Towers

Chapter 5 Tray and Packed Towers Description
Chapter 5
Tray and Packed Towers Description
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Chapter 5Contents
5.1 Choice of Trays or Packing
5.2 Tray Towers

5.2.1 Tower Functions
5.2.2 Arrangement of Processing Steps
5.2.3 Tower Design Considerations
5.2.4 Tower Trays
5.2.4.1 Types of Trays
5.2.4.2 Selection of Tray Type
5.2.4.3 Tray Layout
5.2.4.4 Tray Stability
5.2.4.5 Operating Range
5.2.4.6 Satisfactory Operating Region
5.2.4.7 Tray Construction
5.2.4.8 Material of Construction
5.2.4.9 Tray Design
5.2.4.10 Tower Internals
5.3 Packed Towers

5.3.1 Packed Tower Function
5.3.2 Types of Packing
5.3.3 Tower Internals
5.3.3.1 Packing Support
5.3.3.2 Liquid Distributors
5.3.3.3 Liquid Redistributors
5.3.3.4 Hold-down Plates
5.3.4 Tower Auxiliaries
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Chapter 5
Tray and Packed Towers Description
5.1 CHOICE OF TRAYS OR PACKING
The choice between a tray and backed tower for a particular application can only be
made with complete assurance by costing each design. However, this will not always
be worthwhile, or necessary, and the choice can usually be made, on the basis of
experience by considering main advantages and disadvantages of each type; which are
listed below:
1. Plate towers can be designed to handle a wider range of liquid and gas flow-
rates than packed towers.
2. Packed towers are not suitable for very low liquid rates.
3. The efficiency of a tray can be predicted with more certainty than the equivalent
term for packing (HETP or HTU).
4. Plate towers can be designed with more assurance than packed towers. There is
always some doubt that good liquid distribution can be maintained throughout
a packed tower under all operating conditions, particularly in large towers.
5. It is easier to make provision for the withdrawal of side-streams from tray
towers; coils can be installed on the trays.
6. It is easier to make provision for the withdrawal of side streams from tray
towers.
7. If the liquid causes fouling, or contains solids, it is easier to make provision for
cleaning in a tray tower; man-ways can be installed on the trays. With small
diameter towers it may be cheaper to use packing and replace the packing when
it becomes fouled.
8. For corrosive liquids a packed tower will usually be cheaper than the equivalent
plate tower.
9. The liquid hold-up is appreciably lower in a packed tower than a plate tower.
This can be important when the inventory of toxic or flammable liquids needs
to be kept as small as possible for safety reasons.
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10. Packed towers are more suitable for handling foaming systems.
11. The pressure drop per equilibrium stage (HETP) can be lower for packing than
plates; and packing should be considered for vacuum towers.
12. Packing should always be considered for small diameter towers, say less than
0.6m, where trays would be difficult to install, and expensive.
5.2 TRAY TOWERS

A. Towers Functions
5.2.1 Fractionating “Tower”
Is used in referring to a counter-current operation in which a vapor mixture is

repeatedly brought in contact with liquid having nearly the same composition as the
respective vapors.
Atmospheric Distillation "Tower"
Is the first step in any petroleum refinery, in which the separation of the crude oil into
various fractions. These fractions may be products in their own right or may be
feedstocks for other refining or processing units.
Vacuum Distillation "Tower"
Is used to reduce the temperature for the distillation of heat-sensitive materials and
where very high temperatures would otherwise be needed to distill relatively non
volatile materials.
Stabilization "Tower"
It is a fractionation operation conducted for the purpose of removing high-vapor

pressure components.
Splitting "Tower"
It is a simple distillation process, in which separation of naphtha into two streams

before further processing can take place.
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Stripping "Tower"
Is the process where the requirements, to strip a volatile component or group of similar
components from a relatively non-volatile solution or product by the action of stripping
gas or steam.
5.2.2 Arrangement of Processing Steps
This applies only to situations where two or more towers in sequence are being
considered. Single tower are designed on the basis of the available feed, but in any
multiple product distillation train, there are a number of ways in which the towers can
be arranged. Consider, for example, a three component system consisting of propane,
isobutane and n-butane which must be separated into relatively pure components. Two
routes can be used. The first tower can be depropanizer yielding a propane product
distillate followed by a C4 splitter (deisobutanizer). Alternately, the first tower can be
a deisobutanizer yielding a n-butane bottoms product followed by a depropanizer.
The operating conditions and relative equipment sizes for the two are shown in Figure
5.1. By inspection, it is obvious that Method 1 is the better process design because:
1. Equipment costs will be lower since the large tower will be designed for a lower
pressure.
2. Operating costs will be lower since the deisobutanizer condenser load will be
approximately half that of Method 2. This will reflected in a lower reboiler duty
for Method 1.
5.2.3 Tower Design Considerations
Now that the components of a distillation column have been described, let's at some
typical column towers designed to make separations between specific components or
products. Briefly, here are some of the factors that dictate the design of a column.
As you might guess, two important factors are
1. The throughput, or flow rate of material, and
2. The ease of separation.
One way to quantify the relative ease of separation is to compare the volatilities of the
components to be separated.
Because the boiling points change with pressure, it is more convenient to look at curves
as shown in Figure 5.2. From these curves we can find the boiling point of a compound
at any pressure, or conversely, the vapor pressure of a compound at any pressure.
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Relative No. of Trays

Relative Tower Diameter
Tower Design Pressure,
Psig
Method 1
Relative No. of Trays 1

Relative Tower Diameter 1
Tower Design Pressure, 300
Psig
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Method 2
Figure 5.1 Process Design Alternates for Production of Propane, Isobutene, and
N-butane
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Figure 5.2 Vapor Pressure Light Hydrocarbons
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For example, we see the vapor pressure of propane at 100 ºF is 190 psia; and the vapor
pressure of propylene is 226 psia at 100°F. The ratio of these two vapor pressures is
an expression of their relative volatilities. 226/190 = 1.2. This ratio is defined as
(alpha). The nearer alpha is to 1, the greater the difficulty of separation. The more
difficult separations require more trays in a column and more reflux. All this requires
more energy. The separation of normal butane and isopentane is much easier. Alpha
at 100°F equals 52/20 or 2.5. This separation would require fewer trays and less
energy.
Alpha is somewhat higher at lower temperatures. Therefore, other things being equal,
it is desirable to operate at lower temperatures and, thereby, lower pressures. However,
"other things are not equal" and there is a limit as to how low a pressure we can operate.
That limit is usually the temperature of the cooling water for the overhead condenser.
Because we must condense the overhead product, we must have a coolant whose
temperature is below the boiling range of the overhead. Usually it is not economically
practical to refrigerate the coolant, so water or air is normally used. The available
coolant temperature is usually the factor that establishes the tower design pressure.
To see how alpha affects tower design, let's look at two separations. First, a
depropanizer - a distillation column designed to separate propane from iso-butane and
heavier components. Alpha is 190/72 or 2.5. Although there are heavier components
in the bottom and lighter components in the overhead, we need only consider what we
call the key components, namely the heaviest major component in the overhead and
lightest major component in the bottoms. For this separation, propane from butane, the
tower typically requires 30 trays, 5 to one reflux, and is about 50 ft. in height. The
diameter is largely dependent on the throughput.
In contrast, let's look at a tower to separate ethyl benzene and xylene. Alpha is
approximately 1.08. A tower for this separation has about 350 trays and uses 100 to 1
reflux. A large depropanizer tower might cost about $500,000, while an ethyl benzene-
xylene tower might cost about $5 million. Of course, there is a considerable difference
in the cost of utilities to operate these two columns.
An additional factor that determines tower size is purity of product. As we say earlier,
each equilibrium stage has less of the impurity than the adjacent stage. It follows then
that we must specify the desired purity. That is, the mole fraction of an impurity that
we will accept in the product. For our depropanizer we might accept, say, 1 to 2 %
butane in the overhead propane product and we much tolerate a loss of 2 % propane in
the bottoms.
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Obviously, to achieve a lower concentration of butane in the overhead, and still

