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Telephone No. 09081112525
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WHAT is RESEARCH?
Research is exploration combined with learning.  It is a
"detailed study of a subject in order to discover information
or achieve a new understanding of it."
Research is a process of searching, discovering, and
investigating information, as well as collecting,
interpreting, and evaluating the information you find.
One must know how to apply the tools and techniques for
finding, evaluating, and using information effectively— a
set of skills known as information literacy.
Research contributes to an expansion of knowledge
through inquiry, investigation or experimentation aimed at
the discovery of facts, theories, or laws.
Survivor Tip: To be a successful researcher, you will need
to develop knowledge and skills in information literacy and
research and build upon those skills year after year.
Therefore:
RESEARCH is a SYSTEMATIC and ORGANIZED way to FIND
ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.
SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of
procedures and steps which you will follow. There are
certain things in the research process that are always done
in order to get the most accurate results.
ORGANIZED in that there is a structure or method in
going about doing research.
 It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is
focused and limited to a specific scope.
FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all research.
 Whether it is the answer to a hypothesis or even a
simple question.
 Research is successful when we find answers.
QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no
question, then the answer is of no use.
 Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important
questions. Without a question, research has no focus,
drive, or purpose.
WHY do RESEARCH?
1. Educational benefits include:
Working closely with a faculty mentor
Learning about issues, and methods in students' chosen
fields
Applying concepts learned in coursework to "real life"
situations
Sharpening problem-solving skills
Learn to read primary literature
2. Professional benefits include:
Exploring and preparing for future careers
Developing marketable skills
Enhancing professional communication skills
Collaborating with others and working effectively as part
of a team
3. Personal benefits include:
Growing as a critical, analytical, and independent thinker
Meeting challenges and demonstrating the ability to
complete a project
Discovering personal interests
Developing internal standards of excellence
Nature of Research
1. Empirical
It rests on data.
It is concerned with a knowable real world.
It is assessed on the basis of evidence.
It often involves testing and retesting in an effort to
discover the validity and the limits of propositions or the
conditions under which they may or may not hold.
2. Propositional
It deals with statements which share a truth-value about
things, but these propositions may be rejected or modified
in the nature ( its assumptions, definition and procedural
rules are all subject to re-examination).
3. Logical
It makes use of the rules of logic in reasoning and drawing
conclusions and inferences. The structure of scientific
argument follows the rules of logic.
4. Operational
It follows operational procedure.
The process of establishing the connection and
correspondence between logical and abstract thinking with
that which is empirical or directly observable.
5. Public
must be communicated from the researcher/ author to
another.
Thus, it allows other researchers to replicate by research
study.
6. Objective
Scientific inquiry is marked by impartiality and
disinterestedness.
Data gathered are always based on empirical observations.
7. Self-correcting and Cumulative
It offers a system of revalidating available findings under
various times and circumstances, and therefore of
correcting and improving on existing knowledge.
It uses scientific rules thereby assuring cumulative build-
up of scientific knowledge.
What are the Steps in the Research Process?
Selecting a research topic:
What are some of the resources you can use to help you
select a topic?
 Your classmates and friends
 Your professor
 A reference librarian
 Specialized encyclopedias, dictionaries, &
handbooks
 Current topics in the classroom discussion
 Subject research guides/ agenda
Exercise 1: Individual Presentation of Working Research Title/
Topic
Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
The problem and its setting normally contains a reason,
justification and/or the background with respect to the
problem, the importance of which should be established.
If controversial findings have evolved from related studies
completed in the past then you have a valid reason for
pursuing your investigation since it should enable you to
present additional information, which may clarify the
controversy.
In other words, it is also appropriate in this part to provide
a very brief critical review of previous investigations
relevant to your problem as well as presenting relevant
experiences in the workplace that has something to do
with the conception of the present problem to investigate
which serves as the anchor point of the study.
1. Introduction
It provides readers with the background information for
the research.
Normally a short one that varies from one to four pages in
length.
It provides answer to the questions: "What are you doing;
and why are you doing it?
