Research Methods in IS (INSY-4134)

Chapter 1
Research Methodology: an Introduction
Chapter Objectives
By the end of this chapter students will be able to:
 Define the concept of research;
 Explain the difference between research and project
 Explain the purpose, significances of research
 Explain the attributes of a scientific research project
 Describe the difference between research methodologies
and research methods
1
1.1. Meaning of Research
Research has been defined in different ways.
 In an academic context, research is the activity of a diligent
and systematic inquiry or investigation in an area, with the
objective of discovering or revising facts, theories, applications
etc.
 The goal is to discover and disseminate new knowledge.

 Research is an organized and systematic way of finding

answers to questions or solving problems.
 Systematic: follows certain steps that are logical in order.

 Organized: there is a structure or method in doing research.

 It is a planned procedure, focused and limited to a specific scope.
 Finding Answers: is the end of all research. Whether it is the
answer to a hypothesis or even a simple question, research is
successful when we find answers. Sometimes the answer is
no, but it is still an answer.

2
Cont..
 Research questions
 state what you want to learn /study in research projects .

 normally start with a basic question that you want to.

 help to maintain the focus on the purpose of the project.

 are normally, at an initial stage, more general and open.

 become more refined and particularised as the project

progresses.
 Hence, the project is adapted to reflect an increased

understanding of the problem.

 Hypotheses
 statements of your tentative answers to these questions.

 propositions
 explicitly stated ideas about tentative answers as part of the

process of theorising and analysing data.

 they have the same function.

3
Cont…
 Questions: research is focused on relevant and important
questions. Without a question, it has no focus or purpose.
 Research is an academic activity of
 Search for knowledge

 Scientific investigation

 Research is a scientific and systematic search for

pertinent information on a specific topic.
 The systematic investigation into and study of materials

and sources in order to establish facts and reach new

conclusions.
Which of the following are Researches?
 developing a face recognition system
 I got mpeg decoding algorithm from my advisor, I learned
about mpeg decoding, I implemented it and it worked.
4
Cont…
 None of the above examples can be classified under the
name research. Why?
 Mind the difference
 Project vs research (MSc thesis or Doctorial Dissertaion)

 Research
 I took two existing mpeg decoders and some sample movies
 I studied the decoders qualitatively and measured them
quantitatively
 I concluded why one is better
 Why research:
 analysis + comparison = something new

 Research
 My advisor gave me this mpeg decoding algorithm
 I implemented it and measured it

5
Cont…
 I analyzed it and found a bottleneck
 I instrumented the code to prove the hypothesis
 I recommend and conclude…
 Research
 I was given an mpeg decoding implementation
 I identified its bottleneck as above
 I proposed an improvement
 I implemented the improvement
 I measured it again to prove/disprove I’m right
 I generalize and conclude…
Research ideas/ Problems
 Lots of research possibilities: E.g., Building a web site
 How do you distinguish this research from an undergraduate
writing a bunch of code (project)?
6
Cont…
 You must: make it novel. Something new or better than
previous such websites
 How? Make it:
 general: can be created and configured from parameters and
scripts; automatically testable and demo-able
 a software engineering exercise in portability, robustness,
performance, interface design,
 a comparison between competing implementation technologies
(different languages, databases, OS environments)…
 So, a research is advance state of art and tell people
something new; Not necessarily that much more work
 Just need to “go the extra mile”: explore, analyze, generalize…
 OK to get a negative result: “My idea didn’t work, and here’s
why…”

7
Cont…
 Research = Analysis + Synthesis + Hypothesis
= combination of work done before and new insights
= Literature survey + understanding + innovation
 Research often makes use of various sources of Knowledge
Intuitive: when coming up with an initial idea for

research.
Authoritative: when reviewing professional literature.

Logical: when reasoning from findings to conclusions

Empirical: when engaging in procedures that lead to

these findings.

8
1.2. Research vs. Project
 A research usually requires getting familiar with a particular
theory and/or application, often so specialized and/or recent, that
you’ve to read journals and conference papers.
 to confirm, clarify, or discover new aspects of a subject or topic.
 a project is based on things already learned in coursework or
slightly beyond.
 The decision on research topic attempts to advance the state
of the art.
 A thesis work is either novel (in some way) or improved (to some degree).
A PhD must be really novel and/or greatly improved .
 Establishing improvement often involves running tests against
recognized benchmarks, carefully collecting performance data, and
doing meaningful statistical analysis.
 A project doesn't have to have any novelty at all, and publication
expectations are low.

