NOVEMBER 2021 | CHAPTER VI

THE RESEARCH STRATEGIES

OLIVO, SIENA MARIE M.
MAED GAC

OVERVIEW

What is research? Research has been defined in LESSON OBJECTIVES

numerous ways. But basically, research is an
organized process of gathering and analyzing data to At the end of discussion, you should
gain better understandings of the world around us. be able to:
This process can help us grow in our knowledge and 1. Identify the different research
strategies;
understanding of the world. Although research can
2. differentiate the differences of
play a major role in our knowledge and understanding each strategies;
of our world, not everything we know is based on 3. understand the action research,
research (Baldwin, 2018) mixed method and longitudinal
In this chapter, three research strategies--action study.
research, mixed method, and longitudinal research
are presented that can be beneficial in every
researcher in their study. Each strategies emphasized
the advantages and disadvantages, the benefits and on
how to use this kind of design.
It intends to broaden the knowledge regarding
the different research design.

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 NOVEMBER 2021 | CHAPTER VI

ACTION RESEARCH
BRIEF HISTORY OF ACTION RESEARCH

The idea of using research in a “natural” setting to change

the way that the researcher interacts with that setting can be
traced back to Kurt Lewin, a social psychologist and educator
whose work on action research was developed throughout the
1940s in the United States. “Lewin is credited with coining the
term ‘action research’ to describe work that did not separate the
investigation from the action needed to solve the problem”
(McFarland & Stansell, 1993, p. 14).
Stephen Corey at Teachers College at Columbia University
was among the first to use action research in the field of
education. He believed that the scientific method in education
would bring about change because educators would be involved in
both the research and the application of information. Corey
summed up much of the thought behind this fledgling branch of
inquiry.
“We are convinced that the disposition to study…the
consequences of our own teaching is more likely to change and
improve our practices than is reading about what someone else
has discovered of his teaching.” (Corey, 1953)

PAGE 01
WHAT IS ACTION
RESEARCH? No research without action, no
action without research--Kurt
Lewin
1. It refers to a wide variety of evaluative,
investigative, and analytical research methods
designed to diagnose problems or weaknesses—
FOUR BASIC THEMES OF
whether organizational, academic, or instructional—
ACTION RESEARCH
and help educators develop practical solutions to
address them quickly and efficiently.
1. empowerment of participants
2. Action research is a process in which 2. collaboration through participation
participants examine their own educational practice 3. acquisition of knowledge
systematically and carefully, using the techniques of 4. social change
research.
3. Action research is typically focused on solving a STEPS IN ACTION
specific problem or answer a specific question. RESEARCH
4. Action research may also be called a cycle of
action or cycle of inquiry, since it typically follows a
predefined process that is repeated over time.

WHAT IS “NOT” ACTION

RESEARCH?

