edited by:
DAVIDA. PHILLIPS
Utilizing a Historical Perspective in the Teaching
of Chemistry
Joseph W. Kamsar
822 Derry Drive
Toms River. NJ 08753
ArnoldThackray of the National Center for the History of
Chemistry on the campus of the University of Pennsylvania
has said, "Ignoring the path to the present is not quite
human." Chemistry is part of our culture. Learning from the
past how our culture has influenced chemistry and how
chemistry has influenced history and peoples' thoughts can
he a basis for exploring how chemistry and present societal
issues and thoughts interrelate. If evaluation of thoughts
and ideas is a major critical thinking goal in education, this
can be a positive learning step in the educational process.
The study of chemistry can best flourish when the public
supports this endeavor. This occurs best in a free world, a
world that understands its past and can plan for its future.
Chemistry is a human enterprise and the history of chemis-
try and chemical thought integrated into a first- or second-
year course can best illustrate this. Not only are the chemists
and other scientists and mathematicians involved in this
human enterprise, but all people are part of the products of
chemistry in our democratic society. Present social, political,
and economic issues are nearly all related to chemistry and
other sciences.
The content of humanities and social sciences classes
must include the role of chemistry and other sciences in our
culture, in our daily lives, and in world affairs. Understand-
ing the cultural and philosophic times of the alchemists and
the early chemists can aid in understanding the develop-
ment of our civilization. In these present times of high tech-
(Continued on page 932,col. 1)
Joseph W. Karnsar is currently the science supervisor in the three
suburban Toms River (NJ) High Schools-East, Nanh, and South. A
farmer teacher of chemistry as well as physics and other sciences.
KamSar holds a BA end MA from Montclair State College (NJ) with an
additional year of graduate chemistry study at Western Reserve Uni-
versity (Ohio) and major graduate study in science curriculum at
Rutgers University (NJ).
Joe served as president of the New Jersey Science Teachers
Association (1985-1986) and is a recipient of their Fellows award. He
has received a major grant from the A.T.8T. Foundation to place New
Jersey chemistry and physics teachers in industrial research settings
during the summers of 1987 and 1988. A former education chairper-
son of his local ACS subsection. Kamsar serves on the Executive
Board of the N.J.-A.A.P.T. as well as other boards and associations
related to science and science education in New Jersey. Joe is also
active in the National Science Supervisors Association. Having served
two years an the National Science Teachers Association (N.S.T.A.)
Committee far Science Supervision followed by two years on the
Advisory Board at N.S.T.A.'s high schwl science periodical, The
Science Teacher(TST1. Joe now serves as chairperson of the Adviso-
ry Board for TST. He reviews manuscripts submitted for publication
and writes book and computer sottware reviews.
WabaSh College
Crawfordsville. IN 47933
PRUDENCEPHILLIPS
Crawfordsville Hlgh School
Crawfordsu~ile.IN 47933
History of Chemistry
George B. Kaulfrnan
California State University. Fresno
Fresno, CA 93740
Unfortunatelv, few chemists seem to have more than a
passing interest i n the history of chemistry, although the
relatively recent establishment of a Center for the History of
Chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania may indicate a
change is a t hand. Nevertheless, in contrast to the case in the
humanities, where the average student is expected to steep
him- or herself in the classics, the average chemistry gradu-
ate still has little knowledge of the history of his or her
chosen discipline. We take this situation for granted today,
yet this has not always been the case.
The German poet and dramatist, Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe, himself an amateur scientist, declared, "Die Ge-
schichte der Wissenschaft ist die Wissenschaft selbst" (The
history of science is science itself). Many of the founders of
chemistry were well acquainted with its history. The first
history oirhemistrv in the English language was written in
1830 and 1RX1 bv the Scottish chemist. Thomas 'I'homson.
an active practicing scientist ( I ) , and August Kekult., who
spent much time reading the classics of chemistry before
making any original discoveries of his own. Furthermore,
several founders of the American Chemical Societv were
very interested in the history of chemistry.
A lack of historical ~ e r s ~ e c t i can
v e result in a distorted
view of chemistry. In addition to its cognitive, factual as-
pects, chemistry is a process-a search for knowledge carried
out by struggling and committed practitioners, both success-
(Continued on page 932,bottom of col. 2)
George B. KauHman, Professor at Chemistry at California State
University. Fresno. has been at CSUF since 1956. He has taught
oenaral chemistrv. -
. inoraanic chemistrv. ihe historv of chemistrv. al-
cnomy. m ~ a l c i s m ,an0 Judalsm, an0 he teaches several nLndre0
~ t ~ w nper l s p a r . His Interest in the history of chemtstry was aroused
d ~ r i n gh ~ sunucrgraduate years at m e University of Pennsylvan a.
where a strong tradition in history was established by Edgar Fahs
Smith, who organized the ACS Division of the History of Chemistry.