9
Cont…
 A project is done more for the individual's learning experience
and it stands on its own.
 A thesis places itself in a research continuum by looking back
and around at "related work", and also ahead to "future work".
 In a research dead ends may be encountered, necessitating
redirection or restarts.
 A project, on the other hand, ends when the student's time runs
out, and thus the work is better able to be scheduled.
 A research requires a high-quality writeup (MSc "thesis", PhD
"dissertation") for future reference, and usually there is no
demo.
 But a project probably requires a demo and a report to
document the system, which is not as regimented as research &
has light or no expectations of publication.

10
1.3. Major Purposes of Research
 Broadly defined, a research can be undertaken for
two different purposes:
1. To solve a currently existing problem (applied
research)

2. To contribute to the general body of knowledge

in a particular area of interest (basic/fundamental
research)

11
1.4. Objectives of Research
 to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures.
 to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been

discovered as yet.
Broad groupings of research objectives :
 Descriptive research: to portray accurately the characteristics of

a particular individual, situation or a group.

 Exploratory research: to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or

to achieve new insights into it.

 Hypothesis-testing research: to test a hypothesis of a causal

relationship between variables.

 Diagnostic research: to determine the frequency with which

something occurs or with which it is associated with something

else.

12
1.5. Motivation in a Research
 The possible motives may be either one or more of the
following:
 Desire to get a research degree along with its

consequential benefits;
 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved

problems
 Desire to design appropriate policies

 Desire to contribute to the existing stock of knowledge

 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

 Desire to be of service to society;

 Directives of the government

 Desire to get respectability

 Curiosity about new things,

 Desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking

and awakening, etc.

13
1.6. Types of Research
Based on Purpose
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical:
 Descriptive research:
 portrays accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,

situation or a group.
 includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries.

 the researcher has no control over the variables; s/he can only

report what has happened or describe what is happening at

present.
 Quantitative techniques are most often used to collect, analyze

and summarize data.

 Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive

studies to measure items such as

 Frequency of shopping, sales by income levels

 Preferences of people, Income profile of customers

 Pattern of expenditure

14
Cont…
 Analytical research:
 the researcher has to use facts or information already available,
and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
 often extends the descriptive approach to suggest or explain
why or how something is happening.
 E.g. Why do females fail to actively participate in politics?
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental (to Basic or Pure):
 Applied (Action) research
 aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a

society or an industrial/business organization.

 Examples:
 Developing a SW that convert word files into database format,
 Innovating new way in doing payroll processing by a computer,
 Developing a program that copy's files from a computer to a mobile
phone …

15
Cont…
 Pure research is basically concerned with the formulation a theory,
or a contribution to the existing body of scientific knowledge. The
major aims of basic research include:
 Obtaining and using empirical data to formulate, or expand, or

evaluate theory; and

 Discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge.

(Given the filed that you are in, your research is expected to be more of applied)
Based on Approach and Method:
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
 Quantitative Research

 is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of

quantity/measurement of amount.
 emphasize on collecting and analyzing numerical data.

E.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a
particular attitude?

16
Cont…
 Qualitative research: is concerned with phenomenon relating
to or involving quality or kind. E.g., motivation, opinion research
NB: (your research can follow both or either)
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical:
 Conceptual research: related to some abstract idea(s) or

theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to

develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
 Empirical research
 is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which

are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.

 It is thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over

the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of

one of them to study its effects.
(As a masters & phd work, your research is expected to be more of
empirical)

17
Cont…
(v) Some Other Types of Research:
 Based on the time required to accomplish research:
 one-time research: a research confined to a single time-

period
 longitudinal research is carried on over several time-periods.

 Based on the environment where research is carried out:

 field-setting research
 laboratory research
 simulation research
Clinical or Diagnostic research: follow case-study methods or
indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such
studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that
interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data
gathering devices.

18
Cont…
 Exploratory or Formalized:
 Exploratory study aims to look for patterns, hypotheses or

ideas that can be tested and will form the basis for further
research.
 It is conducted in the following situation:

 when few or no previous studies exist.

 to determine priorities for further research;
 to gather data about the practical problems of carrying

out research on particular conjectural statements;

 to increase the researcher’s interest in the problem;
 to explain basic concepts;

 whereas formalized research studies are those with

substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be

tested.