Action research is not what usually comes to

mind when we hear the word “research.” Action
research is not a library project where we learn more
1. IDENTIFY A PROBLEM AREA
about a topic that interests us. It is not problem-
Careful planning at this first stage
solving in the sense of trying to find out what is
will limit false starts and frustrations.
wrong, but rather a quest for knowledge about how
There are several criteria to consider
to improve. Action research is not about doing
before investing the time and effort
research on or about people or finding all available
in “researching” a problem. The
information on a topic looking for the correct Action
question should:
Research to answers. It involves people working to
· be a higher-order question—not
improve their skills, techniques, and strategies.
a yes/no
Action research is not about learning why we do
· be stated in common language,
certain things, but rather how we can do things
avoiding jargon
better. It is about how we can change our instruction
· be concise
to impact students.
· be meaningful
· not already have an answer
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 An important guideline in choosing a question is
to ask if it is something over which the teacher has
influence. Is it something of interest and worth the
time and effort that will be spent? Sometimes there is
a discrete problem that is readily identifiable. Or, the
problem to be studied may come from a feeling of
discomfort or tension in the classroom. For example,
a teacher may be using the latest fashionable
teaching strategy, yet not really knowing
understanding what or how kids are learning.
2. GATHER DATA
The collection of data is an important step in
deciding what action needs to be taken. There are
many vehicles for collecting of data:
Select the data that are most appropriate for the
issue being researched. Are the data easy to collect?
Are there sources readily available for use? How
structured and systematic will the collection be? Use
at least three sources (triangulation) of data for the
basis of actions. Organize the data in a way that
makes it useful to identify trends and themes. Data
can be arranged by gender, classroom, grade level,
school, etc.
3. INTERPRET DATA
Some of the data are quantifiable and can be
analyzed without the use of statistics or technical
assistance. Other data, such as opinions, attitudes, or
checklists, may be summarized in table form. Data
that are not quantifiable can be reviewed holistically
and important elements or themes can be noted.
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4. ACT ON EVIDENCE
Using the information from the
data collection and review of current
literature, design a plan of action that
will allow you to make a change and
to study that change. It is important
that only one variable be altered. As
with any experiment, if several
changes are made at once, it will be
or difficult to determine which action is
responsible for the outcome. While
the new technique is being
implemented, continue to document,
and collect data on performance.
5. EVALUATE RESULTS
Assess the effects of the
intervention to determine if
improvement has occurred. If there
is improvement, do the data clearly
provide the supporting evidence? If
no, what changes can be made to the
actions to elicit better results?
6. NEXT STEPS
As a result of the action research
project, identify additional questions
raised by the data and plan for
additional improvements, revisions,
and next steps.
BENEFITS OF ACTION
RESEARCH
1. Focus on issue, problem, or area of
collective interest
2. Form of professional development
3. Collegial interactions
4. Potential to impact change
5. Reflect on own practice
6. Improves communications
 Between the late 1980s and today,
definitions and descriptions of
mixed-methods research have
shifted and morphed, and they
continue to do so. While having a
singular definition is desirable for
many researchers, Creswell and
Plano Clark (2011) have instead
offered a definition of core
characteristics of mixed-methods
research. They suggest that their
core characteristics provide a
broader definition of mixed-methods
research, since they combine
ACTION RESEARCH methods, philosophies, and a
research design orientation. These
BRIEF HISTORY OF MIXED METHODS characteristics also highlight the key
components that should be
Creswell and Plano Clark (2011) date the considered when designing and
beginnings of mixed-methods research back to the conducting a mixed-methods study.
mid- to late 1980s. Methodology experts and writers
from all around the world seemed to have been
simultaneously working on similar ideas regarding WHAT IS MIXED
the combination of quantitative and qualitative METHODS?
methods. Up to this point in time, many qualitative
researchers and quantitative researchers did not see
the legitimacy in the other approach to doing
research. However, members of both research 1. The term “mixed methods” refers to
camps began to realize, on a deeper level, the value an emergent methodology of research
that advances the systematic
of the alternate approach.
integration, or “mixing,” of quantitative
For example, quantitative researchers began to
and qualitative data within a single
see that qualitative data could play an important
investigation or sustained program of
role in quantitative research; similarly, qualitative inquiry.
researchers began to see that reporting only 2. The major characteristic of mixed-
qualitative views of the world – and of a few methods research is that it combines
individuals – would not permit generalization of the quantitative and qualitative
findings to many other individuals and audiences approaches by including both
(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Over the past decade quantitative and qualitative data in a
or more, interest in the use of mixed-methods single research study (Gay, Mills, &
research as a means for studying educational topics Airasian, 2009)
and phenomenon has grown substantially.