Exercise 2: Writing of “Introduction”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
2. Research Locale
This part describes the locale of the study with figure 1 as
the location map.
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The researcher must consider only the relevant
characteristics of the place/ locale that have something to
do with the research.
Exercise 3: Writing of “Research Locale”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
3. Framework of the Study
Framework of the study gives vivid explanations regarding
the relationship of the variables.
The conceptual framework of the investigation presents the
researcher’s own way of understanding and concepts based
upon the previous readings and experiences.
The theoretical framework uses abstract concepts, facts or
laws, variables and relations that explain and predict how
observed phenomena exist and operate in the investigation.
The paradigm showing the interactions of the different
variables used in the study is presented as figure 2.
4. Different Variables
A variable is a measurable characteristic that varies.
It may change from group to group, person to person, or
even within one person over time
a. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES are those that the researcher
has control over.
This "control" may involve manipulating existing
variables or introducing new variables (a new treatment)
in the research setting.
The researcher expects that the independent variable(s)
will have some effects on the dependent variables.
b. DEPENDENT VARIABLES show the effect of
manipulating or introducing the independent
variables.
The variation in the dependent variable depends on the
variation in the independent variable.
c. INTERVENING VARIABLES refer any factors that could
affect the relationship between
the independent and dependent variables.
d. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES are those factors in the
research environment which may have an effect on the
dependent variable(s) but which are not or cannot be controlled.
They may damage a study's validity, making it
impossible to know whether the effects were caused by
the independent and moderator variables or some
extraneous factor.
e. MODERATOR or CONTROL VARIABLES
(COVARIATES) also affect the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables.
Moderator variables are measured and taken into
consideration.
Exercise 4: Writing of “Theoretical or Conceptual Framework”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
5. Statement of the Problem
It provides specific and accurate synopsis of the overall
purpose of the study.
It defines and delimits the specific area of the research.
Must be stated vividly and explicitly expressed in
question form which possess the characteristics of
SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic,
and Time-bound).
The number of the specific problems depends on the
researcher but make sure that these should jibe with the
research problem/ title.
Exercise 5: Writing of “Statement of the Problem”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
6. Assumptions/ Hypotheses
Assumptions are presumed as true statement of facts
related to the research problem. They are clearly stated to
provide the reader foundation in analyzing the conclusions
that result from the assumptions.
Hypotheses . The researchers commonly use null
hypothesis because it is a denial of difference of an effect,
which is easy to reject or accept. Bear in mind that
hypotheses are based on the statement of the problem.
Hypotheses are relevant to theoretical research and are
generally used in quantitative inquiry.
Hypotheses must be grounded in the theoretical
framework.
A hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the
relations between two or more variables.
A. Null Hypothesis: A "no difference" form in terms of theoretical
constructs and a "no difference" form in terms of the operation
required to test the hypothesis.
Examples:
1. There is no significant relationship between study habits and
academic performance of college students.
2. There is no significant difference in school academic achievement
female and male college students.
B. Alternative Hypothesis : A form that states the hypothesis you
will accept if the null hypothesis is rejected, stated in terms of
theoretical constructs.
Examples :
1. There is a significant relationship between study habits and
academic performance of college students.
2. There is a significant difference in school academic achievement
female and male college students.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
For each of the following, indicate the correct variable type
by IV for Independent Variable or DV for Dependent
Variable:
Example: If crime increases as a result of the full moon, then crime
is what type of variable?
Answer: Dependent Variable (DV)
If juries are more likely to impose the death penalty on
blacks who commit crime against white people, then being
black is what type of variable?
If involvement in crime is inversely related to age, then age
is what kind of variable?
If citizen attitudes toward police improve by 20% for every
5% decrease in crime, then citizen attitudes toward police
are what type of variable?
If there is a strong association between alcohol abuse and
spouse abuse, then spouse abuse is what kind of variable?
If risk of victimization is a function of lifestyle and
absence of guardians, then lifestyle is what type of
variable?