maintain the low loss of propane in the bottom, would require more trays, more reflux,
and consequently, a taller and larger diameter tower with its attendant increase in
investment and utility costs. To summarize, the height of a tower and number of trays
is largely dependent on the relative volatility of the key components and the
permissible mole fraction of these key components in the products.
Tower design procedure
The design of a distillation tower can be divided into the following steps:
1. Specify the degree of separation required: set product specifications.
2. Select the operating conditions, batch or continuous, operating pressure.
3. Select the type of contacting device: plate or packing.
4. Determine the stage and reflux requirements. The number of equilibrium

stages.
5. Size the tower: Trays, number of real stages.
6. Design the tower internals: Trays, distributers, packing supports.
7. Mechanical design: vessel and internal fittings.
The principal step will be to determine the number of stages and reflux requirement.
5.2.4 Tower Trays
5.2.4.1 Types of Trays
Fractional distillation requires mass and heat transfer between vapor and liquid
flowing counter-currently through a fractionating tower. A large number of devices to
ensure a more or less thorough contact between the rising vapors and down-coming
liquid had been developed. Bubble-cap trays, valve trays, sieve trays, and grid trays
are examples of devices.
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A. Trays Having Separate Liquid Down-comers
The great majority of commercial fractionations are carried out in columns where the
liquid flows horizontally across each tray. The liquid contacts the rising vapor and is
separated from the vapor before flowing through down-comers onto the tray below. In
nearly all cases, the down-comers are segmental parts of the column, and are provided
with a liquid-overflow weir to assure a minimum height of liquid on each tray. Inlet
weirs for the liquid entering onto a tray are used in some designs. Various types of
trays with separate liquid down-comers which are in more common use today are
illustrated in Figure 5.3.
Bubble-Cap Trays (Figure 5.3a) are so widely used in the petroleum and chemical
industries that they are generally considered to be "the standard." All new types of
trays are compared with "a bubble-cap tray,"
The outstanding characteristic of a will designed bubble-cap tray is probably its ability
to perform satisfactorily over wide ranges of liquid and vapor rates. In which the
vapour passes up through short pipes, called risers, covered by a cap with a serrated
edge, or slots. The bubble-cap tray is the traditional, oldest type of cross-flow tray, and
many different designs have been developed. Standard cap designs would now be
specified for most applications.
The most significant feature of the bubble-cap is that the use of risers to ensure that a
level of liquid is maintained on the tray at all vapour flow-rates.
Although there are many styles and dimensions of caps (Figure 5.4) in use, the round
bell shaped bubble-cap is quite practical and efficient (Figure 5.5).
Dimensions, it is available in sizes of 3,4,5,6 and 7 inches, but the most popular and
most adaptable size is about 4 inches O.D. The 3-inch and 6-inch are also in common
use for the smaller and larger diameter towers.
Slots are the working part of the cap. Slots are usually rectangular of trapezoidal in
shape. The rectangular slots give slightly greater capacity while the trapezoidal slots
gives slightly better performance at low vapor rates.
Shroud Ring, it is recommended to give structural strength to the prongs or ends of

the cap.
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Figure 5.3 Trays Having Liquid Down-comer
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Figure 5.4 Bubble Caps & Risers
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Figure 5.5 Bubble Cap
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Sieve or Perforated Trays (Figure 5.3b) have been in use longer than bubble-cap
trays but have not received the same wide acceptance. This is partly because of
inadequate performance data with respect to liquid and vapor capacities. Recently
more attention has been given to sieve trays, and it appears as though they will find
increased use by industry. The vapour passes up through perforations in the tray and
the liquid is retained on the tray by the vapour flow. There is no positive vapour liquid
seal, and at low flow-rates liquid will "weep" through the holes, reducing the tray
efficiency. The perforations are usually small holes, but larger holes and slots are used.
Valve Trays (Floating Cap) (Figure 5.3c) Valve trays are proprietary designs. They
are essentially sieve trays with large diameter holes covered by movable flaps, which
lift as the vapour flow increases.
As the area for vapour flow varies with the flow-rate, valve trays can operate efficiently
at lower flow-rates than sieve trays the valves closing at low vapour rates. Is
somewhere between a bubble-cap and a sieve tray in operating principle. It is a bubble-
cap tray where the vapour, makes one 90-degree turn to enter the liquid horizontally,
there are no risers, and the caps have no teeth. It can also be considered as a modified
sieve tray where the vapor emerges horizontally into the liquid instead of vertically,
and the perforations have variable area.
Float-Valve Trays (Figure 5.3d) is a recent development worthy of consideration,

although there is very little published information about its operation. It is a valve-type
tray with floating rectangular caps positioned by end-brackets. One edge, the heavy
edge, of each cap is turned upward 90 degrees. At low vapor rates the light edge of
each cap opens first, and at higher vapor rates the heavy edge opens. Like the Flexi-
tray, it can be considered as somewhere between a bubble-cap and a sieve tray in
operating principle.
Uniflux Trays (Figure 5.3e) is a third newcomer to the field. It has had considerable
industrial use already, but there is very little published information about its operation.
It is a bubble-cap tray, modified so as to reduce fabrication costs considerably and to
have possible other advantages. The tray is made of a number of S-sections, with the
vapor making a 180-degree turn between the riser and the cap, and then emerging from
one side (the downstream side) of the cap, after a 90-degree turn through the cap slots.
In this way the vapor emergence should help the liquid flow across the tray, reducing
hydraulic gradient.
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B. Trays Having No Liquid Down-comers
Traditionally, fractionating columns that have no liquid down-comers have been