PAGE 04
3. Creswell and Plano Clark (2011) define mixed-
4.Provides methodological
methods research as those studies that include at
flexibility.
least one quantitative strand and one qualitative
Mixed methods have great flexibility
strand. (A strand is a component of a study that
and are adaptable to many study
encompasses the basic process of conducting
designs, such as observational
quantitative or qualitative research: posing a
studies and randomized trials, to
research question, collecting, and analyzing data,
elucidate more information than can
and interpreting the results.)
be obtained in only quantitative
research.
SIX CORE CHARACTERISTICS FOCUS
ON ACTIVITES OF THE MIXED- 5.Collects rich, comprehensive data.
Mixed methods also mirror the way
METHODS
individuals naturally collect
information—by integrating
1. Collecting and analyzing persuasively and
quantitative and qualitative data.
rigorously both qualitative and quantitative data,
based on research questions [emphasis added]
For example, sports stories
2. Mixing – or integrating or linking – the two forms
frequently integrate quantitative data
of data either concurrently by combining or
(scores or number of errors) with
merging them, sequentially by having one build on
qualitative data (descriptions and
the other, or embedding one within the other
images of highlights) to provide a
3. Giving priority to one or to both forms of data,
more complete story than either
again based on the research questions and the
method would alone.
emphasis of the research [emphasis added]
4. Using these procedures in a single research study
or in multiple phases of a program of research
EXAMPLE OF MIXED
5. Framing these procedures within philosophical
METHODS
worldviews and theoretical lenses
6. Combining the procedures into specific research EXAMPLE 1
designs that direct the plan for conducting the
study
Summary of Roth (2006), research
regarding the gender-wage gap within
ADVANTAGES Wall Street securities firms. Adapted
from Hesse-Biber (2010, pp. 457–458)
1. Compares quantitative and qualitative data.
Mixed methods are especially useful in Louise Marie Roth’s research, Selling
understanding contradictions between quantitative
Women Short: Gender and Money on
results and qualitative findings.
Wall Street (2006), tackles gender
2. Reflects participants’ point of view. inequality in the workplace. She was
Mixed methods give a voice to study participants interested in understanding the
and ensure that study findings are grounded in gender-wage gap among highly
participants’ experiences. performing Wall Street MBAs, who on
the surface appeared to have the same
3. Fosters scholarly interaction.
“human capital” qualifications and
Such studies add breadth to multidisciplinary
team research by encouraging the interaction of were placed in high-ranking Wall
quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods Street securities firms as their first
scholars. jobs.

