Chemistry

Definition:
● The branch of science that deals with the identification of the substances of which matter is composed;

● The investigation of their properties and the ways in which they interact, combine, and change;
● And the use of these processes to form new substances.
● Everything is made of chemicals.
● Many of the products that we use are caused by chemical reactions.
● The study of the substances

HISTORY
8th century AD:
Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber)
● Muslim astronomer, philosopher and scientist, became one of the first to use scientific methods to study materials.

● Known as the "father of chemistry."

● He is thought to be the author of 22 scrolls describing methods of distillation, crystallization, sublimation and
evaporation.
● He invented the alembic, a device used to distill and study acids.
● Also developed an early chemical classification system using the properties of the materials he studied. His
categories were:

· “Spirits” — materials that would vaporize when heated.

· "Metals" — including iron, tin, copper, and lead.
· Non-malleable substances — materials that could be made into powders, such as stone.

CLASSICAL CHEMISTRY
In Europe, the study of chemistry was conducted by alchemists with the goals of transforming common metals into gold or
silver and inventing a chemical elixir that would prolong life.
Although these goals were never achieved, there were some important discoveries made in the attempt.

Robert Boyle(1627-1691)
● studied the behavior of gases and discovered the inverse relationship between volume and pressure of a gas.

● He also stated that “all reality and change can be described in terms of elementary particles and their motion,” an
early understanding of atomic theory.
● In 1661, he wrote the first chemistry textbook, The Sceptical Cymist, which moved the study of substances away
from mystical associations with alchemy and toward scientific investigation.

1700s, The Age of Enlightenment

Joseph Priestley (1733-1804)
● disproved the idea that air was an indivisible element.

● He showed that air was, instead, a combination of gases when he isolated oxygen and went on to discover seven
other discreet gases.

· 21% oxygen
· 78% nitrogen
· 0.9% argon
· 0.03% carbon dioxide
· 0.03% carbon monoxide, neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, xenon and radon

Jacques Charles
● continued Boyles’ work and is known for stating the direct relationship between temperature and pressure of gases.

● Stated that the volume of fixed mass of gas varies directly with kelvin temperature at constant temperature
 ● Charles Law

· The volume of a fixed mass of gas varies directly with the kelvin temperature at constant pressure
· V/T = k

Joseph Proust
● studied pure chemical compounds and stated the Law of Definite Proportions

● A chemical compound will always have its own characteristic ratio of elemental components.

● Water, for instance, always has a two-to-one ratio of hydrogen to oxygen.

Antoine Lavoisier
● helped to develop the metric system in order to ensure uniform weights and measures.

● Discovery of the Law of Conservation of Mass.

● In 1787, Lavoisier published Methods of Chemical Nomenclature, which included the rules for naming chemical
compounds that are still in use today.
● His "Elementary Treatise of Chemistry" (1789) was the first modern chemistry textbook.

Amedeo Avogadro
● Clarified the difference between atoms and molecules.

● Stated that equal volumes of gas at the same temperature and pressure have the same number of molecules.
● Avogadro’s Constant

· The number of molecules in a 1-gram molecular weight (1 mole) sample of a pure substance.
· Important conversion factor used to determine the mass of reactants and products in chemical
reactions.

John Dalton
Principles of the first atomic theory of matter:
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.

2. Atoms of the same element are identical in size, mass and other properties. Atoms of different elements have
different properties.
3. Atoms cannot be created, subdivided or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios to form chemical compounds
5. In chemical reactions atoms are combined, separated or rearranged to form new compounds.

Dmitri Mendeleev
● Developed the first Periodic Table of the Elements. He listed the 63 known elements and their properties on cards.

