History of the

Philippines (1521–
1898)

The history of the Philippines from 1521

to 1898, also known as the Spanish
colonial period, a period that spans
during the Captaincy General of the
Philippines located in the collection of
Islands in Southeast Asia that was
colonized by Spain known as 'Las Islas
Filipinas', once under New Spain until
Mexican independence which gave
Madrid direct control over the area. It
was also known as Spanish East Indies
to the colonialist. It started with the arrival
in 1521 of European explorer Ferdinand
Magellan sailing for Spain, which
heralded the period when the Philippines
was a colony of the Spanish Empire, and
ended with the outbreak of the Philippine
Revolution in 1898, which marked the
beginning of the American colonial era of
Philippine history.

Spanish expeditions and

colonization
File:Ferdinand Antonio Magellan
(Retouched).jpg
Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Philippines on
March 16, 1521. When European traders in search
for a new route to the Spice Islands, stumbled into
the Philippines.

Magellan

Although the archipelago may have been

visited before by the Portuguese (who
conquered Malacca City in 1511 and
reached Maluku Islands in 1512), the
earliest documented European
expedition to the Philippines was that led
by Ferdinand Magellan, in the service of
the king of Spain. The expedition first
sighted the mountains of Samar at dawn
on the 16th March 1521, making landfall
the following day at the small,
uninhabited island of Homonhon at the
mouth of the Leyte Gulf.[1] On Easter
Sunday, 31 March 1521, at Mazaua
(today believed to be Limasawa island in
Southern Leyte) as is stated in Antonio
Pigafetta's Primo Viaggio Intorno El
Mondo (First Voyage Around the World),
Magellan solemnly planted a cross on
the summit of a hill overlooking the sea
and claimed for the king of Spain
possession of the islands he had seen,
naming them Archipelago of Saint
Lazarus.[2]

Magellan conquered and sought

alliances among the natives beginning
with Datu Zula, the chieftain of Sugbu
(now Cebu), and took special pride in
converting them to Catholicism.
Magellan's expedition got involved in the
political rivalries between the Cebuano
natives and took part in a battle against
Lapu-lapu, chieftain of Mactan island
and a mortal enemy of Datu Zula. At
dawn on 27 April 1521, Magellan invaded
Mactan Island with 60 armed men and
1,000 Cebuano warriors, but had great
difficulty landing his men on the rocky
shore. Lapu-Lapu had an army of 1,500
on land. Magellan waded ashore with his
soldiers and attacked the Mactan
defenders, ordering Datu Zula and his
warriors to remain aboard the ships and
watch. Magellan seriously
underestimated Lapu-Lapu and his men,
and grossly outnumbered, Magellan and
14 of his soldiers were killed. The rest
managed to reboard the ships.
Old oil painting of Manila a walled city.

The battle left the expedition with too few

crewmen to man three ships, so they
abandoned the "Concepción". The
remaining ships - "Trinidad" and
"Victoria" – sailed to the Spice Islands in
present-day Indonesia. From there, the
expedition split into two groups. The
Trinidad, commanded by Gonzalo
Gómez de Espinoza tried to sail
eastward across the Pacific Ocean to the
Isthmus of Panama. Disease and
shipwreck disrupted Espinoza's voyage
and most of the crew died. Survivors of
the Trinidad returned to the Spice
Islands, where the Portuguese
imprisoned them. The Victoria continued
sailing westward, commanded by Juan
Sebastián Elcano, and managed to
return to Sanlúcar de Barrameda, Spain
in 1522. In 1529, Charles I of Spain
relinquished all claims to the Spice
Islands to Portugal in the treaty of
Zaragoza. However, the treaty did not
stop the colonization of the Philippine
archipelago from New Spain.[3]

After Magellan's voyage, subsequent

expeditions were dispatched to the
islands. Five expeditions were sent: that
of Loaisa (1525), Cabot (1526),
Saavedra (1527), Villalobos (1542), and
Legazpi (1564).[4] The Legazpi
expedition was the most successful as it
resulted in the discovery of the tornaviaje
or return trip to Mexico across the Pacific
by Andrés de Urdaneta.[5] This discovery
started the Manila galleon trade, which
lasted two and a half centuries.

Las Islas Filipinas was name after Philip II of Spain

by Ruy López de Villalobos
Conquest under Philip II

In 1543, Ruy López de Villalobos named

the islands of Leyte and Samar Las Islas
Filipinas after Philip II of Spain.[6] Philip II
became King of Spain on January 16,
1556, when his father, Charles I of Spain,
abdicated the Spanish throne. Philip was
in Brussels at the time and his return to
Spain was delayed until 1559 because of
European politics and wars in northern
Europe. Shortly after his return to Spain,
Philip ordered an expedition mounted to
the Spice Islands, stating that its purpose
was "to discover the islands to the west".
In reality its task was to conquer the
Philippines for Spain.[7]