Receiving his BA with honors in chemistry from the University of
Psnn~ylvaniain 1951 and his PhD from the University of Florida in
1956. Kauffman has been e research participant at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, an Instructor in Chemistry at the University of
Texas, and a research chemist for the Humble Oil and Refining Co. and
the General Electric Co. Long active in American Chemical Society
affairs, he was Chairman (1969-19701, Symposium Chairmen (1966,
1968, 1970). and Program Chairman (1967-1969) of the ACS Division
of the History of Chemistry. Northwest Tour Speaker (19711, and Editor
of the History of Chemistry Series. ACS Audio Courses (1975-1981).
Since 1973. 1980, 1982, 1985, and 1987, respectively. he has been
Contributing Editor of the Journal of College Science Teaching, The
Hexagon. Polyhedron. bdustrial Chemist, and the Journal of Chemical
Ed"cati0".
Kauffman is the author of 15 b w k s and more than 650 papers.
reviews, and encyclopedia articles on chemislry. history of science.
andchemical education, mwe than 150of which haveappeared in the
Journal of Chemical Education.
Volume 64 Number 11 November 1967 931
 (Continued from page 931, col. 1)
nology and scientific influence in our daily lives, what better
way to develop a healthy interest in chemistry and related
sciences by students normally "science shy"'? The way that
chemistry is taught affects how most of our students value
the subject. We can break down the differences between
scientists and nonscientists by utilizing a historical perspec-
tive in the teaching of chemistry.
The content of traditional chemistry courses has under-
eone manv chanees hv virtue of internal and external ores-
sures. he growch of the chemical industry during thepast
five decades has been ~henomenal.The curriculum reform
that gave us the CHEMS and CBA courses stressing the
disciplines and major themes of chemistry has been a factor.
The needs of a greater number of our population electing
chemistry courses as a prelude for college entrance has pro-
vided additional course objectives. The societal issues relat-
ing to acid rain, clean water, food additives, improved food
production, and valued synthetic products are concerns for
all students. The use of chemistry in understanding and
stndvine the new hioloev and medical technoloeies creates
additional goals. w h a t % often forgotten is thatchemistry,
that all science. is a human endeavor. Chemistrv in a histori-
cal perspective makes the course human to students; stu-
dents have a more open mind when they visualize people in
science. The future direct user of chemistry in a profession
(chemist, nurse, engineer, cook) as well as the person who
will come across chemistry in everyday life (buying gasoline,
washing clothes, utilizing paper products and plastics) and
public decision making (government, voting), all need to
understand the basic principles and applications of chemis-
try. We must provide this instruction.
We should he disappointed when we see astrology in our
. . taken so seriouslv" hv" so manv. Februarv 2nd
newsnaners
arrives each year with a ground hog as the feature story. The
more i m ~ o r t a nDrohlems
t of life. of human interactions, and
of political decision making are in great need of scientific
thinking. Our bright pupils can list many benefits derived
from our understanding of chemistry. They also can list the
societal orohlems related to chemistry. They often cannot
rome to terms with the decision-making processes. We learn
t).v understanding how others have rhot~ght,how others have
combined science with human feelings and have moved for-
ward.
In the development of the basic introductory chemistry of
molecules and of atoms we can review the lives and times of
chemists such as Frenchman Jacques Charles. His interest
in balloon flight helped lead to Charles's law. Englishman
Robert Boyle declined to take office as president of the
Royal Society, a great honor a t that time, because of his
religious objections to taking the oath of office. The Italian
Amadeo Avogadro's hypotheses were not generally accepted
until countryman Stanislao Cannizzaro was ahle to convince
others of their importance. Students learn how effective
communications based on logical thinking is so important in
all human endeavors.
We can go hack over 2,000 years t o study the thinking of
the Greeks Democritus and Leucippus who suggested the
atom. The life and times of the Frenchman Antoine Lavoi-
sier and the Englishman Joseph Priestly are intertwined
with the years of our Revolutionary War. This makes their
work more meaningful to our students.
Knowledge of the fact that Ernest Rutherford came to
England from his native New Zealand leads us to consider
'Snow, C. P. The Two Cultures: Anda SecondLook; New Ameri-
can Library: New York, 1964.
Conant, James B. Modern Science and Modern Man; Columbia
University: New York. 1952.
Conant. J. B., Ed. Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Scb
ence; Harvard University: Cambridge, MA, 1957.
932 Journal of Chemical Education
the contrihutions of the Asian students who have come to
America for the same purposes. Why have there been more
Nobel Prizes in science awarded to Rutherford's students
than to any other single group of people? Was there some-
thine in his life and in the lives of the others that caused
t h i s r ~ was
r it the times? Students will enjoy a short study
assienment of the lives of William Crookes. J . J. T h o m ~ s o n ,
and-~ohertMillikan. They could recite (or sing) poems and
songs these men sang- at their science societv meetings..