PAGE 05
 In addition, Roth wanted to understand the
“structural factors” within the workplace setting that
may contribute to the gender-wage gap and its
persistence over time. […] Roth conducted semi-
structured interviews, nesting quantitative closed-
ended questions into primarily qualitative in-depth
interviews […] In analyzing the quantitative data
from her sample, she statistically considered all those
factors that might legitimately account for gendered
differences such as number of hours worked, any
human capital differences, and so on. Her analysis of
the quantitative data revealed the presence of a
significant gender gap in wages that remained
unexplained after controlling for any legitimate
factors that might otherwise make a difference. […]
Quantitative findings showed the extent of the wage
gap while providing numerical understanding of the
disparity but did not provide her with an
understanding of the specific processes within the
workplace that might have contributed to the gender
gap in wages. […] Her respondents’ lived experiences
over time revealed the hidden inner structures of the
workplace that consist of discriminatory
organizational practices with regard to decision
making in performance evaluations that are tightly
tied to wage increases and promotion.
This example nicely illustrates the distinction
we made between simultaneity and dependency. On
the two aspects of the timing dimension, this study
was a concurrent-dependent design answering a set
of related research questions. The data collection in
this example was conducted simultaneously and was
thus concurrent – the quantitative closed-ended
questions were embedded into the qualitative in-
depth interviews. In contrast, the analysis was
dependent, as explained in the next paragraph.
One of the purposes of this study was
explanation: The qualitative data were used to
understand the processes underlying the
quantitative outcomes. It is therefore an
explanatory design and might be labelled an
“explanatory concurrent design”. Conceptually,
explanatory designs are often dependent: The
qualitative component is used to explain and clarify
the outcomes of the quantitative component.
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In that sense, the qualitative
analysis in the case study took the
outcomes of the quantitative
component (“the existence of the
gender-wage gap” and “numerical
understanding of the disparity”) and
aimed at providing an explanation for
that result of the quantitative data
analysis, by relating it to the
contextual circumstances in which
the quantitative outcomes were
produced. This purpose of mixing in
the example corresponds to Bryman’s
(2006) “contextual understanding”.
On the other primary dimensions, (a)
the design was ongoing over a three-
year period but was not emergent, (b)
the point of integration was results,
and (c) the design was not complex
with respect to the point of
integration, as it had only one point
of integration. Yet, it was complex in
the sense of involving multiple levels;
both the level of the individual and
the organization were included.
According to the approach of
Johnson and Christensen (2017), this
was a QUAL + quan design (that was
qualitatively driven, explanatory, and
concurrent). If we give this study
design a name, perhaps it should
focus on what was done in the study:
“explaining an effect from the
process by which it is produced”.
Having said this, the name
“explanatory concurrent design”
could also be used.
EXAMPLE 2
Summary of McMahon’s (2007) explorative study of
the meaning, role, and salience of rape myths within
the subculture of college student athletes. Adapted
from Hesse-Biber (2010, pp. 461–462)
Sarah McMahon (2007) wanted to explore the
subculture of college student athletes and specifically
the meaning, role, and salience of rape myths within
that culture. […] While she was looking for
confirmation between the quantitative ([structured]
survey) and qualitative (focus groups and individual
interviews) findings, she entered this study skeptical
of whether her quantitative and qualitative findings
would mesh with one another. McMahon […] first
administered a survey [instrument] to 205 sophomore
and junior student athletes at one Northeast public
university. […] The quantitative data revealed a very
low acceptance of rape myths among this student
population but revealed a higher acceptance of
violence among men and individuals who did not
know a survivor of sexual assault. In the second
qualitative (QUAL) phase, “focus groups were
conducted as semi-structured interviews” and
facilitated by someone of the same gender as the
participants (p. 360). […] She followed this up with a
third qualitative component (QUAL), individual
interviews, which were conducted to elaborate on
themes discovered in the focus groups and determine
any differences in students’ responses between
situations (i. e., group setting vs. individual). The
interview guide was designed specifically to address
focus group topics that needed “more in-depth
exploration” or clarification (p. 361). The qualitative
findings from the focus groups and individual
qualitative interviews revealed “subtle yet pervasive
rape myths” that fell into four major themes: “the
misunderstanding of consent, the belief in ‘accidental’
and fabricated rape, the contention that some women
provoke rape, and the invulnerability of female
athletes” (p. 363). She found that the survey’s finding
of a “low acceptance of rape myths … was
contradicted by the findings of the focus groups and
individual interviews, which indicated the presence
of subtle rape myths” (p. 362).
PAGE 07
On the timing dimension, this is
an example of a sequential-
independent design. It is sequential
because the qualitative focus groups
were conducted after the survey was
administered. The analysis of the
quantitative and qualitative data was
independent: Both were analyzed
independently, to see whether they
yielded the same results (which they
did not). This purpose, therefore, was
triangulation. On the other primary
dimensions, (a) the design was
planned, (b) the point of integration
was results, and (c) the design was
not complex as it had only one point
of integration and involved only the
level of the individual. The author
called this a “sequential explanatory”
design. We doubt, however, whether
this is the most appropriate label,
because the qualitative component
did not provide an explanation for
quantitative results that were taken
as given. On the contrary, the
qualitative results contradicted the
quantitative results. Thus, a
“sequential-independent” design, or a
“sequential-triangulation” design or a
“sequential-comparative” design
would probably be a better name.
Notice further that the second
case study had the same point of
integration as the first case study.
The two components were brought
together in the results. Thus,
although the case studies are very
dissimilar in many respects, this does
not become visible in their point of
integration. It can therefore be
helpful to determine whether their
point of extension is different. A
point of extension is the point in the
research process at which the second
(or later) component comes into play.
 In the first case study, two related, but different
research questions were answered, namely the
quantitative question “How large is the gender-
wage gap among highly performing Wall Street
MBAs after controlling for any legitimate factors
that might otherwise make a difference?”, and the
qualitative research question “How do structural
factors within the workplace setting contribute to
the gender-wage gap and its persistence over time?”
This case study contains one qualitative research
question and one quantitative research question.
Therefore, the point of extension is the research
question. In the second case study, both
components answered the same research question.
They differed in their data collection (and
subsequently in their data analysis): qualitative
focus groups and individual interviews versus a
quantitative questionnaire. In this case study, the
point of extension was data collection. Thus, the
point of extension can be used to distinguish
between the two case studies.
LONGITUDINAL
RESEARCH
What is Longitudinal
Research?
1. A longitudinal study is a type of correlational
research study that involves looking at variables
over an extended period. This research can take
place over a period of weeks, months, or even
years. In some cases, longitudinal studies can
last several decades.
2. In a longitudinal study, researchers repeatedly
examine the same individuals to detect any
changes that might occur over a period of time.
3. Longitudinal studies are a type of correlational
research in which researchers observe and
collect data on several variables without trying
to influence those variables.
HOW A
LONGITUDINAL
STUDY WORKS
A longitudinal study can be used
to discover relationships between
variables that are not related to
various background variables. This
observational research technique
involves studying the same group of
individuals over an extended period.
Data is first collected at the outset of
the study and may then be repeatedly
gathered throughout the length of
the study. Doing this allows
researchers to observe how variables
may change over time.
For example, imagine that a
group of researchers is interested in
studying how exercise during middle
age might impact cognitive health as
people age. The researchers
hypothesize that people who are
more physically fit in their 40s and
50s will be less likely to experience
cognitive declines in their 70s and
80s.
The researchers recruit a group
of participants who are in their mid-
40s to early 50s. They collect data
related to how physically fit the
participants are, how often they work
out, and how well they do on
cognitive performance tests.
Periodically over the course of the
study, the researchers collect the
same types of data from the
participants to track activity levels
and mental performance.