packed columns where the ascending vapor contacted the descending liquid in true
countercurrent action. Recent developments have substituted perforated trays, where
the liquid and vapor both pass through the same openings, for the continuous packing.
There is not the same degree of differential contacting here as for the continuously
packed columns, but there are many possible advantages for this modified "packing,"
compared with either conventional packed columns or the conventional tray columns.
Turbogrid Trays (Figure 5.6 a) consists of a flat grid of parallel slots extending over
the entire cross sectional of the column. The slots can be stamped perforations in a
flat metal plate, or can consist of the spaces between horizontal bars. Liquid level on
each tray is maintained by dynamic balance of liquid and vapor rates. The Turbogrid
tray has had considerable industrial applications already, but there is little published
information about its operation.
Ripple Trays (Figure 5.6 b) is the latest arrival in the field of liquid-vapor contacting
devices. It is made by corrugating a conventional sieve plate into sinusoidal waves.
The perforations extend over the entire cross sectional area of the column. Liquid level
is maintained on each tray by a dynamic balance of the fluid flows, being a very recent
development, there is little published information about its use and operation.
Figure 5.6 Trays Having no Liquid Down-comers
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5.2.4.2 Selection of Tray Type
The principal factors to consider when comparing the performance of bubble-cap,

sieve and valve trays are: cost, capacity, operating range, efficiency and pressure drop.
Cost
Bubble-cap trays are appreciably more expensive than sieve or valve trays. The relative
cost will depend on the material of construction used; for mild steel the ratios, bubble-
cap: valve: sieve, are approximately 3.0:1.5:1.0. However, comparative quotations
over the last few years show the relative costs in dollars per square foot of tray area to
be: bubble-cap tray, 20; flexi-tray, 14; Uniflux, 10; sieve, 10; and turbogrid, 10. These
are costs before installation.
Capacity
There is little difference in the capacity rating for the three types (the diameter of the
column required for a given flow-rate); the ranking is sieve, valve, and bubble-cap.
Operating range
This is the most significant factor. By operating range is meant the range of vapour
and liquid rates over which the plate will operate satisfactorily (the stable operating
range). Some flexibility will always be required in an operating plant to allow for
changes in production rate, and to cover start-up and shut-down conditions. The ratio
of the highest to the lowest flow rates is often referred to as the "turn-down" ratio.
Bubble-cap trays have a positive liquid seal and can therefore operate efficiently at
very low vapour rates.
Sieve trays rely on the flow of vapour through the holes to hold the liquid on the tray
and cannot operate at very low vapour rates, but, with good design, sieve trays can be
designed to give a satisfactory operating range; typically, from 50 per cent to 120 per
cent of design capacity.
Valve trays are intended to give greater flexibility than sieve trays at a lower cost than
bubble-caps.
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Efficiency
The Murphree efficiency of the three types of trays will be virtually the same when
operating over their design flow range and no real distinction can be made between
them.
Pressure Drop
The pressure drop over the trays can be an important design consideration, particularly
for vacuum columns. The trays pressure drop will depend on the detailed design of
the tray but, in general, sieve plates give the lowest pressure drop, followed by valves,
with bubble-caps giving the highest.
Summary
Sieve trays are the cheapest and are satisfactory for most applications. Valve trays
should be considered if the specified turn-down cannot be met with sieve trays.
Bubble-caps should only be used where very low vapour (gas) rates have to be
handled and a positive liquid seal is essential at all flow-rates.
5.2.4.3 Tray Layout
Flow Paths,
(Figure 5.7) The simplest tray arrangement considering fluid flow and mechanical
details is the cross-flow. It fits the majority of designs. When liquid flows become
small with respect to vapor flow the reverse flow tray is recommended; when liquid
load is high with respect to vapor, the double pass tray is suggested, as the path is cut
in half and the liquid gradient reduced; and for the extremely high liquid loads, the
double-pass cascade is suggested. A guide for tentative selection of the tray type for a
given capacity is given in Table 5.1.
Figure 5.8 and Table 5.2 identify the distribution of areas of a tray by the action of tray
area.
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Table 5.1 Guide for Tentative Selection of Tray Type
Table 5.2 Approximate Distribution of Areas as Percent of Tower Area