● When he arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass, he could group elements with similar
properties
● Mendeleev’s original table has been updated to include the 92 naturally occurring elements and 26 synthesized
elements
Branches of Chemistry
1. Inorganic

2. Organic
3. Analytical
4. Physical Chemistry
5. Biochemistry

Inorganic chemistry
The chemistry of molecules and compounds that contain very little hydrocarbons and no hydrocarbon radicals
● Bioinorganic - the study of the interaction of metal ions with living tissue

● Geochemistry - The chemical changes in rocks

● Solid state chemistry - The study of, synthesis, and properties of solid materials

Organic chemistry
The study of carbon and its compounds
● Medicinal chemistry - the design, development and synthesis of medicinal drugs

● Organometallic chemistry - the study of bonds between carbon and metals

● Polymer Chemistry - The study of organic polymers
● Physical Organic chemistry - the study of the interrelationship between structure and reactivity
● Stereochemistry - the study of the spatial arrangement of atoms and molecules

Analytical chemistry
The study of chemistry of matter and the development of tools used to measure properties of matter
● Forensic Chemistry - the chemistry of the investigation of crimes

● Environmental Chemistry - Chemistry of the interaction of the environment, atmosphere, aquatics and soil
● Bioanalytical Chemistry - the examination of biological materials, blood, urine sweat, hair, fecal matter and other
bodily materials

Physical chemistry
Applies physics to the study of chemistry
● Photochemistry---The study of the chemical changes caused by light

● Surface Chemistry - The study of the interactions on the surface of substance

● Chemical Kinetics - The study of rates of reaction and factors affecting this rates
● Quantum Chemistry - The Mathematical description of motion and relationship to the chemical process
● Spectroscopy - the study of the electromagnetic processes
● Nuclear Chemistry - the study of nuclear reactions for both weapons and medicinal purposes

Biochemistry
The study of the chemical processes that occur inside of living organisms
● Molecular biology - the chemical reactions of the various systems of the cell

● Genetics - The study of genes and the chemical make-up of DNA, RNA, mRNA and tRNA
● Pharmacology - the study of the drug interactions in the body
● Toxicology - the effects of poisons on an organism
● Clinical Biochemistry - the study of diseases and the change in the chemical composition and biological processes
● Agriculture Biochemistry - the chemistry that occurs in plants, animals, and microorganisms
 MATTER
Matter: anything that has a mass and occupies space.
Mass: a measurement of the amount of matter in an object.
Weight: a measurement of the gravitational force acting on an object.

Molecule
The smallest particle of a pure substance that has the properties of that substance and is capable of a stable independent
existence.

Dalton’s theory
1. All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.

2. All atoms of a specific element are identical to each other and different from the atoms of any other element.
3. All compounds are combinations of atoms of two or more elements.
4. Every molecule of a specific compound always contains the same number of atoms of each kind of element found
in the compound.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are rearranged, separated, or combined, but are never created nor destroyed

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

● Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the correct value for that measurement.

● The precision of a measurement system refers to how close the agreement is between repeated measurements
(which are repeated under the same conditions)
● Measurements can be both accurate and precise, accurate but not precise, precise but not accurate, or neither.

On this bullseye, the hits are all close to the center, but none are close to each other; this is an example of accuracy
without precision.

On this bullseye, the hits are all FAR to the center, but are close to each other; this is an example of precision without
accuracy.

On this bullseye, the hits are all FAR to the center, but none are close to each other; this is an example of without accuracy
AND precision.

On this bullseye, the hits are all IN the center, and are close to each other; this is an example of accuracy and precision.

ACCURACY – the computed value nearest to the real value.

PRECISION – the closeness of the values
Precision is sometimes separated into:
Repeatability — The variation arising when all efforts are made to keep conditions constant by using the same instrument
and operator, and repeating the measurements during a short time period.
Reproducibility — the variation arising using the same measurement process among different instruments and operators,
and over longer time periods.

ERRORS – Human and Technical

Random error
● occurs periodically, with no recognizable pattern

● The random error will be smaller with a more accurate instrument (measurements are made in finer increments)
and with more repeatability or reproducibility (precision).
Systematic error
● occurs when there is a problem with the instrument.

● The more measurements (REPLICATES) that are taken, the closer we can get to know a quantity’s true value.
● We can judge the precision of the results.

Significant Numbers

All non-zero digits are considered significant.