PAGE 08
Types of Longitudinal Research
ADVANTAGES AND
1. Panel Study DISADVANTAGES OF
It provides the opportunity for more in-depth
analysis. For example, one can examine the key LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
determinants of changes in opinions because one is
collecting data from the same individuals. ADVANTAGES
Longitudinal panel studies are very expensive but 1.Longitudinal studies allow
very informative forms of research. researchers to follow their subjects
2. Cohort study
in real time.
Involves selecting a group based on a specific event
-This means you can better establish
such as birth, geographic location, or historical
experience. the real sequence of events, allowing
3. Retrospective study you insight into cause-and-effect
Involves looking to the past by looking at historical relationships.
information such as medical records. Example: A cross-sectional study on

Benefits of Longitudinal Research the impact of police on crime might

find that more police are associated
A longitudinal study can provide unique insight
with greater crime and wrongly
that might not be possible any other way. This
conclude that police cause crime
method allows researchers to look at changes over
when it is the other way around.
time. Because of this, longitudinal methods are
However, a longitudinal study would
particularly useful when studying development and
be able to observe the rise or fall in
lifespan issues. Researchers can look at how certain
crime sometime after increasing the
things may change at different points in life and
number of police in an area.
explore some of the reasons why these
2.Longitudinal studies also allow
developmental shifts take place.
repeated observations of the same
For example, consider longitudinal studies that
individual over time.
looked at how identical twins reared together versus
-This means any changes in the
those reared apart differ on a variety of variables.
outcome variable cannot be
Researchers tracked participants from childhood
attributed to differences between
into adulthood to look at how growing up in a
individuals.
different environment influences things such as
Example: You decide to study how a
personality and achievement.
particular weight-training program
Since the participants share the same genetics,
affects athletic performance. If you
it is assumed that any differences are due to
choose a longitudinal study, the
environmental factors. Researchers can then look at
impact of natural talent on
what the participants have in common versus where
performance should be eliminated,
they differ to see which characteristics are more
since that would not change over the
strongly influenced by either genetics or
study period.
experience. Note that adoption agencies no longer
3.Prospective longitudinal studies
separate twins, so such studies are unlikely today,
eliminate the risk of recall bias, or
and longitudinal studies on twins have shifted to
the inability to correctly recall past
those within the same household.
events.

PAGE 09
Example: You are studying the effect of low-carb
diets on weight loss. If you asked your subjects to
remember how many carbs or how much they
weighed at any point in time in the past, they might
have difficulty doing so. In a longitudinal study, you
can keep track of these variables in real time.
DISADVANTAGES
1.Longitudinal studies are time-consuming and often
more expensive than other types of studies, so they
require significant commitment and resources to be
effective. Since longitudinal studies repeatedly
observe subjects over a period, any potential
insights from the study can take a while to be
discovered.
Example: In the study examining the links between
smoking and stomach cancer, you must wait several
years to see any results since the negative effects of
smoking accumulate over decades.
2.Attrition, which occurs when participants drop out
of a study, is common in longitudinal studies and
may result in invalid conclusions.
Example: In your study on the impact of low-carb
diets on weight loss, participants who are not seeing
much success might feel more discouraged and thus
more likely to drop out. The diet might therefore
appear to be more successful than it is!
PAGE 10
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while
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Ov3F3pdhNkk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=tO7PhDKk_Ok
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=WY5wD3HGdNc