ottoman-Portuguese War. In 1509, the major Battle of Diu
(1509) took place between the Portuguese and a joint fleet of the Sultan of Gujarat, the Mamluk
Sultanate of Egypt, the Zamorin of Calicut with support of the Ottoman Empire. Since 1517, the
Ottomans had attempted to combine forces with Gujarat in order to fight the Portuguese away
from the Red Sea and in the area of India.[4] Pro-Ottoman forces under Captain Hoca Sefer had
been installed by Selman Reis in Diu.
Diu in Gujarat (now a state in western India), was with Surat, one of the main points of supply
of spices to Ottoman Egypt at that time. However, Portuguese intervention thwarted that trade by
controlling the traffic in the Red Sea. In 1530, the Venetians could not obtain any supply of
spices through Egypt.
Under the command of Governor Nuno da Cunha, the Portuguese had attempted to capture Diu
by force in February 1531, unsuccessfully. Thereafter, the Portuguese waged war on Gujarat,
devastating its shores and several cities like Surat.
Soon after however, the Sultan of Gujarat, Bahadur Shah, who was under threat from the Mughal
emperor Humayun, made an agreement with the Portuguese, granting them Diu in exchange for
Portuguese assistance against the Mughals and protection should the realm fall.[4] The Portuguese
seized the stronghold of Gogala (Bender-i Türk) near the city,[4] and built the Diu Fort. Once the
threat from Humayun was removed, Bahadur tried to negotiate the withdrawal of the Portuguese,
but on 13 February 1537 he died drowning during the negotiations on board of a Portuguese ship
in unclear circumstances, both sides blaming the other for the tragedy.
Bahadur Shah had also appealed to the Ottomans to expel the Portuguese, which led to the 1538
expedition.
Ottoman Fleet: Upon the arrival of Sultan Bahadur's envoy to Egypt with a large tribute in
1536, the Ottoman governor (pasha) of Egypt, 60-year-old eunuch Hadim Suleiman Pasha, was
nominated by Sultan Suleiman  the Magnificent to organize and personally lead an expedition to
India. Pasha Suleiman forbade any shipping out of the Red Sea to avoid leaking information to

26
the Portuguese in India. There were delays however due to the Siege of Coron in the
Mediterranean, and the Ottoman-Safavid war of 1533–1535.
According to the Tarikh al-Shihri, Ottoman forces amounted to 80 vessels and 40,000 men.
Gaspar Correia provides a more specific account, claiming that the Turks assembled at Suez an
armada composed of 15 "bastard galleys" , 40 "royal galleys", 6 galliots, 5 galleons "with four
masts each" that were "dangerous ships to sail, for they were shallow with no keel"; five smaller
craft, six foists from Gujarat, and two brigs. It carried over 400 artillery pieces in total, over
10,000 sailors and rowers (of which 1,500 were Christian) and 6,000 soldiers, of which 1,500
were janissaries. The Pasha employed a Venetian renegade, Francisco, as captain of 10 galleys,
plus 800 Christian mercenaries. On July 20, 1538, the armada set sail from Jeddah, stopping
by Kamaran Island before proceeding to Aden.
At Aden, Pasha Suleiman captured the city after inviting its ruler, Sheikh Amir bin Dawaud,
favourable towards the Portuguese, aboard his ships, then hanging him. Thus, Aden was
occupied without a siege, and plundered
The expedition left Aden on August 19 and then called at Socotra, thereafter making its way to
the western coast of Gujarat, despite losing some ships that got separated from the fleet during
the passage of the Indian Ocean. It was the largest Ottoman fleet ever sent into the Indian Ocean.

Turkish galleys, 17th century/ TO RIGHT Portuguese depiction of a Gujarati foot-soldier (and his wife)

The captain of Diu at the time was the experienced António da Silveira, former captain
of Bassein and Hormuz who had participated in the Portuguese-Gujarati War of 1531–34. [6] The
Portuguese fortress housed about 3,000 people, of which solely 600 were soldiers.
First attacks
Under the command of Khadjar Safar – Coge Sofar in Portuguese, an Albanian renegade
from Otranto and an influential lord in Gujarat – the Gujarati forces began crossing the channel

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of Diu onto the western side of the island on June 26, 1538, being held back by the city's western
walls just long enough for the Portuguese to fill their water reserves and burn their supply
storages in the city before finally retreating to the fortress on the eastern end of the island.
For the following two months the Gujaratis were unable to threaten the besieged with more than
a low-intensity bombardment, while the Portuguese conducted occasional raids on the Gujarati
positions.

