Minting techniques

Introduction Coins are metallic pieces of required weight of a specific metal with some alloys, stamped
to give authentication by relevant issuing authority allowing them to be used in transactional purposes.
Initially the shape and size of the coins were not fixed but the weight was fixed. Such coins were
accepted at their intrinsic value i.e. the value of the metal. Gradually when the coin gained currency and
became popular and reliable the metal content was not a factor for its acceptance and it came to be
accepted at its face value. However in most cases the metallic value of the issues was the most
important factor for assessing its valuation. In India we find the use of four techniques for minting coins.

These are as follows:

1. Punching technique also known as the archaic multiple die striking technique

2. Casting technique

3. Die striking technique

4. Repoussé technique

2. EARLIEST COINS OF India :

Most of the scholars are of the opinion that the punch marked coins are the earliest coins of India and
these were minted in silver and later in copper. Though some scholars also suggest that the early
uninscribed cast copper coins precede the punch marked coins. However the earliest punch marked
coins are those which have been attributed to the early historic phase of second urbanization in early
India i.e. the 6th–5thcentury BCE. These coins are termed as the Janapada coins or local punch marked
coins. There were several janapadas out of which sixteen have been mentioned as mahajanpadas. Coins
of these mahajanapadas are all minted using punch marked or archaic multiple small dies. These are
distinct from each other which on one hand suggests that these were used within the limits of these
janapadas only. On the other hand in the second urbanization phase one would expect brisk exchange
activities as urban centres were growing in number and so was trade network between the various
urban centres. The commonness of the technique of minting also indicates towards a uniform system
and also exchange of ideas. Hence we can also assume that the janapadas must have used these coins
for their inter-janapada exchanges and trade. Money changers would have played a very important role
in this process. Hence we do not get the coins of one janapada in the other in large quantities. It is now
imperative to discuss each technique in detail.

3. Archaic Multiple Die striking technique or the Punching technique:

All the sixteen mahajanapadas had their own specific type of punch marked coinage. The symbols on
these coins varied from one to four on the obverse. Later with the rise of Magadha as an imperial power
we find the use of five symbols of the obverse of each piece as a standard device. The technique used
for minting these coins involved the preparation of the coin blanks. The punching or the archaic die
striking often involved the use of multiple dies, except for those coins which had single punches like the
coins of the KuntalaJanapada or the Wai type coins. The shape of these coins also was an important
factor and at times is so specific that it helps us to easily attribute it to ascertain janapada. Preparation
of coin blanks: Two methods were used for preparing the coin blanks for minting punch marked coins:
one is the sheet cutting technique and the other is the droplet method. The first was used mostly to
mint square or rectangular coins. Some of the coins minted using this technique were of irregular shape
as the sides were often clipped for adjusting the weight of the metal pieces as already discussed that the
most important factor was the fixed weight of the coin. The shape and size were variable factors
whereas the weight was constant factor. Cutting of coin blanks from sheets i.e. the sheet cutting
technique was oft used technique. Initially the metal was taken in the raw form and mixed with other
metals of choice for the sake of alloying and then it was heated in a furnace to get the molten metal.
Then this molten metal as poured on a hard surface and allowed to cool down. After cooling the metal
sheet was beaten with the help of a hammer to get the required or desired thickness of the coin blank.
After uniformly beating the sheet into a required thick/thin sheet it was cut into small pieces with the
help of a clipper. Then each piece was weighed on a weighing scale and further clipping of the ends of
the metallic piece was done for adjusting its weight according to the weight standard of the coinage. In
case the metallic piece was found below the standard it might have been immediately discarded. The
metal went to the melting pot to be reused for making coin in future. However it also depended on the
functioning of the mint to decide the weight of the coins as specific or random. If the mint decided to
take a certain amount of metal to produce a specific amount of coins from it and the weight was roughly
fixed and not much care was taken to make each coin flawless in the weight standard. In this case we do
not find much clipping. However from the large number of irregular shaped punch marked coins it
seems that the weight of the coins was specific and the coin blanks were cut clipped and adjusted time
and again to get the coins of required weight in the specific weight standard. Another method for
preparation of coin blank was the droplet method. This technique was used for making round or
elliptical shaped coin blanks. Exact amount of metal was taken in a small crucible and poured on a hard
surface the little amount of molten metal took round or elliptical shape. Then this piece was beaten to
make it into a piece of required thickness. After the preparation of such coin blanks these were then
punched using single dies. These dies were small and thin long pieces of metal on the tip of these dies
the symbol that was to be punched on the coin flan was engraved in negative so that when it as
punched it would be in its positive form. The die was placed on the coin blank and it received a hammer
blow so that the symbol gets punched on the obverse of the coin. Thus the use of multiple dies was
required to get the number of symbols to be punched on the coin surface and hence this techniques
also known as archaic multiple die striking technique. Some coins of certain janapadas had specific
shapes like most of the coins of Gandharajanapada were in the shape of a bent bar. They are popularly
known as the bent bar coins. Some scholars believe that it due to the hitting of the dies on both sides
that the coin has become bent. But it is not so as blow on both sides would rather straighten the coin
rather than giving it a bent shape. Thus this bent bar was a specific shape which was done intentionally.
Some coins of the Gandharajanapada were not in the shape of bent bars mainly the small ones which
also reflects that the shape was achieved by the mint consciously. Coins of Kasi janapada were saucer
shaped and thus the flan was made specifically ofthis shape. 4This technique was used by the
Maghadhajanapada as well as imperial Magadha. The coins of imperial Magadha bear five punches on
the obverse as already mentioned. It is interesting to note that in very few coins of this genre we find
errors. Asmultiple dies i.e. 5 dies were to be used one may expect certain amount of errors where by
mistake one symbol may be punched twice or punching of wrong symbols due to the use of wrong dies.
The errors being less also indicates a strict mint control or thechecking in the mint was very strict which
did not allow such pieces to slip in the market at any cost. Or else we may assume that the mint or the
work station was such that five different artisans worked with five different dies and hence the chances
of such errors was reduced to almost nil. Each artisan might have passed the coin after punching it with
the symbol to the next man. On the reverse also we find the use of checking marks or official control
marks which also indicates the strict vigil on production before releasing it for circulation.