(Allocated cap area is determined by difference)
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Figure 5.7 Liquid over Tray Flow Path
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Figure 5.8 Classification of Tray Area
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Cap Layout, (Figure 5.8) caps should be arranged on the tray in 60° equilateral layout,
with the liquid flowing into the apex of the triangle rather than parallel to the base. The
liquid flows normal to each raw of caps.
Inlet Weirs, these contribute to the uniform distribution of liquid as it enters the tray
from the down comer. It is not recommended for fluids that are dirty or tend to foul
surfaces.
Outlet Weirs, these are necessary to maintain seal on the tray, thus insuring
bubbling of vapors through liquid.
Down-comer, (Figure 5.9) the down-comer from a tray must be adequate to carry the
liquid flow plus entrained foam and froth. The vertical and straight segmental down-
comer is recommended although the segmental tapered design has been used quite
successfully, the wide mouth of the inlet as compared to the outlet is considered to
provide better foam disengagement conditions. The down-comer seal on the tray is
recommended based on the liquid flow path.
The segmental, or chord down-comer, shown in Figure 5.9 is the simplest and cheapest
form of construction and is satisfactory for most purposes. The down-comer channel
is formed by a flat plate, called an apron, which extends down from the outlet weir.
The apron is usually vertical, but may be sloped to increase the plate area available for
perforation. If a more positive seal is required at the down-comer at the outlet, an inlet
weir can be fitted or a recessed seal pan used. Circular down-comers (pipes) (Figure
5.17) are sometimes used for small liquid flow-rates.
Liquid Bypass Baffles, also known as redistribution baffles, these short stub baffles
guide the liquid flow path to prevent excessive by-passing of the bubble-cap field or
active area.
Weep Holes, holes for drainage must be adequate to drain the tower in a reasonable
time, yet not too large to interfere with tray action. Draining of the tower through the
trays is necessary before any internal maintenance can be started. The majority of the
holes are placed adjacent to the outlet or down-comer weir
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Figure 5.9 Segment (Chord) Down-comer Designs
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5.2.4.4 Tray Stability
A tray is stable when it can operate with acceptable efficiencies under conditions which
fluctuate, pulse, or surge, developing unsteady conditions. This type of operation is
difficult to anticipate in design, and most trays will not operate long without showing
loss in efficiency.
Flooding occurs when the pressure drop across a tray is so high that the liquid cannot
flow down the tower as fast as required. The pressure drop across the tray increases
to very high values, and the tray efficiency drops markedly. When the froth and foam
in the down-comer back up to the tray above and begin accumulating on this tray. The
down-comer then contains a mixture of lower density than the clear liquid, its capacity
becomes limited, disengagement is reduced, and the level rises in the down-comer.
The level extends onto the tray above, and will progress to the point of filling the tower,
if not detected and if the liquid and vapor loads are not reduced.
Pulsing occurs when the vapor rate is low and unsteady, when the slots and holes
opening are low, and when the liquid dynamic seal is low. With irregular vapor flow
entering the caps or holes, the liquid pulses or surge, even to the point of dumping.
The best cure is a steady vapor rate and good slot or hole opening to allow for
reasonable upsets.
Dumping liquid occurs at high liquid rates and low vapor loads. Some of slots or
hales will dump liquid instead of passing vapor, resulting in poor tray efficiency. For
towers with conventional down-comers, dumping usually occurs at the upstream raw
of caps or holes, where the liquid has the largest head and kinetic energy.
Blowing occurs when the vapor rate is extremely high, regardless of the liquid rates,
causing large vapor streams or continuous bubbles to be blown through the liquid.
Blowing is usually accompanied by excessing entrainment of large droplets and slugs
of liquid up to the tray above. The pressure drop across the tray can be quite high and
increase very rapidly with any increase in vapor rate. The efficiency and contact is low
and entrainment is usually high.
Coning occurs at low liquid rate or seals. The vapor pushes the liquid back from the
slots or holes and passes upward with poor liquid contact. This causes poor tray
efficiency.
Entrainment occurs when mist and liquid particles carry up in the vapor from the
liquid on one tray through the riser or holes to tray above. Sufficient tray spacing must
be available to prevent the quantity of material from significantly affecting the
efficiency of the tower.
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Puking usually occurs at a high liquid rate and low gas rate. At high liquid rate the
liquid level on each tray will rise. As the level rises, the flow of gas up the tower is
restricted. The gas pressure in the bottom of the tower will begin to rise. It will reach
the point that a surge of a gas will suddenly move up the tower with enough velocity
to carry the liquid with it.
Reducing the liquid flow rate will usually eliminate puking. Puking should not be
confused with "carryover". Puking occurs almost instantaneously. Furthermore, if the
liquid rate is not reduced, the tower will puke again when the liquid stacks up.
Carryover is usually caused by a high vapor flow rate. It happens continuously,
whereas puking is an intermittent thing.
5.2.4.5 Operating Range
Satisfactory operation will only be achieved over a limited range of vapour and liquid
flow rates. A typical performance diagram for a sieve plate is shown in Figure 5.10).
The upper limit to vapour flow is set by the condition of flooding. At flooding there is
a sharp drop in plate efficiency and increase in pressure drop. Flooding is caused by
either the excessive carry over of liquid to the next plate by entrainment, or by liquid
backing-up in the down-comers.
The lower limit of the vapour flow is set by condition of weeping. Weeping occurs
when the vapour flow is insufficient to maintain a level of liquid on the plate. "Coning"
occurs at low liquid rates, and is the term given to the condition where the vapour
pushes the liquid back from the holes and jets upward, with poor liquid contact.
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Figure 5.10 Sieve Plate Performance Diagram
Figure 5.11 Qualitative Region of Satisfactory Operation
Page 26 of 72
5.2.4.6 Satisfactory Operating Region
We have indirectly defined the region of satisfactory operation by defining the

surrounding objectionable phenomena. The direct definition is now easier to make.
The region of satisfactory operation is that range of liquid and vapor rates where
(1) The contacting efficiency of the tray is at or near maximum, and.
(2) The column is mechanically able to handle the liquid and vapor loads in a
steady-state manner.
Usually, flooding is the only limitation for which there is a sharp line of distinction
between satisfactory and unsatisfactory operation. The other limitations are
ordinarily not so abruptly critical.
Satisfactory Operating Regions for Bubble-Cap Trays
Visual Observations
The functioning of a bubble-cap can be best understood by observing a tray in

operation. Typical profiles of vapor leaving a bubble-cup are shown in Figure 5.11).
Figure 5.12 illustrates the cap action at a reasonable liquid rate for different vapor rates.
Spouting or jetting of the liquid upward (commonly called "foam" or "froth") occurs
between the caps, and may extend up to the tray above. Each cap acts as a calming
zone for de-aerating this froth. Liquid drains continuously from the froth onto the top
of each cap, and runs over the sides of the cap down into the slots. It is sucked into the
vapor stream at the top of the slots, and finally emerges with the main vapor stream
closer to the tray floor. At the vapor rate is increased, vapor issues from a variable slot
area at slightly increasing slot velocities until full slot opening is reached. As the vapor
rate is increased still further, the liquid inside the annular space between the cap and
riser is depressed down to the tray floor. Thereafter, the cap acts as a fixed orifice and
the slot velocity increases at a more rapid rate.
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Figure 5.12 Bubble Cap Tray Schematic – Dynamic Operation