Lopo de Sousa Coutinho, who would later write his memoirs on the siege, distinguished himself
on August 14 after leading 14 Portuguese in a sortie into the city to capture supplies, defeating
400 soldiers of Khadjar Safar.
On September 4, the Ottoman fleet arrived in Diu, catching the Portuguese garrison by surprise
and thus blockading the fortress by sea. Captain da Silveira immediately sent a small craft to run
the blockade with a distress call to Goa, while Pasha Suleiman promptly landed 500 janissaries,
who proceeded to plunder the city – causing Suleiman to fall out of favour with the lords of
Gujarat but Khadjar Safar. The janissaries then attempted to scale the fortress' walls but were
repelled with 50 dead. On September 7, a strong storm fell upon Diu, damaging part of the
Ottoman fleet (and helping the Portuguese restore their water supplies), after which the Turks
began unloading their artillery and a further 1,000 men, and raising a number of defensive and
siege works around the fort. It seems by then the Gujarati lords became distrustful of the

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Ottomans, possibly fearing that they might establish themselves in Diu after expelling the
Portuguese, and the following day refused to provide any further supplies.
On September 14th, four foists from Goa and Chaul arrived with reinforcements.
A distant eyewitness, the famous Portuguese traveler Fernão Mendes Pinto later recounted how,
passing by the fortress, Turkish galleys came close to seizing the tradeship he traveled in:
Having decided to stop for news of what was going on there, we began our approach to land, and
by nightfall we were able to distinguish a lot of fires all along the coast as well as the occasional
burst of artillery. Not knowing what to make of it, we shortened sail and hove to for the rest of
the night until daybreak, when we got a clear view of the fortress surrounded by an enormous
number of lateen-rigged vessels. [...] While we were arguing back and forth and becoming
gradually more alarmed by the possibilities confronting us, five ships moved out from the middle
of the fleet. They were huge galleys, with their fore-and-aft sails in a checkerboard pattern of
green and purple, the deck awnings literally covered in flags, and long banners streaming so far
down from the mastheads that the ends brushed the surface of the water.

— Fernão Mendes Pinto, in Peregrinação

The Ottoman artillery opened fire on the fortress on the 28th, as their galleys bombarded it from
the sea, with the Portuguese replying in suit – the Portuguese sank a galley but lost several men
as two of their basilisks exploded.
Attack on the Village of the Rumes' Redoubt
Across the Diu channel on the mainland shore, the Portuguese kept a redoubt by a village
dubbed Vila dos Rumes – "Village of the Rumes" (Turks) modern day Gogolá – commanded by
Captain Francisco Pacheco and defended by 30–40 Portuguese, which came under attack by
Gujarati forces. On September 10 the army of Khadjar Safar bombarded the fortlet with Turkish
artillery pieces before attempting to assault it with the aid of janissaries, but were repelled.
Khadjar Safar then ordered a craft be filled with timber, sulphur, and tar, which he hoped to
place by the redoubt and smoke the Portuguese out. Realizing his intentions, António da Silveira
sent Francisco de Gouveia with a small crew on a craft to burn the device with fire bombs under
cover of night, despite coming under enemy fire. Another assault on September 28 with 700
janissaries failed after a prolonged bombardment.
The Portuguese garrison resisted until its captain Pacheco agreed to surrender to the Pasha on
October 1, who had granted them safe passage to the fortress unharmed. When they surrendered
however, Suleiman promptly had them imprisoned on his galleys.