By learning that the early scientists who contributed to
our understandine of the atom came from manv different
countries ( ~ m i t rMendeleev-Russia,
r Niels B&- en-
mark. . . .). students learn how international cooperation
plawd a major role in the development of scientific hought.
The fact that the number of women is si~nificantlyl e s than
the men on lists of major contributors can create an interest
in encouraging women in science today. Why are things
changing now, however slowly to he sure? This will not
diminish the work of scientists such as Marie Sklodowska
Curie and Lise Meitner hut will mod students to studv the
contrihutions of women and minority background scientists
before and after the imnlementation of Affirmative Action
programs.
So much has been said about the needs for the nonscience-
oriented to understand chemistry and other sciences. The
historical oersoective will breathe life into the studv of
chemistry ior these students and bridge the gap of the-two
cultures as defined by C. P. Snow and elaborated on by so
many others. Snow tells us, "It is dangerous to have two
cultures which can't or don't communicate . . . ." James '
Bryant Conant, the American chemist and former president
of Harvard University, tells us that "Among the common-
sense ideas from which we cannot escape, even if we would, is
our belief in the reality of other p e ~ p l e . " ~
Students need to learn to think criticallv, to think cre-
atively. There is a major contribution to this-end that can he
made by students spending some time talking and thinking
about chemists as people. From the past came the examples;
into the present will come the analogies. Students do learn
from true scientific experiences. J. B. Conant believed that
case studies that explain
the experience of those whoonce participated in exciting events in
scientific history.. . can teach. The interplay of ideas of several
men. areuments about exoeriments and their inter~retationbe-
methods often employed stand out clearl~.~
Scientifically literate citizens are necessary to our society.
Students need to develop a personal philosophy based on
loeic. truth. and understandine. rather than one of suoersti-
t i i n and blind wishes. T o do th% students need to realize the
interrelationshios of science. societv as a whole. technoloev.
and each individual in our society. Time taken in chemistry
classroom for a hackaround in this area is time not wasted. I t
provides a "thinking floor" for future chemists to find their
place in society and, most importantly, creates interest and
thinking about the scientific endeavor for the majority of
pupils who will not become chemists, physicists, and the like
in the next generation.
(Continued from page 931, col. 2)
ful and unsuccessful, working in the context of their scientif-
ic, social, and political milieu, that is, an exciting human
activity.
Yet, except for a few historically oriented hooks such as
Leonard W. Fine's Chemistry Decoded ( Z ) , most textbooks
fail to make this obvious fact clear to the student. C. P. Snow
has focused much attention on the split between the practi-
tioners of the humanities and those of the sciences-the so-
called "two cultures" (3).By treating chemistry as a human
activity carried out by human beings in a context of other
human activities, the history of chemistry can serve as a
bridge across the chasm that splits these twin fields of hu-
man endeavor. It can also serve t o motivate those students
who are alienated by the impersonal, wholly rational, and
logical approach emphasized by most chemistry textbooks.
Regardless of what some textbooks may still imply, there
is no universally applicable scientific method-and, if there
were one, any self-respecting student should not he content
to follow i t mechanically like an automaton who can he
replaced a t will by another scientist without any noticeable
change. Inclusion of history can help t o combat this dehu-
manized view of science, which, unfortunately, many stu-
dents still have. In fact, some chemistry teachers have used
science to teach "human values" (4).
A senseof history can nlsogive the student a feeling for the
mowment, progress, and continuous change inherent in sci-
ence. In Bent's words, "Science is more a process than a
product" (5). Without some history, the student is apt to
regard the chemistry in his text and laboratory manual as a
finished product unchangingly etched in stone. With some
.
historv.. he comes to see that chemistrv is a dvnamic rather
than a static structure, with today's ~heoriesmerelybeing
the leadine edee " of a trail from the past that stretches indefi-
nitely into the future.
Inteeration of historv into the chemistry course also places
the nature of discover& in a truer persp&tive. By doing so,
students do not view these discoveries as isolated and com-
plrtrly independent events mented hy great mrn. For exam-
ple, a study of the origins of the periodic system made by
Hein7 Cassehnum and me disclusrd no fewer than six scien-
tists who might lay rlaim to this important discovery ( 6 ) .As
lhdt! -~~~~
~
.
has ernnhasized.."The urimarv farror in brineine- about
~~
scientific discovery is not necessity, or individual genius, but
the relentless uressure of accumulatine knowledee" (7). A
ronsidrrntion of historiral events ihouid also mnke the stu-
dent aware of the resistance of scientists thrmselves to new
discoveries, a theme pursued by Barber, Kuhn, and other
sociologists and historians of science (8).