Figure 5.13 shows that around normal design rates, the vapor has depresssed the liquid
down to the tray, and has pushed the froth about 2 inches away from the cap at the top.
The impinging of vapor streams from adjacent caps, as dictated by the cap spacing,
appears to be the important factor in vapor escape. At typical cap spacings a top view
of the tray at normal vapor rates would show some vapor holes blown through the
liquid.
Figure 5.13 Bubble Cap Performance
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As the vapor rate is increased above normal loadings, a point is reached where the tray
is practically blown dry, and a vapor pocket surrounds each cap. Liquid is jetted to the
tray above, causing large amounts of entrainment, poor liquid-vapor contact, and large
pressure drops.
Satisfactory Operating Regions for Other Types of Trays
The other types of trays which have considerable promise today are comparatively
new. They are all proprietary devices, and most of them are being improved through
continuous research and development.
Trays Having Separate Liquid Down-comers
Flexi-trays: The two different weights of caps which are generally used on a tray are
in alternate rows parallel to the outlet weir. The lighter caps open during the first 20-
30% of vapor loading, and the heavier ones open from this range to about 50-70% of
vapor loading. At higher rates all caps are fully open and thrust against the blow-down
spiders. This arrangement insures a wide range of vapor loading and also good vapor
distribution across the tray at low vapor loads, something which is not possible with
either the conventional bubble-cap or sieve tray.
The smaller cap diameter, about 2 inches, and the large pitch of 3-6 inches, should
permit the Flexi-tray to have appreciably lower pressure drop and entrainment than the
bubble-cup tray has, and about the same order of magnitude as a perforated tray. The
liquid-handling capacity should be greater than that of a bubble-cap tray because of
less liquid gradient across the tray.
We would expect a Flexitray column to handle about 20-40% higher vapor loads than
a bubble-cap column and about the same loads as a sieve-tray column. The Flexitray
column should handle satisfactorily smaller vapor rates than a bubble-cap column and
considerably smaller rates than a sieve-tray column.
Float-Valve Trays: The float-valve tray is regarded as being similar to the Flexitray
in operating principle. At around 20% of the vapor loading, the light edges of the
valves are open, and the heavy edges open between 40 and 70% of design vapor
loading. At higher rates, the valves are fully opened and held against the support
brackets. Proper spacing of the valves should permit the float-valve tray to have lower
pressure drop and entrainment than the bubble-cap tray has, and in the same order of
magnitude as the sieve tray. The liquid-handling capacity should be greater than that
of a bubble-cap tray because of less liquid gradient across the tray. It is believed that
the liquid gradient would be slightly higher across the Float-valve tray than across the
Flexitray, but this difference might not be significant.
Page 29 of 72
We would expect that a Float-valve tray could handle about 20-40 % more vapor load
than a bubble-cap tray, and about the same as a sieve tray. It should be able to handle
satisfactorily smaller vapor rates than a bubble-cap tray, and much smaller rates than
a sieve tray.
Uniflux Trays is regarded as a modified bubble-cap tray. The vapor emerging only
from the downstream portion of the caps (sections) could aid in reducing the liquid
gradient across the tray. Such a reduction may or may not be significant in tray
performance. The absence of available data leaves us with the opinion that the Uniflux
tray should have about the same operating characteristics as a bubble-cap tray, but with
the definite advantage of economy of fabrication and installation.
Trays Having No Liquid Down-comers
Turbogrid Tray is considered as a modified packed column. The liquid and vapor has
counter-currently through the same openings, so there is no liquid gradient across a
tray. It would be expected that Turbogrid trays would have a capacity 20-50 % greater
than bubble-cap trays, but a much smaller operating range (say, from 100% maximum
down to 50 %). This would be expected because the liquid level on each tray is
maintained by dynamic balance. At low vapor rates the contacting efficiency should
decrease appreciably. On the other hand, the Turbogrid tray should have a very small
pressure drop and should be the most economical of all trays to fabricate.
Ripple Tray has smaller openings than the Turbogrid tray for the phases to pass
through and probably has a higher efficiency. The Ripple tray would be expected to
handle 20-40 % more vapor load than can be bubble-cap tray, but it should have a
much smaller operating range, comparable to that of the Turbogrid. At low vapor rates,
the contacting efficiency should decrease appreciably. The Ripple tray should have a
pressure drop about the same as sieve trays and should be economical to fabricate.
5.2.4.7 Tray Construction
The mechanical design features of sieve trays and described. The same general
construction is also used for bubble-cap and valve plates.
Two basically different types of plate construction are used. Large-diameter trays
normally constructed in sections, supported on beams. Small trays are installed in the
column as a stack of pre-assembled trays.
Page 30 of 72
Sectional Construction
A typical tray is shown in Figure 5.14. The tray sections are supported on a ring
welded round the vessel wall, and on beams. The beams and ring are about 500 mm
wide, with the beams set at around 0.6 m spacing. The beams are usually angle or
channel sections, constructed from .folded sheet. Special fasteners are used so the
sections can be assembled from one side only. One section is designed to be removable
to act as a man-way. This reduces the number of man-ways needed on the vessel, which
reduces the vessel cost.
Stacked Trays (Cartridge Trays)
The stacked type of construction is used where the column diameter is too small for a
man to enter to assemble the trays, say less than 1.2 m (4ft). Each tray is fabricated
complete with the down-comer, and joined to the above and below using screwed rods
(spacers); (see Figure 5.15).
The trays are installed in the column shell as an assembly (stack) of ten, or so, trays.
Tall columns have to be divided into flanged sections so that tray assemblies can be
easily installed and removed. The weir and down-comer supports, are usually formed
by turning up the edge of the tray.
The trays are not fixed to the vessel wall, as they are with sectional trays, so there is
no positive liquid seal at the edge of the tray, and a small amount of leakage will occur.
In some designs the tray edges are turned up round the circumference to make better
contact at the wall. This can make it difficult to remove the trays for cleaning and
maintenance, without damage.
Side-stream and Feed Points
Where a side-stream is withdrawn from the column, the plate design must be modified
to provide a liquid seal at the take-off pipe. A typical design is shown in Figure 5.19.
When the feed stream is liquid it will be normally introduced into the down-comer
leading to the feed plate, and the plate spacing increased at this point.
Page 31 of 72
Figure 5.14 Sectional Tray Design
Page 32 of 72
Figure 5.15 Stacked Tray Tower
Page 33 of 72
Figure 5.16 Cross-flow Bubble-Cap Plate
Page 34 of 72
Figure 5.17 Disk and Doughnut Perforated Plates
Page 35 of 72
General Notes
- For 2-pass trays it's preferable to have the top and bottom trays with side
down-comers. If the top and bottom must be different, use side down-
comer at the bottom and center at the top.
- Inlet weirs are sometimes used to distribute reflux.
- Slotted distributers are used for liquid and 2-phase feeds and pumparounds.
- Vapor feed are usually flush connections.
- Check the location of all internal piping to make sure it does not internal
with tray man-ways.
Liquid feed, Two Phase feed or Pumparounds
In general, liquid feed should be directed to the entrance of the feed tray. In some cases
liquid can be fed into the down-comer above the feed tray. However, if vapor can be
present, or if the feed is at a temperature greatly different from the feed tray, then the
feed should not be introduced into the down-comer (Figure 5.19).
Vapor feed, (Figure 5.20) feed location at two or more trays should be either all even
numbered trays or all odd, for same feed details at all locations.
Draw Pan draw-off (Figure 5.21) used for drawoff connections to side-stream
strippers, side stream products, and no-foaming pumparounds. Equalizer pipe
arrangements for double cross flow towers are to be covered.
5.2.4.8 Material of Construction
Bubble-cap trays have been constructed of cast iron, sheet carbon steel, and sheet metal
of various alloys. Cast iron caps and trays used to be common. However, they are very
heavy and required heavy foundations and tower structures, furthermore, cast iron caps
are thick and more consequently wasteful of tower cross-sectional area.
Sheet metal trays and caps overcome these disadvantages, as well as being cheaper;
carbon steel trays are considerably cheaper then cast iron. As a result, cast iron trays
are seldom specified anymore.
Page 36 of 72
Nearly all of the common metals and alloys have been used in the construction of sheet
metal trays and caps. Low carbon steel is the usual standard for non-corrosive service.
The use of other metals and alloys are dictated by the conditions of corrosion expected.
In order to indicate the effect of materials of construction on cost, the following relative
tray costs are illustrative of some of the common metals and alloys.
Material Relative Tray Cost
Carbon steel 1
11-13% chrome type 400 2
18-8 type 304 2 1/2
18-8 Type 316 3 1/2
5.2.4.9 Tray Design
a. Bubble Cap Tray Design
The tray and caps operate as a unit or system; therefore they must be so considered in
design (Figures 5.16 and 5.17)
Standardization
The custom design of the trays for each application is usually unnecessary and
uneconomical. Instead most designers utilize a standard reference tray layout and cap
size to check each system. If the results of the tray hydraulics study indicate operation
unsatisfactory for the standard tray, then alterations of those features controlling the
out-of-line performance is in order, utilizing the same method as will be outlined for
the initial design of a custom tray. It is understood that such a standard tray cannot be
optimum for every application but experience has demonstrated that many applications
fit. The economic advantages of utilizing a limited number of bubble cap sizes and
designs are reflected in warehouse stocks. The standardization of layouts, down-comer
areas, weir lengths and many other features are reflected in savings in engineering
mechanical design time.
At the same time, systems which do not adapt themselves to this standardization should
be recognized and handled as special designs.
Page 37 of 72
Design Objectives
Each tray design should ultimately resolve and achieve the following:
1. Capacity: High for vapor and/or liquid as required. This yields the smallest
column diameter for a given throughput. Flexibility or adaptability to high and
low fluctuations in vapor and liquid rates.
2. Pressure drop: Low pressure drop is necessary to reduce temperature gradients