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Janissary, circa 1577/ Portuguese soldiers, 1619. Painting by André Reinoso
The message of Francisco Pacheco and Captain António da Silveiras reply
Thus under the Pashas power, former captain Francisco Pacheco wrote a letter to captain
António da Silveira, advising him to lay down arms; it was delivered by a Portuguese renegade
António Faleyro, who had converted to Islam and dressed in the Turkish fashion, that he was at
first unrecognizable by his former comrades. It read:
I have surrendered to the great captain Çoleymam baxá through an agreement sealed in gold
under his name, in which he granted us our lives, liberties, belongings and slaves, old and young,
except the weapons and artillery: and had us go greet him on his galley, and as we were led to
the city, they divided us by the houses, in groups of two: me and Gonçalo D'Almeida my cousin,
and António Faleyro were taken to Suleiman's bastard galley, who received us well and gave
each of us fine clothes; after which I told him to spare me such procedure of his and release us
(as had been promised) and he responded that we ought not to wear ourselves out, for he had
fulfilled his part. But as he wanted to attack that fortress by land and sea, he'd entertain us as
long as that took; and upon capturing it, he'd send us to India; otherwise he'd release us, so we
might return to the fortress. Then he ordered two very sound basilisks unloaded, and he'll unload
as many as he wishes, which he can very well do. And allow me to write to you to surrender
without further delay, otherwise he'll have you all by the sword. Now see what you must and be
well advised.
Captain António da Silveira, who considered the Pasha's conduct to have been treasonous (and
Pachecos advice outrageous), replied in the following manner:
For such a great and powerful Captain as you claim he is, he ought to better keep his charters,
and yet I'm not as surprised by his lack of truth, which they are born with, as by your writing; be
well advised, tell him to do as much as he can, for over the smallest stone of this fortress we shall
all perish. Be warned not to bring me nor send me more of such messages, for as enemies I shall
have the bombards fire upon you.

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The writer Gaspar Correia provided a different account of the exchange, however it is not in
accordance with that of the veteran Lopo de Sousa Coutinho, who personally participated in the
siege.
Assault on the fortress
By October 5, the Turks had finished their siege works and assembled all their artillery, which
included nine basilisks, five great bombards, fifteen heavy guns, and 80 medium and smaller
cannon that bombarded the fortress for the following 27 days. That night, 5 more craft from Goa
with gunpowder and reinforcements arrived. After seven days of bombardment, part of the
bulwark of Gaspar de Sousa collapsed and the Turks attempted to scale it "with two banners",
but were repelled with heavy losses to bombs and arquebus fire. Another assault the following
morning was met with equally fierce resistance by the Portuguese. Afterwards, the Turks forced
labourers into the moat to undermine the fortress' walls and, in spite of several losses, managed
to open a breach with gunpowder, but already the Portuguese had raised a barricade around the
breach from the inside, which caused many losses on the assailants once they attempted to break
through.  When at night the bombardment ceased, the Portuguese repaired the fortress' walls
under the cover of darkness.
From an artillery battery on the opposite shore, the Turks bombarded the "Sea Fort" (Baluarte do
Mar) that stood in the middle of the river mouth bombarding the flank of Muslim positions. On
October 27, Suleiman Pasha ordered 6 small galleys to attempt to scale the fortlet, but came
under heavy Portuguese cannon fire. The following day, the Turks drew 12 galleys and again
attempted to "board" the fortlet, but were repelled with heavy losses due to fire bombs.
On October 30, Pasha Suleiman attempted a final diversion by faking the withdrawal of his
forces, embarking 1,000 men. Ever cautious, António da Silveira ordered the sentries to be alert
– at daybreak, 14,000 men divided in three "banners" attempted to scale the fortress as it was
bombarded with no regard to friendly fire. A few hundred troops managed to scale the walls and
raise banners but the Portuguese managed to repel the assailants, killing 500 and wounding a
further 1,000 from gunfire and bombs out of the São Tomé bastion.
With his relation with Coja Safar and the Gujaratis degrading and increasingly fearful of being
caught off-hand by the Viceroy's armada, on November 1 the Pasha finally decided to abandon
the siege and began re-embarking his troops. Suspecting another ruse from the Pasha, Captain
Silveira ordered 20 of his last men on a sortie to deceive the enemy of their dwindling forces.
The party managed to capture a Turkish banner.
The Pasha however, intended on departing on November 5, but was unable due to unfavourable
weather. That night, two small galleys reached Diu with reinforcements and supplies, firing their
guns and signal rockets. The following morning, a fleet of 24 small galleys was sighted and
believing it to be the vanguard of the governor's rescue fleet, the Pasha hurriedly departed,
leaving 1,200 dead and 500 wounded behind. Khadjar Safar then set fire to his encampment and
abandoned the island with his forces shortly after. In reality, it was just a forward fleet under the
command of António da Silva Meneses and Dom Luís de Ataíde, dispatched from Goa with
reinforcements, supplies, and news that the governor would depart soon to their aid. Although
they took no part in the fighting, the small force was triumphantly received within the ruined
fortress by its last survivors. The Portuguese were by then critically low on gunpowder and
supplies and with less than 40 valid men; in the final stages of the siege, the Portuguese record
that even the women assisted in its defence. Catarina Lopes and Isabel Madeira are examples of

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two female captains who actively participated during the siege, they led a squad of female
soldiers.