4. Casting technique:
This technique was the most widely used technique for minting large scale base metal coins. In this
technique the coin was produced with the help of moulds which were mostly made of clay andthe
device of the coins was impressed on this clay in negative so that when the coin is produced it will have
the positive impression on it. This clay piece after receiving the impression was dried and baked to get a
terracotta mould. Molten metal was poured in the mould and was allowed to cool down to get the coin.
But such coin produced with a single mould had a blank reverse. This may be termed as single
mouldproduction. Thus to get two separate devices on both sides of the coin a different technique was
used. This is known as the double mould technique wherein the coin mouldsbearing two different
devices are joined with either clay or any gum like substance. A vent was kept on the top for pouring the
molten metal. Hot molten metal was poured into this pair of mould through the vent and the metal was
kept for cooling down. Later when the metal became cool and dry the joint was broken and the coin was
taken out. This technique may be called the double mould production technique. If the mould was still in
good condition it could be reused for further production or was destroyed after discarding it. By using
the casting method only base metal coins were minted as forging coins was much easier using moulds
and moreover the original coins also could work as specimens for getting the negative impression on the
moulds. The third technique of production is known as the multiple mould casting. Here several
impressions were placed one after the other maintaining a certain gap and channels were cut between
these to allow the molten metal to flow from one depression to the other once filled. Then finally
another mould bearing the reverse devices was also prepared in the same way and was placed on top of
this and the ends were joined with the help of clay or binder element. A lot of care and expertise was
required to keep both the moulds in sync. The molten metal was poured into the channel that has been
cut joining the various moulds of coins on the disc. The molten metal flowed from each coin mould to
the other and finally got solidified on cooling. The mould was then broken to get the solid metal. But
then the coins were in joined state with each other and the metal on the channel had also got
crystalized or solidified and it was then cut using a sharp clipper to get the desired coin. The extra metal
went back to the melting pot. Finally the ends were then polished and smoothened and finishing was
done before the metal piece left the mint.B.N. Mukherjee had put forth an imaginary model for multiple
die striking in which terracotta discs bearing multiple moulds each were placed on eon top of the other
as a set of two obverse and reverse moulds and many such pair of discs were placed on top of each
other and a pipe was fixed in the centre which had holes like the flute for the molten metal to flow into
the right channels. To keep the metal in a molten state till it reached the end or the last lower mould he
has put forth a model of charcoal set outside the discs fire was set outside to keep the metal in molten
state to flow freely. However this is just an imaginary construct and is not practically feasible.

5. Die striking technique:

This is a technique introduced by the Bactrian Greeks or Indo Greeks in India and is the most popularly
used technique for minting coins in the Indian subcontinent. In this technique a pair of dies are used for
minting a coin. These coins were mostly round in shape and the coin blank was rounded. A group of coin
blanks were rounded using a rounding instrument which received hammer blows with light strokes for
rounding the coins blanks. Here as already mentioned two dies were used. The die on the top is the
obverse or the upper die and the lower die is fixed on a wooden log or anvil and is known as the anvil
die. The lower die was fixed to the anvil so that it does not move on striking. The coin blank is placed in
between the two dies i.e. it was placed on the anvil die and then on it the upper die was placed. Then
another piece of metal block was placed on it to protect the upper die from getting damaged soon. Then
a blow was given with a hammer for both the devices to get impressed on the coin blank. Dies are rare
objects and have rarely been reported from excavations which in turn reflects that the dies were under
strict vigil and were immediately destroyed once the decision of discarding them was taken. Hence we
do not find them in excavated contexts. Recently in the past 65 years the study of dies have been
undertaken and this has helped scholars in understanding the process of minting in a better manner and
also helps us in imagining the working of a mint. Some of the basic features of die studies will be
discussed below.