between top and bottom of the column. High pressure drop is usually (but not
always) associated with uneconomical design. In some systems pressure drop is
not a controlling feature, within reasonable limitations.
3. Efficiency: High efficiency is the objective of each tray performance. The better
the contact over a wide range of capacities, the higher will be the efficiency
throughout this range.
4. Fabrication and installation costs: Details should be simple to maintain low

costs.
5. Operating and Maintenance Costs: Mechanical details must account for the
peculiarities of the system fluids (coking, suspended particles, immiscible
fluids, etc.), and accommodate the requirements for drainage, cleaning
(chemical or mechanical), corrosion, etc., in order to keep the daily costs of
operation and downtime to a minimum.
b. Sieve Tray Design
The basic requirements of a tray contacting stage are it should: provide good vapour-
liquid contact.
Provide sufficient liquid hold-up for good mass transfer (high efficiency) has sufficient
area and spacing to keep the entrainment and pressure drop within acceptable limits.
Have sufficient down-comer area for the liquid to flow freely from tray to tray.
Tray design, like most engineering design, is a combination theory and practice. The
design methods use semi-empirical correlations derived from fundamental research
work combined with practical experience obtained from the operation of commercial
towers. Proven layouts are used, and the plate dimensions are kept within the range
of values known to give satisfactory performance.
Tray design procedure
Page 38 of 72
A trial-and error approach is necessary in tray design: starting with a rough tray layout,
checking key performance factors and revising the design, as necessary, until a
satisfactory design is achieved. A typical design procedure is set out below
Procedure
1. Calculate the maximum and minimum vapour and liquid flow-rates/for the turn
down ratio required.
2. Collect, or estimate the system physical properties.
3. Select trial tray spacing.
4. Estimate the tower diameter, based on flooding considerations.
5. Decide the liquid flow arrangement.
6. Make a trial tray layout: down-comer area, active area, hole area, hole size,
weir height.
7. Check the weeping rate, if unsatisfactory return to step 5.
8. Check the plate pressure drop, if too high return to step 5.
9. Check down-comer back-up, if too high return to step 6 or 3.
10. Decide tray layout details: calming zones, un-perforated areas, check hole
pitch, if unsatisfactory return to step 5.
11. Recalculate the percentage flooding based on chosen tower diameter.
12. Check entrainment, if too high return to step 4.
13. Optimise design: repeat steps 3 to 12 to find smallest diameter and tray
spacing acceptable (lowest cost).
14. Finalize design: draw up the tray specification and sketch the layout.
Page 39 of 72
5.2.4.10 Tower Internals
The arrangements for a tower internal include the following:
1. Reflux. (Figure 5.18)
2. Liquid feed, vapor, and two phase. (Figure 5.19 & 20)
3. Pumparound (Figure 5.19)
4. Drow-pan draw-offs (Figure 5.21)
5. Tower bottom for Kettle reboiler (Figure 5.22), thermosyphon (Figure 5.23), and
once-through thermosyphon (Figure 5.24).
Page 40 of 72
Figure 5.18 Reflux Arrangement
Page 41 of 72
Figure 5.19 Liquid Feed, Two Phase Feed or Pumparounds
Page 42 of 72
Figure 5.20 Feed Vapor
Page 43 of 72
Figure 5.21 Draw off (Pan) Tray
Page 44 of 72
Figure 5.22 Tower Bottom for Kettle Reboiler
Page 45 of 72
Figure 5.23 Tower Bottom for Thermosyphon Reboiler
Page 46 of 72
Figure 5.24 Tower Bottom for Once-Through Thermosyphon Reboiler
Page 47 of 72
5.3 PACKED TOWERS

5.3.1 Packed Towers Function
Packed towers are used for distillation, gas absorption, and liquid-liquid extraction.
Stripping (desorption) is the reverse of absorption.
The gas liquid contact in a packed bed tower is continuous, not stage wise, as in a plate
tower. The liquid flows down the tower over the packing surface and the gas or vapour,
counter-currently, up the tower. In some gas absorption towers co-current flow is used.
The performance of a packed tower is very dependent on the maintenance of good
liquid and gas distribution throughout the packed bed, and this is an important
consideration in packed tower design.
A schematic diagram, showing the main features of a packed absorption tower, is

shown in Figure 5.25. A packed distillation tower will be similar to the plate towers,
with the plates replaced by packed sections.
Packed Tower Design Procedures
The design of packed tower will involve the following steps:
1. Select the type and size of packing.
2. Determine the tower height required for the specified separation.
3. Determine the tower diameter (capacity), to handle the liquid and vapour flow
rates.
4. Select and design the tower internal features: packing support, liquid
distributor, redistributors.
Page 48 of 72
B. Packed Absorption Column
Figure 5.26 Packed Towers
Page 49 of 72
A. Cross-Section Typical Packed Tower
Page 50 of 72
5.3.2 Types of Packings
Many types of packing materials have been used ranging from simple, readily available
solids such as stones or broken bottles to expensive complex geometrical shapes. In
general, the packing material should have the following characteristics:
1. It should have a large wetted surface area of packed space so as to present a