Not too long ago, the scientist, like the god-king or chief-
tain of aprimitive tribe, was often considered to be in posses-
sion of h a n a or magic power, and consequently, like the
chieftain of old, he was often treated with great respect and
fawning obeisance. However, if the scientist allows himself
to be undeservedly deified, he may eventually suffer the fate
of his aboriginal predecessor. Though for a while he may
bask in adulation, sooner or later his admirers will realize
that he does not possess the powers that they ascribed to
him, and they will turn upon him in rage and disappoint-
ment and rend him as their ancient forbears did to their
unsuccessful witch doctors. This disenchantment with sci-
ence has already begun as science is blamed for problems
ranging from pollution to war. Morris Goran has even writ-
ten a hook entitled Science and Anti-Science (9),and the
stereotvprd image i t the scientist in our society must he very
had u,hen thesympathetic portrayal ofa scientist-oceanop-
i u motion~icture"Jaws"-is rare enouch
r a ~ h e~r o o n e r ~the - 11. Bailar. J. C.. Jr. InKauffmsn, G. B. Alfred Werner Founder o/CoordinalionChemis-
an event to be the occasion for an editorial by sociologist
Amitai Etzioni (10). . . A. iudicious inteeration of historv into
beginning chemistry courses can do much to counteract the
"bad nress" that science has been receiving lately.
~ c c o r d i nto~Bailar, a student
cannot really understand or appreciate the present position of
science unless he knows something of the slow and tortuous steps
Thus a student's knowledge and appreciation of history can
be(lirectl\.a~~licablr to hisown researchefforts. Asa casein
point, when kayleigh encountered discrepancies between
the densitv of atmospheric nitrogen and that of nitrogen
prepared from comp&nds, he sought suggestions from the
readers of the journal Nature (12). William Ramsay (13)
suggested that Rayleigh read Henry Cavendish's paper (14)
of 1785 on nitrogen, which more than a century earlier had
predicted the presence of an unknown gas in the atmo-
sphere. Together, in 1894, Ramsay and Rayleigh went on to
discover the first of the inert gases, argon, thereby uncover-
ing the existence of a completely unsuspected periodic group
of elements-and the rest. as thev . sav,
. is history.
'I'here are, oiroursr, many other advantage* that the his-
torv of chemistrs can offer to the student umishing to become
a sEientifica11~literate citizen: for example, encouragement
for the novice researcher who will view the great men of
science no longer as intellectual giants but as human beings
with human strengths and weaknesses similar to his own; a
badly needed liuk'oetween the sciences and the humanities
as the student learns that the creative scientist has much in
common with the creative artist: a better recomition of and
~ ~~
insight into his own rreati\.r abilities as he lrarns that intu-
ition as well as loeir is a leeitimate method of problem solv-
ing and that there are dyfferent types of re-
searchers; and an appreciation for the international charac-
ter of science as he learns that no country has amonopoly on
discovery.
Most of the goals that I have considered have been charac-
terized by vague words such as attitude, appreciation, iu-
sight, recognition and the like-often difficult to measure on
tests but certainly extremely important elements in aliberal
education. In fact, bits of history, judiciously introduced
into any chemistry course, will, like lecture demonstrations,
often be remembered by students long after they have for-
gotten the technical details of the course.
Hiswry is not absolutely necessary for the production of
whut Thomas Kuhn calls "normal" rcientists as opposed to
creative scientists who overturn the accepted paradigms and
inmtute new unrs (15). Indeed, there may he litrle practical
transfer of learning from a knowledge of history to prarriral
Iahoratory pruhlems, yet the edurstion of a chemist without
some inclusion of history remains somehow unliatislactory
and incomplete. As Aaron Ihde once told me,
Whik it is possible 1,) train a rhemirol icrhnol~,#isl without
giviux him a knc,wledgcufthchistory ofchcmistry,it is difficult to
c,durolr, n c r r o r i r ~rhrrnirt u,irho!u such kwwlrdge , l 6 , 171.
Llterature Cited
4. Galloway, G.L.J. Chem. Educ. 1977.54.84.
5. Rent, H. A. J. Cham. Educ 1917.54.462.
6. Carsebaum, H.: Ksuffman, G.B. Isis 1971,62,314.
10. ~t~i~~LA.Scienee 1976,191, 247.
t r y : Springer-Verlag: New Yark, 1966; p VII.
12. Rayleigh, Lord. Nature 1892,46,512.
Is. Tilden. W. A. Sir Wiliiom Ramav. K. C. R..P R. S..Memorids of. hisLife
. and Work
~ ~
~ a e h l s nLondon,
: 191R;p 2:;
14. Cauendish, H. Phil. Trans. Ray. Soc London 1786.75.372.
15. Kuhn. T. S. The Stmcture o/Scienfi/ie Reuolurions. 2nd ed.; University of Chicago:
Volume 64 Number 11 November 1987 933