19
Cont…
 Conclusion-oriented or Decision-oriented.
 In conclusion-oriented research, a researcher is free to

pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as s/he proceeds

and is prepared to conceptualize as s/he wishes.
 Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a

decision maker and the researcher is not free to embark

upon research according to his/her own inclination.
 E.g., operations research

 Historical research:
 utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to

study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy

of persons and groups at any remote point of time.

20
1.6. Significance of Research
 Research is the fountain of knowledge and an important
source for providing guidelines for solving different
business, governmental and social problems.
 Therefore,
 To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the

generalizations of new theories;

 To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the

outlet for new ideas and insights;

 To those students who are to write a thesis, it may mean

a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social

structure;
 To professionals in research methodology, it is a source of

livelihood;
21
Cont…
 To literary men and women, research may mean the
development of new styles and creative work.
 Increased amount of research make progress possible.
 Research inculcates scientific thinking and promotes the
development of logical habits of thinking and organization.
 Complexity in business and government is increasing
 For instance to provide guidelines for solving different
problems (eg. optimum resource allocation)
 There is more information and knowledge to understand
the world than before
 Multidisciplinary professions have become common
 Research is necessary in allocation of resources.

22
1.7. Research Process
 Research is a procedure by which we attempt to find
systematically, and with the support of demonstrable fact, the
answer to a question or the resolution of a problem.
The Research Process involves the following:
 Step 1- Problem- Selection (title) & formulation

 Step 2- Literature review

 Step 3- Development of objectives & working

hypotheses
 Step 4- Research design

 Research Execution

 Step 4- Data Collection

 Step 5- Data Analysis (Testing hypotheses if any)

 Step 6- Interpretation & Generalization

 Step 7- Preparation & writing of the report.

23
Fig. 1. Research Process

NOTE: The above steps are not

exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive,
but a series of closely related,
continuously overlapping and
interdependent nonlinear steps/
actions.
24
Cont…
 The research process follows a cycle and begins simply and follows
logical, developmental steps.
 A questioning mind observes a particular situation and asks,

Why? What caused that? How come?

 One question becomes formally stated as a problem.

 The problem is divided into several simpler, more specific sub-

problems.
 Preliminary data are gathered that appear to bear on the

problem.
 The data seem to point to a tentative solution of the problem. A

guess is made; a hypothesis or guiding question is formed.

 Data are collected, processed, and interpreted.

 A discovery is made; a conclusion is reached.

25
Cont…
 The tentative hypothesis is either supported by the data or is not
supported; the question is either answered (partially or completely)
or not answered.
 The cycle is complete.

This is the format of all research.

 Different academic disciplines merely use different routes to arrive
at the same destination.
 Circle is, however, deceptive.
 Accurately helix or spiral.
 One comes across additional problems.

 Research begets research.

26
1.8. Research Methods Vs. Methodology
 Research method refers to a particular technique or tool
that the researchers use in performing research operations.
Three major groups of methods:
 Data collection methods such as questionnaire, interview,

participant observations, surveys, etc..

 Data Analysis tools/ techniques which are used for

establishing relationships between the data and the

unknowns; e.g. data analysis software
 Evaluation methods/ techniques which are used to

evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.

 Research methodology: is the entire approach to research.
 It studies the various steps that are generally adopted by a

researcher to systematically and scientifically solve the

problem, along with the logic behind them.

27
Cont…
 research methods + the logic behind the methods
(explanation on why a particular method is used instead
of others).
 It is concerned with the following main issues:
 why a research study has been undertaken

 how the research problem has been defined

 in what way and why the hypothesis has been

formulated
 what data have been collected, and why and Where;

what particular method has been adopted,

 why a particular data analyzing technique has been

used, etc.

28
1.9. Research and Scientific Method
 Research is knowledge acquisition gained through
 Reasoning, intuition,….

 but most importantly through the use of appropriate

methods - the Scientific Method

 The scientific method of knowing is the scientific research,
and its goal is the discovery of regularities of nature and
their representation in theories from which predictions can
be made.
 It attempts to achieve this by experimentation, observation,
logical arguments from accepted postulates and a
combination of these three in varying proportions.
 Experimentation is done to test hypotheses and to discover
new relationships, if any, among variables.