If microsocial strain, mediated by locus of control and lack
of social support, creates conditions conducive to
committing crime, then locus of control would be what
type of variable?
If the corporate ethics climate and white collar crime are
associated, then ethics climate is what type of variable?
If the number of handguns sold illegally is linked to the
number of homicides committed annually, then number of
homicides is what type of variable?
For two groups of inmates, one which is exposed to an
educational program, and the other which is not, it is
shown there are significant differences in rehabilitative
outcomes, then educational program is what type of
variable?
Exercise 6: Writing of “Hypothesis”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
7. Scope and (De)Limitation
This includes the coverage of the study area, the subjects,
the research instrument, the research issues and concerns,
the duration of the study, and the constrains that have
direct bearing on the result of the studies.
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A scope addresses how a study will be narrowed, and how
it is bounded.
This is the place to explain the things that you are not
doing and why you have chosen not to do them.
The scope usually includes the general problem to be
investigated including the time frame or work.
A limitation identifies potential weaknesses of the study.
Consider the nature of self-report, instruments used, and
the sample or the respondents involved in the study as well
as some threats to internal validity that maybe impossible
to avoid or minimize.
Exercise 7: Writing of “Scope and Delimitation”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
8. Significance of the Study
The researcher must convince the reader that the study has
significant contributions in
relation to:
solving educational problem;
business operation;
improving social, economic, and health conditions;
enriching research instrument and methods; and
government thrusts.
Exercise 8: Writing of “Significance of Study”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
9. Definition of Terms
In conceptual definition, the meaning of the term is usually
taken from the dictionary/ book/ etc...
Operational definition, the definition is based on an
observed characteristics and how it is used in the study.
The terms must be arranged in an alphabetical order.
Exercise 9: Writing of “Definition of Terms”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
A survey of important articles, books and other sources
pertaining to your research topic.
Write a summary of the main studies and research related
to your topic.
It will give readers the necessary background to understand
your research.
The review is divided into three parts, namely:
a. Related Literature (Foreign & Local)
b. Related Studies (Foreign & Local)
c. Relationship of the Previous Studies to the Present Study
A. Related Literature:
will help you gain an understanding of the current state of
knowledge pertaining to your research idea.
will inform you if the research problem or topic has
already been explored (and if a revision or replication is
needed), how to design your study, what data collection
methods to use.
help make sense of the findings of your study once data
analysis is complete.
B. Related Studies:
Taken from published and unpublished theses/
dissertations or published research journals.
Include sufficient information that your reader can
evaluate the study and the validity of the findings and
conclusions.
Include trends/themes in the studies as well as gaps or
controversy.
Report details sparingly and concentrate on synthesizing
and critiquing the study.
C. Relationship of the Previous Studies to the present Study
Point out the similarities and differences of the reviewed
studies to the present study in terms of the framework of
the study, methodology, statistical analysis, etc…
Exercise 11: Writing of “Review of Related Literature and Studies”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
Chapter 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter explains how the study will be conducted.
The methods employed should be described in an orderly
manner, although related methods can be described
together.
The research methodology includes the research method/
design, respondents, instrument, and validation of
instrument, data gathering procedure and treatment of
data.
1. Research Method/ Design
choose the appropriate method or design you are going to
use.
explain why you use such method/ design in detail.
provide justification for its utility.
A. BASIC RESEARCH is concerned with knowledge for the
sake of theory. Its design is not controlled by the practical
usefulness of the findings.
APPLIED RESEARCH is concerned with showing how
the findings can be applied or summarized into some type
of teaching methodology.
B. PRACTICAL/ACTION RESEARCH goes one step
further and applies the findings of research to a specific
"practical" situation.
Types of Research Methods
1. Action Research
used to develop new skills or new approaches.
to solve problems with direct application to the classroom
or working world setting.
It is practical and directly relevant to an actual situation in
the working world.
Examples: An in-service training program to help train
teachers to teach more effectively
with various groups of students.
To develop an exploratory program in drug addiction
prevention in the Community Service Center of Columban
College
An action research on the difficulties of college students in
coping with Science and Mathematics related subjects.