For example:
● 91 has two significant figures (9 and 1)

● 123.45 has five significant figures (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

RULES OF ZEROS
1. Trapped Zeros - Zeros appearing between nonzero digits are significant.

Examples:
● 40.7 has three significant figures

● 110.8 has four significant figures

● 200.2 has four significant figures
● 80.008 has five significant figures

2. Leading Zeros - Zeros appearing in front of all nonzero digits are NOT SIGNIFICANT.
Examples:
● 0.7 has one significant figure

● 0.08 has one significant figure

● 0.00002 has one significant figure
● 0.0095897 has five significant figures

3. Trailing Zeros zeros after non-zero numbers in a number without a decimal are generally not significant.
Examples:
● 100 has one significant figures

● 8500 has two significant figures

● 10000 has one significant figures
● 95800 has three significant figures

4. Trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal point are significant.

Examples:
● 1.0 has two significant figures

● 85.00 has four significant figures

● 0.000122300 still has only six significant figures
● 120.00 has five significant figures since it has three trailing zeros.
5. Any zeros after the decimal point are also significant.
Examples:
● 0.00 has three significant figures.

● 0.0 has two significant figures.

● 0.000 has four significant figures.

6. Any numbers in scientific notation are considered significant.

Examples:
● 4.300 x 10-4 has 4 significant figures.

● 10.100 x 10-4 has 5 significant figures.

Sig Figs: the Pacific And Atlantic Rule

● If a number has a decimal Present, use the Pacific Rule:

● If a number has a decimal absent, use the Atlantic Rule:

Scientific Notations

● A way of writing numbers that are too big or too small to be conveniently written in standard form.

● Scientific notation is expressed in the form [a x 10b] (where “b” is an integer and “a” is any real number), such as
6.02 x 1023
● Scientific notation allows orders of magnitude to be more easily compared.
● E notation is another form of scientific notation,
● in which “E” replaces 10, such as 6.02 E 23.
● This number is the same as 6.02 x 1023
● Basic operations are carried out in the same manner as with other exponential numbers.
● When writing in scientific notation, only include significant figures in the real number, “a.”
● Move the decimal place to the right if the number is less than zero or to the left if the number is greater than zero.

For example, in 456000, the decimal is after the last zero, so to express this in scientific notation, you would need to move
the decimal to in between the 4 and 5
The decimal would move five places to the left to get 4.56 as our [a x 10b]
The number of times you move the decimal place becomes the integer “b.” In this case, the decimal moved five times.
Therefore, our number in scientific notation would be: [4.56 x 10 5].

Keep in mind that zeroes are not included in “a” because they are not significant figures.

There should only be one number to the left of the decimal point.
● In order to go between scientific notation and decimals,

The decimal point is the number of spaces indicated by the exponent.

A negative exponent tells you to move the decimal point to the RIGHT

While a positive exponent tells you to move it to the LEFT.

Examples:
● 0.0001 = 1 x 10-4

● .0256 = 2.56 x 10-2

● 4759000 = 4.759 x 106
● 5000 = 5 x 103

Operations in Scientific Notation

To Multiply numbers in scientific notation:
1. Multiply the constants

2. Add the exponents

Example:
(5.1 x 103)x( 2.0 x 105)
= (5.1 x 2.0) x (103+5)
= 10.2 x 108
= 1.02 x 108+1
= 1.02 x 109

To divide numbers in scientific notation:

1. Divide the constants

2. Subtract the exponents

6.2 x 1012 = 6.2 x 1012-2 = 3.1 x 1010

2.0 x 102 2.0

Negative integers change to positive

6.2 x 1012 = 6.2 x 1012 = 3.1 x 1012+2 = 3.0 x 1014
2.0 x 10-2 2.0 10-2

To add numbers in scientific notation:

1. Add the constants

2. Keep the exponent the same

(2.1 x 105) + (3.2 x 105)

= (2.1 + 3.2) x 105
= 5.3 x 105

To add numbers in scientific notation with different exponents:

1. Add the constants

2. Make the exponent the same

INCREASE the LOWER exponent by moving the decimal point to the LEFT
Example:
(2.1 x 107) + (3.2 x 105)
= (2.1 x 107) + (0.032 x 107)
= 2.132 x 107
To subtract numbers in scientific notation:
1. Subtract the constants

2. Keep the exponents the same.

(7.9 x 108) – (6.8 x 108)

= 7.9 – 6.8) x 108
= 1.1 x 108

To subtract numbers in scientific notation with different exponents:

1. Subtract the constants

2. Make the exponent the same

INCREASE the LOWER exponent by moving the decimal point to the LEFT
(7.9 x 106) – (6.8 x 108)
= (0.079 x 108) – (6.8 x 108)
= (0.079 – 6.8) x 108
= -6.721 x 108

INSIDE THE ATOM

● Atoms compose monoatomic elements

● 88/111 elements occur naturally

● Each element has unique physical and chemical properties

Each element has been assigned specific names:

● No specific criteria for naming

● Symbols are based on the initial letters of the elements

● If single or first to be discovered = first capital letter
● The second letter is added if the first letter is the same
● Some symbols are derived from their non-English names
● Gold = (Au) Aurum
● Silver = (Ag) Argentum

ISOTOPES (AKA: Nuclides)

Same atomic number (Z), but different mass number (A)

RELATIVE MASSES OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES

● Relative masses provide a simple way of comparing masses of atoms.

· Atomic mass unit (u)

● A unit to express the relative masses of atoms

● Equal to 1/12 the mass of Carbon-12

Example:
Which element has atoms that are nearest to being twice as massive as atoms of Calcium?
Answer:
 ● Ca mass = 40.08 u

● X 2 = 80.16 u
● In the periodic table = 79.90 u is Bromine

MOLECULAR WEIGHTS
The relative mass of a molecule can be calculated by adding together the atomic weights of the atoms that make up the
molecule.

COMPOUND FORMULA
● Consists of symbols of atoms found in the molecule

● Atoms present in number > 1 have the number indicated by a subscript

● Eg. KMnO4

RELATING MASS TO NUMBER OF ATOMS

MOLE (mol)
● The amount of a substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.

● Similar in saying “dozen = 12”

● 1 mole = Avogadro’s number = 6.02 x 1023

· The number of particles in exactly one mole of a pure substance

Molar Mass (g/mol)

● The mass of 1 mole of a pure substance

● Numerically equal to the atomic mass

● Molar mass contains the same number of atoms

moles x molar mass = grams

grams/molar mass = moles
atoms/avogadro’s number = moles

QUANTUM NUMBERS AND ELECTRONIC Configuration

Electrons
● Electrons exist in different energy levels (previously described as “shells”)

● The energy levels correspond to the horizontal rows on the periodic table

Atomic orbitals
● Orbitals are areas within shells where the electrons are located

● These orbitals may have different shapes

● There may be different numbers of orbitals within a shell

We know the electron is somewhere in the orbital, but we can’t know exactly where it is or how fast it is moving
– Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

Accommodation
2 guests / room
Each orbital can hold two electrons (Pauli Exclusion Principle)
● S: room = 2 guests

● S: room P: 3 rooms = 8 guests

● S: room P: 3 rooms D: 5 rooms = 18 guests
● S: room P: 3 rooms D: 5 rooms F: 7 rooms
● = 32 guests

Valence shell: Distinguishing electrons

Electron configuration: is the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus of an atom based on their energy level.

Total electrons = atomic number

Electrons are added one at a time to the lowest energy levels first (Aufbau principle)

Hund’s Rule
● When electrons are filling orbitals of the same energy, they prefer to enter empty orbitals first.

● These electrons all have the same spin

Electron Configuration using the periodic table

Technical Configuration: The strongest shell comes last

ELECTRON DOT (LEWIS) STRUCTURE

Symbolizes the valence configuration of the element by using dots.

The valence shell electrons are represented by dots arranged around the elemental symbol

Transitional and inner-transition elements have 2 valence electrons.