6. Repoussé Technique:
Finally the last technique is known as the repoussé technique. The coins minted with this technique had
a single device i.e. the obverse device and the coin has a very thin flan. The reverse has the negative
intaglio of the obverse device. These coins were issued by using a single die engraved with a
comparatively more depth than the coins of die striking technique. On the anvil the lower die is fixed
which had the device in high relief. On this die the coin blank is placed or a thin metal sheet is placed
ontop of this metal coin blank or sheet another piece of metal sheet is kept and then a protector metal
piece is placed on them. This whole unit then received the hammer blow to get the positive impression
on the coin blank from the negative die. The reverse does not have a separate device and hence is the
negative intaglio of the obverse device. If a thin sheet was taken instead of coin blank then the coin was
cut into its desired shape after minting. However in most cases coin blank was taken instead of sheet.
This technique involves the process of embossing the device on one side by striking with a hammer on
the reverse we have a debossed device of the obverse which is in intaglio. The process of embossing
demands a thin flan to get a prominent obverse. All the repousse coins found till date are circular or
round coins. As they are of a thin flan and are lighter in weight standard. This was not a very popular
technique in early India. Repoussé technique was used only by the Śarabhapurīya rulers of Chhattisgarh
and Nalas of Bastar for minting gold coins. It was also used in Bengal in the 11thcentury to mint
bracteates variety of Harikela coinage. Harikela is a territory in Southeastern Bengal. Thus the limited
use of this technique is very clear as it required skilled craftsmanship and also the thin flan made them
less suitable for large and long distance transactions. Finally it needs to be mentioned that there are
some coin moulds unearthed from excavated context which indicate forgery. This is because thewrong
technique has been used to mint wrong set of coins. For example terracotta disc (Mould) for casting has
been unearthed from Rohtak these are for minting punch marked coins. Punch marked coins cannot be
cast in moulds hence this was a forger’s unit which has been discovered. Similarly some Bactrian Greek
or Indo Greek coin moulds have also been found. Originally these coins should be minted by die striking
technique. Casting of these issues indicates forgery. Moulds for casting have also been reportedfrom
Mathura and Sisupalgarh these are all punch marked coins moulds. Fragmentary mould for casting coins
of Maues from Taxila have also been reported which also indicates towards a forger’s unit. Disc of Azes
II’s coins from Taxila also indicate the same.Terracotta moulds for counterfeiting punch marked coins
are reported 6from Dhulikatta. Dies have rarely been reported from excavation which reflects upon the
working of mints and the control Dies were immediately destroyed after the production was stopped or
as soon as it was declared abandoned it was destroyed and hence we do not get dies from excavated
context. However it may be mentioned in this context that a bronze die from Eranhas been reported
which was used for striking punch marked coin.

7. Coin Dies and Die Studies:

In a die striking process there are two dies involved apart from this an anvil and hammer are used. To
protect the coin blank from moving or slipping between the two dies even a die protector may be used.
The log or metal piece or plank used for placing the lower die is called anvil. The die placed on this is
called the anvil die.The die which received the hammer blow is called the upper die or the reverse die.
As this is more exposed to breakage and damage it is less important than the obverse hence
reverse.Usually in case of coins the main side providing political information or the ruler and dynasty
detail is taken as obverse and the flip side is the reverse.But in case of a die it is the fixed die on which
the blank is placed to be struck is defined as the Obverse die. The die used to strike the other side of the
coin, for the obverse die opposed die is the reverse and for the reverse the opposed dieis the obverse.A
particular combination of obverse and reverse dies known to occur on one or more coins is termed as
die combination.Due to the movement of the coin blank the person in-charge of minting or hammering
repeats the same action resulting in a duplication of the image on the coin. This is known as double
strikingor double struck. Abandoning of dies after the production of a certain number of coins is known
as discontinuous production.A study of wear and tear of a die and its subsequent repair if any by
examining multiple coins struck from the die is called intradie analysis. This micro study helps to
chronologically arrange the coins produced by the same die in order.A study of inter-relationships
between different dies by comparing the different die combinations is known as inter die analysis. An
obverse or reverse die which is found in more than one die combination but in which opposed dies are
not found in other die combinations is called an isolated die. SimilarlyA die combination in which both
dies are not known in any other die combination is known as a Singleton.

8. Summary:
Coin productioninvolveda proper mint organization and mints were either royal mints or non-royal
mints with private owners. The Arthasastra refers to the minting of coins elsewhere and also in highway
mints. Thus coins were producedin these small workstations. However we only find the employment of
four principal techniques of minting these are the Punching technique also known as the archaic
multiple die striking technique, Casting technique, Die striking technique and the repoussétechnique.