2. Case and Field Study
can be applied by studying intensively the background,
current status, and environmental interactions of a given
social unit: an individual, group, institution, or community.
includes the In-depth investigations of a given entity and
examines a small number of units across a large number of
variables and conditions.
Examples:
a. Piaget's studies of cognitive growth among
elementary school children in Columban College
Elementary Department.
b. An intensive field study of sociocultural life in a
remote resettlement area in Zambales and Olongapo
City.
c. Intensive study of birth control method practiced by
parents in Balik Balik, Sta. Rita in Olongapo City.
3.Causal-Comparative
used to investigate possible cause-andeffect relationships
by observing some existing consequence and searching
back through the data for plausible causal factors.
is "ex post facto" in nature, which means the data are
collected after all the events of interest have occurred.
The investigator then takes one or more effects (dependent
variables) and examines the data by going back through
time, seeking out causes, relationships, and their meanings.
Examples:
a. To identify factors characterizing college students having
either excellent or below average grades in the major and
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minor subjects, using the scholastic records and
demographic profiles.
b. To determine the attributes of effective instructors as
measured by their performance evaluations and other data
in their personal files as well as other school-related
factors.
4. Correlational
Used to investigate the relationship of variable X and Y.
Permits the measurement of several variables and their
interrelationships simultaneously and in a realistic setting.
Determine the degree of relationship.
Examples:
a. A study investigating the relationship between
students learning style and their academic
performances.
b. A study to predict success in graduate school based on
intercorrelation patterns of various variables in the
undergraduate school.
5. Descriptive
to describe systematically the facts and characteristics of a
given population or area of interest, factually and
accurately.
to collect detailed factual information that describes
existing phenomena.
to identify problems or justify current conditions and
practices.
to make comparisons and evaluations.
to determine what others are doing with similar problems
or situations and benefit from their experience in making
future plans and decisions.
Examples:
a. A school survey to determine or assess the
environmental performance of elementary schools in
the Division of Olongapo City.
b. A study of the leadership and management style of
business managers in some fast food chain in
Olongapo City.
c. Professors’ competencies in teaching business-related
courses in Columban College Inc.
6. Developmental
to investigate patterns and sequences of growth and/or
change as a function of time.
Studies some entity's development over time.
Examples:
a. Developmental studies directly measuring the
characteristics and rate of improvement in the oral and
written communication skills among college students
based on the number of English subjects per course in
Columban College, Inc.
b. Trend studies designed to establish patterns of change
in the number of enrollees in the last five years in
order to predict future needs of faculty members in
Columban College.
7. Historical
To reconstruct the past systematically and objectively by
collecting, evaluating, verifying, and synthesizing
evidence to establish facts and reach defensible
conclusions, often in relation to particular hypotheses.
is rigorous, systematic, and exhaustive
The data can be obtained from primary sources and
secondary sources.
Examples:
a. A study of the old practices of elementary school
teachers in Olongapo City and Zambales and its
relevance to the modern teaching.
b. Contributions of Municipal Mayors in San Marcelino,
Zambales from the 1970’s to present.
c. Success and failure of X-FASTFUD store from the
American occupation to the present.
8. Quasi-Experimental
Does not allow the control and/or manipulation of all
relevant variables.
The researcher must clearly understand what compromises
exist in the internal and external validity of the design and
proceed within these limitations.
It involves applied settings where it is not possible to
control all the relevant variables but only some of them.
Is weak, particularly where human subjects are involved.
Examples:
a. Effectiveness of three approaches to teaching
Principles of Management to business students of
Columban College, Olongapo City.
b. Effects of social problems of delinquency, smoking,
and drug addiction on the academic performance of
students.
c. The teaching of Business-related subject grounded on
Multiple Intelligences Theory.
9. True Experimental Research
Can be utilized to investigate possible cause and-effect
relationships by exposing one or more experimental
groups to one or more treatment conditions and comparing
the results to one or more control groups not receiving the
treatment.
Requires rigorous management of experimental variables
and conditions either by direct control/manipulation or
through randomization.