potentially large interfacial area for phase contacting.
2. It should have a large void volume. This will allow reasonable throughputs of
phases without serious pressure drop.
3. It should be corrosive resistant.
4. It should have good wetting characteristics.
5. It should have a low bulk density. In large packed towers, the weight of the
packing can be quite large resulting in serious support problems.
6. It should be relatively inexpensive.
Many diverse types and shapes of packing have been developed to satisfy these
requirements. They can be divided into two broad classes:
1. Stacked packings, which are regular arrangements of the packing elements, and
2. Random packings.
Stacked packing, such as grids, have an open structure, and are used for high gas rates,
where a low-pressure drop is essential, for example, in cooling towers.
Random packings are more commonly used in the process industries.
Design data for these packing are given in Table 5.3
The design methods and data given in this section can be used for the preliminary
design of packed columns, but for detailed design it is advisable to consult the packing
manufacturers.
Page 51 of 72
Rasching rings. (Figure 5.27)
Are one of the oldest specially manufactured types of random packing, and are still
widely used in the process industries because of their lower cost than the others, but
are less efficient, and the total cost of the tower will usually be higher, the wall
thickness of the rasching ring is an important factor because, as the thickness is
decreased, mechanical strength decreases. A greater wall thickness will result in an
increased pressure drop, lower free space, and reduced surface area. Best results are
obtained when walls are relatively thin. The diameter and the height of rasching ring
are equal. Rasching rings may be fabricated from porcelain, clays, carbon or metals.
Ball rings (Figure 5.28)
Ball rings are essentially rasching rings in which wall stamped and bent inward this
increases the free area and improves the liquid distribution characteristics. They are
available in a variety of materials (ceramic, metal, and plastics). Metal and plastics
(polypropylene) rings are more efficient than ceramic rings.
Berl saddles (Figure 5.29)
Are costly to produce but do have some advantage over other packings, they can be
packed with more randomness than rings, and they give a relatively large amount of
surface area per unit volume, they are available in a variety of materials: ceramics,
metals, plastics, and carbon.
Page 52 of 72
Table 5.3
Particulars of Hy-Contact Tower Packing (approximate values)
Page 53 of 72
Figure 5.27 Rasching Rings Packing
Page 54 of 72
Figure 5.28 Pall Rings Packing
Page 55 of 72
Figure 5.29 Berl Saddles Packing
Page 56 of 72
Intalox saddles (Figure 5.30)
Can be considered to be an improved type of berl saddle, their simple shape makes
them easier to manufacture than berl saddles.
Hypac and Super Intalox packings (Figure 5.31)
Can be considered improved types of ball ring and intalox saddle respectively
Lessing and cross partition rings (Figure 5.32)
Are simple modifications of rasching ring to improve operating. Figure 5.33 illustrate
some other common packing shapes.
The choice of material will depend on the nature of the fluids and the operating
temperature. Ceramic packing will be the first choice for corrosive liquids, but
ceramics are unsuitable for use with strong alkalis. Plastic packings are attacked by
some organic solvents and can be used up to moderate temperature, so are suitable for
distillation towers. Where the tower operation is likely to be unstable metal rings
should be specified. For new towers, the choice will normally be between pall rings
and berl or intalox saddles.
Packing size
In general, the largest size of packing that is suitable for the larger size of column
should be used; up to 50 mm. Small sizes are appreciably more expensive than the
larger sizes. Above 50 mm the lower cost per cubic meter does not normally
compensate for the lower mass transfer efficiency. Use of too large size in a small
column can cause poor liquid distribution.
Page 57 of 72
Figure 5.30 Ionic Saddles Packing
Page 58 of 72
Hypac
Figure 5.31 Hypac and Super Intalox Packing
Page 59 of 72
Figure 5.32 Lessing and Cross Partition Rings Packing
Page 60 of 72
Figure 5.33 Some Other Packings
Page 61 of 72
Recommended size ranges are:
Column diameter Use packing size
< 0.3 m (1 ft) < 25 mm (1 in.)

0.3 to 0.9 m (1 to 3 ft) 25 to 38 mm (1 to 1.5 in)
> 0.9 m 50 to 75 mm (2 to 3 in.)
Packing application, Table 5.4 represents packing applications.
5.3.3 Tower Internals
The internal fittings in a packed tower are simpler than those in a plate tower but must
be carefully designed to ensure good performance. As a general rule, the standard
fittings developed by the packing manufacturers should be specified. Some typical
designs and their use are discussed in the following paragraphs.
5.3.3.1 Packing Support
The function of the support plate is to carry the weight of the wet packing, whilst
allowing free passage of the gas and liquid. These requirements conflict, a poorly
designed support will give a high pressure drop and can cause local flooding. Simple
grid and perforated plate supports are used, but in these designs the liquid and gas have
to be check for the same openings. Wide-spaced grids are used to increase the flow
area, with layers of larger size packing stacked on the grid to support the small size
random packing (Figure 5.34).
The best design of packing support is one in which gas inlets are provided above the
level where the liquid flows from the bed; such as the gas-injection type shown in
Figure 5.35 and these designs have a low pressure drop and no tendency to flooding.
They are available in a wide range of sizes and materials: metals, ceramics and plastics.
Page 62 of 72
Table 5.4 Packing Type Application
Page 63 of 72
Figure 5.34 Types of Packing Support
Page 64 of 72
Figure 5.35 Typical Designs of Gas Injection Supports
Page 65 of 72
5.3.3.2 Liquid Distributors
The satisfactory performance of a packed tower is dependent on maintaining a uniform

flow of liquid throughout the tower, and good initial liquid distribution is essential.
Various designs of distributors are used. For small-diameter towers a central open feed
pipe, or one fitted with a spray nozzle, may well be adequate; but for larger towers
more elaborate designs are needed to ensure good distribution at all liquid flow-rates.
The two most commonly used designs are the orifice type, shown in Figure 5.36 and
the weir type, shown in Figure 5.37. In the orifice type the liquid flows through holes
in the plate and the gas through short stand pipes. The gas pipes should be sized to give
sufficient area for gas flow without creating a significant pressure drop; the holes
should be small enough to ensure that there is a level of liquid on the plate at the lowest
liquid rate, but large enough to prevent the distributor overflowing at the highest rate.
In the weir type the liquid flows over notched weirs in the gas stand-pipes. This type
can be designed to cope with a wider range of liquid flow rates than the simpler orifice
type.
For large-diameter towers, the trough-type distributor shown in Figure 5.38 can be
used, and will give good liquid distribution with a large free area for gas flow.
All distributors which rely on the gravity flow of liquid must be installed in the tower
level, or misdistribution of liquid will occur.
A pipe manifold distributor, Figure 5.39 can be used when the liquid is fed to the tower
under pressure and the flow-rate is reasonably constant. The distribution pipes and
orifices should be sized to give an even flow from each element.
Page 66 of 72
Figure 5.36 Orifice Type Distributor
Figure 5.37 Weir Type Distributor
Page 67 of 72
Figure 5.38 Weir Trough Distributors
Figure 5.39 Pipe Distributor
Page 68 of 72
Table 5.5 Effect of Liquid Distributor Performance in Packed Towers
Page 69 of 72
5.3.3.3 Liquid Redistributors
Redistributors are used to collect liquid that has migrated to the column walls and
redistribute it evenly over the packing; they will also even out any misdistribution that
has occurred within the packing.
A full redistributor combines the functions of a liquid distributor; a typical design is