29
Cont…
 Scientific methods:
 find general rules,

 collect objective evidences,

 make testable statements,

 adopt a sceptical attitude about all claims,

 are creative, public, and productive.

 It should be noted that, apart from its importance in

knowing the world, the scientific method of knowing has

some limitations.
 The scientific method cannot answer all questions

 Application of the scientific method can never capture the full

richness of the individual and the environment

 The measurement devices always have some degree of error.

30
1.10. Criteria of Good Research
Scientific research should be:
Systematic: follows certain steps that are logical in order.
Objective and logical: the procedures and the methods

employed and the conclusion drawn in a research must be based

on the rules of logical reasoning, and free from personal bias or
prejudice.
Empirical: any conclusion drawn are based upon hard

evidence gathered from information collected from real life

experiences or observations.
Valid and verifiable: whatever you conclude on the basis of

your findings is correct & can be verified by you & others.

Replicable: allows research results to be verified by replicating

the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

31
Elements of the scientific Method
 The Empirical Approach
 is an evidence-based approach that relies on direct observation and
experimentation in the acquisition of new knowledge.
 Observations:
 being aware of the world around us to get ideas for research and making
careful and accurate measurements.
 E.g., study the effects of exercise on cholesterol levels:

 E.g., to observe the length of time that elapses between lightning and

thunder – use a stopwatch or similar measurement device Rather than

simply trying to “guesstimate”.
 operational definition: of key concepts and terms in the context of research

studies; to make sure that everyone is referring to the same thing; ensures that the
researcher’s study can be replicated by other researchers.
 Does exercise refer to jogging, weight lifting, swimming, jumping rope, or all of

the above?
 running three times per week for 30 minutes each time

32
Cont…
Questions

 translating that research idea into an answerable question.
 formulate a research question that can be answered through available

scientific methods and procedures.

 Whether exercising reduces cholesterol levels?

 Hypotheses
 an educated and testable—guess about the answer to a research question.
 largely dependent on the type of research design being used.

 a prediction, typically phrased as “if-then” statements.

 E.g., “if people exercise for 30 minutes per day at least three days per

week, then their cholesterol levels will be reduced.”

 then tested by gathering and analyzing data -the hypotheses can either be

supported or refuted (falsified).

33
Cont…
 Two types of hypotheses:
 Null hypothesis: always predicts that there will be no differences between the
groups being studied. E.g., the exercise group and the no-exercise group will
not differ significantly on levels of cholesterol.
 Alternate hypothesis: predicts that there will be a difference between the

groups. E.g., the two groups will differ significantly on cholesterol levels.
 Experiments
 actually conducting the experiment (or research study) that would
attempt to address that question.
 E.g., in investigating the effects of exercise on levels of cholesterol, the

researcher would design and conduct a study

 collect data on the cholesterol levels of the study participants by using an
accurate and reliable measurement device.
 Then, the researcher would compare the cholesterol levels of the two groups

to see if exercise had any effects.

34
Cont…
collect data on the cholesterol levels of the study participants by using an accurate and reliable measurement


device.
 Analyses
 Involves analyzing the data, which generally calls for the use of statistical techniques.
 depends on the design of the study, the type of data being gathered, and the questions being asked.

 whether the null hypothesis should be rejected.

 there is a difference between the groups.

 the phenomenon being studied (e.g., exercise, medication) had some effect.

 two choices WRT the null hypothesis: either rejected or not rejected, but it can never be accepted. If we
reject the null hypothesis,
 we are concluding that there is a significant difference between the

 groups. If, however, we do not reject the null hypothesis, then we are concluding that we were unable to

detect a difference between the groups.

 To be clear, it does not mean that there is no difference between the two groups. There may in actuality

have been a significant difference between the two groups, but we were unable to detect that difference
in our study.
 The decision of whether to reject the null hypothesis is based on the results of statistical analyses, and

there are two types of errors that researchers must be careful to avoid when making this decision—Type
I errors and Type II errors.
 A Type I error occurs when a researcher concludes that there is a difference between the groups being

studied when, in fact, there is no difference. This is sometimes referred to as a “false positive.”