Uses a control group.
Examples:
a. Effects of two methods of teaching College Physics
based on class sizes and levels of student intelligence,
using random assignment of teachers.
b. Effects of Organic Matters on the Growth of
Eggplant.
c. Effects of the length of time of exposure to sunlight
and time of the day on the production of skin cancer
among students.
Exercise 12: Writing of “Research Methods/ Design”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
2.Population/Respondents/ Sample
Explain how and where the population/ respondents are
taken.
It can be either the entire population if N is small or
sample/ respondents if population is large.
in detail present the descriptive information obtained
from your sample and additional relevant variables.
Subjects
Are the sources of your data.
Most applied and social science research uses people as
subjects.
Their characteristics, development, opinions, attitudes,
knowledge, performance, etc. are used to answer your
research question.
Population
is the group from which your subjects are drawn.
you need to identify their key characteristics carefully in
order to produce a corresponding but theoretical
population to which you can generalize your findings.
Sampling techniques
is a method by which the researcher can derive a sample
from a population.
A. Probability and Non-Probability Sampling
 A probability sample is one in which each member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected.
 In a non-probability sample, some people have a greater,
but unknown chance than others of selection
1. Probability Samples
The choice of these depends on nature of research
problem, the availability of a good sampling frame,
money, time, desired level of accuracy in the sample and
data collection methods.  Simple random  Systematic
 Random route  Stratified  Multi-stage cluster
sampling
B. Simple Random Sampling:
Each member of the population has the same chance of
selection
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The relative chance of selection of any two members of
the population is not affected by knowledge of whether a
third member has or has not been selected.
In practice, this essentially means drawing names out of a
hat or some other random method.
C. Systematic Sampling:
This simply involves: asking every third person who
happens to come along, or calling at every fifth house, etc.
D. Random Route Sampling:
The researcher plans a route and questions individuals
who happen to come along.
Used in market research surveys - mainly for sampling
households, shops, garages and other premises in urban
areas.
E. Stratified Sampling :
All people in sampling frame are divided into "strata"
(groups or categories).
Example of stratified sampling is if we want to ensure that
a sample of 5 students from a group of 50 contains both
male and female students in same proportions as in the
full population. In this case, there are 22 male students
and 28 females.
To work out the number of males and females in the
sample, we have:  No. of males in sample = (5 / 50) x 22
= 2.2 or 2  No. of females in sample = (5 / 50) x 28 = 2.8
or 3
F. Multi-stage cluster sampling:
This involves drawing several different samples. It does so
in such a way that cost of final interviewing is minimized.
Basic procedure: First draw sample of areas. Initially large
areas selected then progressively smaller areas within
larger area are sampled. Eventually end up with sample of
households and use method of selecting individuals from
these selected households.
2. Non-Probability Samples:
Cheaper
Used when sampling frame is not available
Useful when population is so widely dispersed that cluster
sampling would not be efficient
Often used in exploratory studies
Used in obtaining an idea of the range of responses on
ideas that people have.
G. Purposive Sampling:
A purposive sample is one, which is selected by the
researcher subjectively.
Often used in political polling - districts chosen because
their pattern has in the past provided good idea of
outcomes for whole electorate.
H. Quota Sampling:
often used in market research.
Interviewers are required to find cases with particular
characteristics.
They are given quota of particular types of people to
interview and the quota is organized so that final sample
should be representative of population.
I. Convenience sampling:
Used when you simply stop anybody in the street who is
prepared to stop, or when you wander round a business, a
shop, a restaurant, a theatre or whatever, asking people
you meet whether they will answer your questions.
The sample comprises subjects who are simply available
in a convenient way to the researcher.
J. Snowball sampling:
With this approach, you initially contact a few potential
respondents and then ask them whether they know of
anybody with the same characteristics that you are looking
for in your research.
For example, if you wanted to interview a sample of
vegetarians / cyclists / people with a particular disability /
people who support a particular political party etc., your
initial contacts may well have knowledge (through e.g.
support group) of others.