shown in Figure 5.40.
The "wall-wiper" type of redistributor, in which a ring collects liquid from the column
wall and redirects it into the centre packing, is occasionally used in small-diameter
columns, less than 0.6 m. Care should be taken when specifying this type to select a
design that is shown in Figure 5.41.
The maximum bed height that should be used without liquid redistribution depends on
the type of packing and the process. Distillation is less susceptible to maldistribution
than absorption and stripping. As a general guide, the maximum bed height should not
exceed 3 column diameters for rasching rings, and 8 to 10 for pall rings and saddles.
In a large diameter column the bed height will also be limited by the maximum weight
of packing that can be supported by the packing support and column walls; this will be
around 8 m.
If the columns must be packed dry, for instance to avoid contamination of process
fluids with water, the packing can be lowered into the column in buckets or other
containers. Ceramic packings should not be dropped from a height of more than half a
meter.
Liquid Hold-up
An estimate of the amount of liquid hold up in the packing under operating conditions
is needed to calculate the total load carried by the packing support. The liquid hold-up
will depend on the liquid rate and, to some extent, on the gas flow-rate. The packing
manufacturers design literature should be consulted to obtain accurate estimates. As a
rough guide, a value of about 25 per cent of the packing weight can be taken for
ceramic packings.
Page 70 of 72
Figure 5.40 Full Re-distributor
Page 71 of 72
Figure 5.41 Wall Wiper Re-distributor
Page 72 of 72
Wetting Rates
If very low, liquid rates have to be used, the packing wetting rate should be checked
to make sure it is above the minimum recommended by the packing manufacturer.
Volumetric liquid rate per unit cross sectional area

Wetting rate =
Racking surface area per unit volume
Norman recommends that the liquid rate in absorbers should be kept above 2.7 Kg/m2
s.
If the design liquid rate is too low, the diameter of the column should be reduced. For
some processes liquid can be recycled to increase the flow over the packing.
A substantial factor of safety should be applied to the calculated bed height for process
where the wetting rate is likely
5.3.3.4 Hold-down Plates
At high gas rates, or if surging occurs through miss-operation, the top layers of packing
can be fluidized. Under these conditions ceramic packing can break up and the pieces
filter down the column and plug the packing; metal and plastic packing can be blown
out of the column. Hold-down plates (Figure 5.42) used with ceramic packing to weigh
down the top layers and prevent fluidization; a typical design is prevent expansion of
the bed when operating at a high-pressure drop. They similar to hold-down plates but
are of lighter construction and are fixed to the column walls. The openings in hold-
down plates and bed-limiters should be small enough to retain the packing, but should
not restrict the gas and liquid flow.
Installing Packing
Ceramic and metal packings are normally dumped into the column wet to ensure a
truly random distribution and prevent damage to the packing. The column is partially
filled with water and the packing dumped into the water. A height of water must be
kept above the packing at all times. Calculated bed height for process where the
wetting rate is likely to be low.
Page 73 of 72
Figure 5.42 Hold-down Plate Design
5.3.4 Tower Auxiliaries
Intermediate storage tanks will normally be needed to smooth out fluctuations in

column operation and process upsets, these tanks should be sized to give sufficient
hold-up time for smooth operation and control. The hold-up time required will depend
on the nature of the process and on how critical the operation is; some typical values
for distillation processes are given below:
Operation Time, minutes
Feed to a train of columns 10 to 20

Between columns 5 to 10
Feed to a column from storage 2 to 5
Reflux drum 5 to 15
The time given is that for the level in the tank to fall from the normal operating level
to the minimum operating level if the feed ceases.
Horizontal or vertical tanks are used, depending on the size and duty. Where only a
small hold-up volume is required this can be provided by extending the column base
or for reflux accumulators, by extending the bottom header of the condenser.
Page 74 of 72

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Chapter 5 Tray and Packed Towers Description

Tray and Packed Towers Description

5.2 Tray Towers

5.3 Packed Towers

5.2 TRAY TOWERS

5.2.1 Fractionating “Tower”

Is used in referring to a counter-current operation in which a vapor mixture is

Atmospheric Distillation "Tower"

Vacuum Distillation "Tower"

It is a fractionation operation conducted for the purpose of removing high-vapor

It is a simple distillation process, in which separation of naphtha into two streams

Relative No. of Trays

Relative No. of Trays 1

Figure 5.2 Vapor Pressure Light Hydrocarbons

Obviously, to achieve a lower concentration of butane in the overhead, and still

Tower design procedure

1. Specify the degree of separation required: set product specifications.

2. Select the operating conditions, batch or continuous, operating pressure.

3. Select the type of contacting device: plate or packing.

4. Determine the stage and reflux requirements. The number of equilibrium

5. Size the tower: Trays, number of real stages.

6. Design the tower internals: Trays, distributers, packing supports.

7. Mechanical design: vessel and internal fittings.

5.2.4 Tower Trays

5.2.4.1 Types of Trays

A. Trays Having Separate Liquid Down-comers

Shroud Ring, it is recommended to give structural strength to the prongs or ends of

Figure 5.3 Trays Having Liquid Down-comer

Figure 5.4 Bubble Caps & Risers

Figure 5.5 Bubble Cap

Float-Valve Trays (Figure 5.3d) is a recent development worthy of consideration,

B. Trays Having No Liquid Down-comers

Traditionally, fractionating columns that have no liquid down-comers have been

Figure 5.6 Trays Having no Liquid Down-comers

5.2.4.2 Selection of Tray Type

The principal factors to consider when comparing the performance of bubble-cap,

5.2.4.3 Tray Layout

Table 5.1 Guide for Tentative Selection of Tray Type

Table 5.2 Approximate Distribution of Areas as Percent of Tower Area

Figure 5.7 Liquid over Tray Flow Path

Figure 5.8 Classification of Tray Area

Figure 5.9 Segment (Chord) Down-comer Designs

5.2.4.4 Tray Stability

5.2.4.5 Operating Range

Figure 5.10 Sieve Plate Performance Diagram

Figure 5.11 Qualitative Region of Satisfactory Operation

5.2.4.6 Satisfactory Operating Region

We have indirectly defined the region of satisfactory operation by defining the

(1) The contacting efficiency of the tray is at or near maximum, and.

Satisfactory Operating Regions for Bubble-Cap Trays

The functioning of a bubble-cap can be best understood by observing a tray in

Figure 5.12 Bubble Cap Tray Schematic – Dynamic Operation

Figure 5.13 Bubble Cap Performance

Satisfactory Operating Regions for Other Types of Trays

Trays Having Separate Liquid Down-comers

Trays Having No Liquid Down-comers

5.2.4.7 Tray Construction

Stacked Trays (Cartridge Trays)

Side-stream and Feed Points

Figure 5.14 Sectional Tray Design

Figure 5.15 Stacked Tray Tower

Figure 5.16 Cross-flow Bubble-Cap Plate

Figure 5.17 Disk and Doughnut Perforated Plates

- Inlet weirs are sometimes used to distribute reflux.