35
1.11. Expected Problems Encountered by
Researchers
 The lack of a scientific training in research methodology;
 Insufficient interaction between concerned bodies;
 Research studies overlapping one another;
 Inexistence of code of conduct for researchers;
 the difficulty of adequate and timely ICT know-how;
 Unsatisfactory Library services and functioning;
 Difficulty of timely availability of published data;
 Ethical concerns (both Animal & Human)
 Approval by authorities
 Lack of cooperation etc....

36
Research is both enjoyable and frustrating.
 Enjoyment comes from considering a specific problem or
subject field.
 Frustration comes from discovering that it is not possible to

do all that is intended to at the start of the investigation.

 The Research topic may be imposed on the student

 The Research must be completed within a given time period.

 Funds for Experiments, travel, postage and so on may be

limited or even non -existent.

 The results of the research must be presented in a specified

manner.
 The student may possibly have to relate to an academic

supervisor who is not interested

37
1.1. Sources of Knowledge
 approaches to knowing the world: Everyday Experience and Science.
1.1 Everyday Experience as Sources of Knowledge
 sensory knowledge: get access to new information through

our senses.
 Do you think your senses provide a perfect means of

observation?
 Does the sun really move across the sky?

 The Method of Tenacity: acceptance of traditional beliefs

and customs in which we have been socialized.

 E.g., Female Genital Cutting (FGC) is an accepted practice.

 The Method of Authority: asking others whom we think

have a wealth of experience and knowledge.

 E.g., a Dr. may tell us that smoking affects our health.

 Is there a problem if we unquestioningly accept the knowledge

and expertise of others?

38
Cont…
 The a Priori Method / Deductive reasoning: using reason
and logic to draw new and specific conclusion (often logical
syllogism) from general knowledge, opinion, or belief.
 E.g., FGC is against the rights of females because it is the
removal of a body part without victims’ consent.
 Is there an a priori method without problems?
 Ethiopia has the best long-distance runners in the world.

Mossisa is an Ethiopian, therefore …

 Common Sense: based on our own practical experience.
 better than tenacity, authority, or reason
 help us deal with the routine daily life, but it may be limited or
misleading forming a wall and prevent us from understanding
new ideas.
 Exercise: Does the common sense method of knowing is devoid
of shortcomings?

39
Cont…
 What is the difference between common sense and science?
 Which one is more appropriate to apply common sense:
 knowing what will happen to the price of teff when the rainy
season fails, or knowing how bacteria will respond to a new
type of drug?
1.2 The Scientific Method as a Source of Knowledge
Science is a body of systematized knowledge where ideas are

evaluated and corrected objectively through observing by means

of our bodily senses or measuring devices –
science is thus a systematic and controlled extension of

common sense - and using reason to compare various

theoretical conceptualization based on experience – which
represents a direct application of the principles of logic.
This blend of direct sensory experience (or measurement) and

reason gives science a self-corrective nature.

40
Cont…
 rely on information that is verifiable through experience.
 it must be possible for different people in different places and at different
times using the same method to obtain comparable results.
 Science and common sense differ in terms of:
 the use of conceptual schemes and theoretical structures
 the notion of control
 the explanations of different observed phenomena
 The difference between common sense and science revolves around
the concepts systematic and controlled.
 Scientists systematically build theoretical structure, test them for
internal consistency, and subject aspects of them to empirical test.
 Theory is the ultimate aim of science. Science only deals with

testable ideas. .
 The scientific method of knowing is the scientific research, and its
goal is the discovery of regularities of nature and their representation
in theories from which predictions can be made.

41
Cont…
 The steps in the scientific method guide researchers in planning, conducting, and interpreting
research studies.
 Scientific research follows logical steps, which include:
 defining the problem

 making tentative explanations

 gathering information

 testing the validity of the hypothesis

 making conclusions as to whether the hypothesis can be accepted or rejected

 Scientific methods:
 find general rules,

 collect objective evidences,

 make testable statements,

 adopt a skeptical attitude about all claims,

 are creative,

 are public, and are productive.

 It should be noted that, apart from its importance in knowing the world, the scientific method of
knowing has some limitations.
 The scientific method cannot answer all questions

 Application of the scientific method can never capture the full richness of the individual and the

environment
 The measurement devices always have some degree of e

 Research is an attempt to search for truth.

42