K. Self-selection:
Self-selection is perhaps self-explanatory. Respondents
themselves decide that they would like to take part in your
survey.
Do You Know How?
Can you think of some different "strata" (other than marital
status) that could be used if you were undertaking a
stratified sample of the adult population of a certain city?
Give example and Discuss.
Do You Know How?
How might you go about undertaking a purposive sample
of people aged 60 and over who live in the isolated area of
Zambales to be sure of being able to speak to both genders,
the very old as well as the newly retired and including a
range of socio-economic groupings?
Do You Know How?
Company ZANDREX employs 150 part-time staff and 550
full-time staff, and you want to carry out depth interviews
with 20 of these. If you were to take a random sample, you
might find that all of the names you selected were part-
time staff. For this reason you have decided to undertake a
stratified sample. Work out how many part-time and how
many full-time employees you should interview so as to
accurately reflect the proportions of the two groups in the
whole workforce.
Exercise 13: Writing of “Population/ Respondents? Samples”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
3..Instrument
The research instrument either questionnaire, test,
interview, observation schedule or rating scale must be
described on how it is being designed and used by the
researcher.  Each part of the instrument must be clearly
stated and discussed.
If instruments have previously been used, identify previous
studies.
Include an appendix with a copy of the instruments to be
used or the interview protocol to be followed. Also include
sample items in the description of the instrument.
For a mailed survey, identify steps to be taken in
administering and following up the survey to obtain a high
response rate.
a. Construction of Survey-Checklists
Data gathered through observations is inherently
subjective. To increase the objectivity of the data
collected, checklists and/or sliding scale inventories can
be used.
Decide what factors are important to the issue under
investigation.
Create checklist or sliding scale items that will help keep
your observations objective.
Try to structure the collection of data in a way that it can
be condensed/ collapsed/ organized to facilitate analysis.
Have experts review checklist/rating scale and give you
feedback on clarity.  Revise checklist/rating scale based
on reviewers' comments.
b. Survey-Questionnaire Construction
1. Write at least five items for each factor.
a.) The language must be unmistakable clear in order to
elicit responses
b.) Every item should be designed to fulfill a specific
research objective.
c.) Be courteous: Would you please check . . .
d.) Keep the language simple, easy to read, and easy to
respond to.
e.) Think ahead to precisely how the data will be
processed.
2. Decide on format and order of items.
a.) Construct first draft. Make sure it's neat, clean, well
ordered, and pleasant to look at.
b.) Review survey item by item for precise expression,
objectivity, relevance, suitability, and
probability of favorable reception.
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c.) Have experts review survey and give you feedback on
clarity and factor structure.
d.) Revise survey based on experts' review.
3. Administer to a pilot group.
a.) Provide a cover letter
b.) Figure out what date respondents are likely to get the
survey and set the return date a
week from then.
4. Analyze responses from pilot group as you intend to do
the actual study data and note
where unmanageable data occurs. Also conduct a factor
analysis to assess content validity.
5. Revise survey based on review of pilot data.
Exercise 14: Writing of “The Instrument”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
c. Validation of Instrument
Suggestions, corrections, and refinement of the draft must
be explained thoroughly. The different persons involved
in the correction and refinement must be mentioned.
After it is refined, testing the validity and reliability must
be done. For validity, experts in line of the field of study
must be requested to go over the instrument. For
reliability, the researcher must use either test-retest
method.
Types of Validity
Statistical Conclusion Validity is concerned with
conclusions and results drawn from statistical analysis
procedures.
Construct Validity asks if the conceptual and operational
definitions of the variables are congruent? In other words,
are they measuring what they think they are measuring?
External Validity asks if the study results can be applied
to anyone other than the study sample. Application
beyond the study sample is called generalizability.
"Findings can be said to be externally invalid because
[they] cannot be extended or applied to contexts outside
those in which the research took place" (Seliger &
Shohamy 1995).
Internal Validity is very similar to design validity. Are the
findings reflective of reality (what the researchers are
studying), or are the findings the result of uncontrolled
extraneous variables?