Goa, head of all Portuguese possessions in the East/ Death of Sultan Bahadur in front of Diu during negotiations with the
Portuguese, in 1537Akbarnama, end of the 16th century.

The craft sent by António da Silveira arrived in Goa in mid September, but already
governor Nuno da Cunha was well aware of the presence of the Turks in India: the Portuguese
had intercepted a Turkish galleon in southern India and another galley that got separated from
the fleet and called at Honavar, which the Portuguese destroyed with the aid of the locals (a fight
in which Fernão Mendes Pinto participated). The governor had assembled a relief force of 14
galleons 8 galleys, several caravels and over 30 smaller oar ships, but in September 14 the new
viceroy appointed by Lisbon arrived, and demanded the immediate succession in office.

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 Outer walls of Diu TODAY

By the end of 1537, reports on Ottoman preparations in Egypt had reached Lisbon through
Venice, and King John III promptly ordered a reinforcement of 11 naus and 3,000 soldiers, of
which 800 were fidalgos, to be dispatched to India as soon as possible along with the new
viceroy, Dom Garcia de Noronha. At Goa however, Dom Garcia considered the relief force
organized by governor Nuno da Cunha to be insufficient, though the Portuguese veterans in India
argued otherwise. The viceroy remained in Goa for two more months, organizing his forces until
he had gathered an imposing fleet, which according to João de Barros numbered 170 sail and
4500 Portuguese soldiers, and according to a detailed report by Francisco de Andrade, was
composed of 152 vessels, which included 9 heavy carracks, 14 galleons, 13 small carracks, 8
war-caravels, 5 latin caravels, 1 bastard galley, 13 royal galleys, 15 galleots, 11 Mediterranean
brigantines, 2 albetoças, 18 light galleys and 44 light vessels and oarcraft, bearing 5000
Portuguese soldiers, 3000 Indian auxiliaries, 1500 Portuguese sailors, uncounted number of
native sailors, oarsmen and combat slaves and a little under 400 heavy cannon and 600 light
cannon. Just as the expedition was about to set sail to Diu however, a craft arrived in Goa with
the information that the siege had been lifted
The defeat of the combined Turkish and Gujarati forces at Diu represented a critical setback in
Ottoman plans for expanding their influence into the Indian Ocean. Without a suitable base or
allies, failure at Diu meant the Ottomans were unable to proceed with their campaign in India,
leaving the Portuguese uncontested in the western Indian coast. Never again would the Ottoman
Turks ever send so large an armada to India.

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After the failed siege, the Ottomans returned to Aden, where they fortified the city with 100
pieces of artillery. One of them is still visible today at the Tower of London, following the
capture of Aden by British forces in 1839. Suleiman Pasha also established
Ottoman suzerainty over Shihr and Zabid, and reorganized the territories of Yemen and Aden as
an Ottoman province, or Beylerbeylik.
The veteran Lopo de Sousa Coutinho later recounted that "it was said" that the Portuguese who
had surrendered to Suleiman Pasha were all killed off in the Red Sea, on their way back to
Egypt. Indeed, at As-Salif, by Kamaran Island, the Pasha had all prisoners under his control
massacred, 140 in total, and their heads put on display in Cairo.
Suleiman Pasha intended to launch a second expedition against the Portuguese in Diu, but this
did not happen. In 1540, the Portuguese sent a retaliatory expedition to Suez with a fleet of 72
ships, sacking Suakin, Kusayr, and spreading panic in Egypt. In 1546, the Ottoman established a
new naval base in Basra, thus threatening the Portuguese in Hormuz. The Ottomans would suffer
a strong naval defeat against the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf in 1554.Further conflict between
the Ottomans and the Portuguese would lead to the Ottoman expedition to Aceh in 1565.
Portugal would remain in possession of the Diu enclave until Operation Vijay in 1961
According to one legend, in the year 1489 the Ahmadnagar Sultanate had sent its Admiral Piram
Khan (of Ethiopian descent) with orders to capture the Murud-Janjira castle from Ram Patil.
Piram Khan’s story is still untold. But points to the fact that African origin men were great
warriors and worked as mercenaries for the Indian Kingdoms.354 Km away was Janjira Fort
which was never in the line of fire of the Ottoman’s.

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