"Findings can be said to be internally invalid because they
may have been affected by factors other than those
thought to have caused them, or because the interpretation
of the data by the researcher is not clearly supportable"
(Seliger & Shohamy 1995).
Exercise 15: Writing of “Validation of Instruments”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
4. Data Gathering Procedure
The researcher proceeds to ask permission and approval
from the head of the institution/ agency where the
research/ respondents are employed.
The date of the administration of the instrument, the
retrieval and the return must be fully discussed/ stated.
Exercise 16: Writing of “Data Gathering Procedure”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
5. Treatment of Data
The statistical tools used to answer the specific problem
posited in chapter I must be clearly described and the
formula must be illustrated and explained.
Helpful in communicating your precise intentions to the
reader, and it helps you and the reader to evaluate these
intentions.
Exercise 17: Writing of “Statistical Treatment of Data”
Presentation & Critiquing
Re-writing
Chapter 4
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF
DATA
This chapter presents the elements and concepts of presenting,
analyzing and interpreting data to answer the specific problems
posited in the chapter one of the study.
1. Presentation of Data
Begin your results section with a general statement that
means something to the reader.
The narrative portion of the section should stand on its own
tables, charts and other illustrations should only verify or
elaborate points made in the text.
Tell the results in words, augmented with as few numbers
as possible, and refer the interested reader to the more
detailed presentation in the tables and charts.
If you choose to present your results by writing "the results
are summarized in Table 1", you should guide your reader
through the table.
Highlight the trend, range of values and other interesting
aspects. Do not leave the reader to sort out the figures and
decide what they mean.
2. Preparing Graphs, Tables, Figures
When preparing the graph, table or figure, you should
consider the following points:
 Number the table/figure/graph and provide a title.
 Table headings: Keep brief and separate from other parts
of text with solid line.
Body: Be selective in what you present and don’t be
redundant.
 Present information in its most meaningful and
appropriate form.
Legend: the key to symbols - place within the figure.
 Entire table excluding heading is enclosed by solid
horizontal lines
3. Data Analysis
a. Qualitative Analysis:
It is for social research; social analysis of the
phenomenon.
It is not based on precise measurement and quantitative
claims.
b. Quantitative Analysis:
uses data assigned with numerical value
uses descriptive and inferential statistics in describing the
phenomena or events.
4. Analysis and Interpretation
The discussion part should present the principles,
relationship and generalization shown by the results. The
results need to be compared and interpreted with those in
previously published works.
The presentation of Results and Discussion should follow
the sequence of the statement of the problem.
Chapter 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION
This chapter states the deduction from the findings.
It presents the significance of the study, and tells how the
situation described in the beginning of the thesis has
changed because of your research.
1. Summary of the Problem
This section includes the summary of the statement of the
problem, hypothesis, the research method/design, the
respondents, the instrument data gathering procedure and
the treatment of data.
2. Findings
This section summarizes the result based on chapter 4. If
there are only four specific problems/ questions stated in
chapter 1 and answered in chapter 4, there are four results
summarized in this section and no presentation of tables.
3. Conclusions
Conclusion should fit together with the findings of the
study. If there are four summarized results, there are four
conclusions.
4. Recommendations
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Recommendations are based on the conclusions. This is
arranged in accordance with the conclusions. In addition,
recommendation may include further research of the
study.
5. Bibliography
All references cited in the preceding sections of the thesis
have to be listed in this section. There are several methods
of citing references, but any style you choose should be
complete, accurate and consistent so that any reader could
easily locate the materials cited. This can be done by
arranging them in an alphabetical order.

6. Appendices
Should include original data, lengthy quotations or
description, and other relevant information that are not
readily available to the reader, for examples, request
letters, questionnaires, computer printouts, forms and
documents.
Each appendix should be identified using an alphabet, for
example, Appendix A, Appendix B and so on.
7. Curriculum Vitae
This section gives the biographical information of the
researcher. It may include all the necessary information
about the researcher/ author.

Prepared by: MARITES M. MERZA