On November 19 or 20, 1564 a Spanish

expedition of a mere 500 men led by
Miguel López de Legazpi departed Barra
de Navidad, New Spain, arriving off
Cebu on February 13, 1565, conquering
it despite Cebuano opposition.[8]:77

In 1569, Legazpi transferred to Panay

and founded a second settlement on the
bank of the Panay River. In 1570,
Legazpi sent his grandson, Juan de
Salcedo, who had arrived from Mexico in
1567, to Mindoro to punish the Muslim
Moro pirates who had been plundering
Panay villages. Salcedo also destroyed
forts on the islands of Ilin and Lubang,
respectively South and Northwest of
Mindoro.[8]:79

Pages of the Doctrina Christiana, an early Christian

book in Spanish and Tagalog. The book contained
Latin and baybayin suyat scripts. (1593)

In 1570, Martín de Goiti, having been

dispatched by Legazpi to Luzon,
conquered the Kingdom of Maynila (now
Manila), a puppet-state of the Sultanate
of Brunei.[8]:79 Legazpi then made
Maynila the capital of the Philippines and
simplified its spelling to Manila. His
expedition also renamed Luzon Nueva
Castilla. Legazpi became the country's
first governor-general. With time, Cebu's
importance fell as power shifted north to
Luzon. The archipelago was Spain's
outpost in the orient and Manila became
the capital of the entire Spanish East
Indies. The colony was administered
through the Viceroyalty of New Spain
(now Mexico) until 1821 when Mexico
achieved independence from Spain.
After 1821, the colony was governed
directly from Spain.

Miguel López de Legazpi

During most of the colonial period, the

Philippine economy depended on the
Galleon Trade which was inaugurated in
1565 between Manila and Acapulco,
Mexico. Trade between Spain and the
Philippines was via the Pacific Ocean to
Mexico (Manila to Acapulco), and then
across the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic
Ocean to Spain (Veracruz to Cádiz).
Manila became the most important
center of trade in Asia between the 17th
and 18th centuries. All sorts of products
from China, Japan, Brunei, the Moluccas
and even India were sent to Manila to be
sold for silver 8-Real coins which came
aboard the galleons from Acapulco.
These goods, including silk, porcelain,
spices, lacquerware and textile products
were then sent to Acapulco and from
there to other parts of New Spain, Peru
and Europe.
Spanish colonists

The European population in the

archipelago steadily grew although
natives remained the majority. During the
initial period of colonization, Manila was
settled by 1200 Spanish families.[9] In
Cebu City, at the Visayas, the settlement
received a total of 2,100 soldier-settlers
from New Spain (Mexico).[10] At the
immediate south of Manila, Mexicans
were present at Ermita[11] and at
Cavite[12] where they were stationed as
sentries. In addition, men conscripted
from Peru, were also sent to settle
Zamboanga City in Mindanao, to wage
war upon Muslim pirates.[13] There were
also communities of Spanish-Mestizos
that developed in Iloilo,[14] Negros[15] and
Vigan.[16] Interactions between native
Filipinos and immigrant Spaniards plus
Latin-Americans eventually caused the
formation of a new language,
Chavacano, a creole of Mexican
Spanish.They depended on the Galleon
Trade for a living. In the later years of the
18th century, Governor-General Basco
introduced economic reforms that gave
the colony its first significant internal
source income from the production of
tobacco and other agricultural exports. In
this later period, agriculture was finally
opened to the European population,
which before was reserved only for the
natives.

Tomb of Miguel López de Legazpi in San Agustin

Church (Manila) Intramuros

During Spain’s 333 year rule in the

Philippines, the colonists had to fight off
the Chinese pirates (who lay siege to
Manila, the most famous of which was
Limahong in 1574), Dutch forces,
Portuguese forces, and indigenous
revolts. Moros from western Mindanao
and the Sulu Archipelago also raided the
coastal Christian areas of Luzon and the
Visayas and occasionally captured men
and women to be sold as slaves.

Some Japanese ships visited the

Philippines in the 1570s in order to export
Japanese silver and import Philippine
gold. Later, increasing imports of silver
from New World sources resulted in
Japanese exports to the Philippines
shifting from silver to consumer goods.
In the 1580s, the Spanish traders were
troubled to some extent by Japanese
pirates, but peaceful trading relations
were established between the
Philippines and Japan by 1590.[17]
Japan's kampaku (regent), Toyotomi
Hideyoshi, demanded unsuccessfully on
several occasions that the Philippines
submit to Japan's suzerainty.[18]

On February 8, 1597, King Philip II, near

the end of his 42-year reign, issued a
Royal Cedula instructing Francisco de
Tello de Guzmán, then Governor-
General of the Philippines to fulfill the
laws of tributes and to provide for
restitution of ill-gotten taxes taken from
the natives. The decree was published in
Manila on August 5, 1598. King Philip
died on 13 September, just forty days
after the publication of the decree, but
his death was not known in the
Philippines until middle of 1599, by which
time a referendum by which the natives
would acknowledge Spanish rule was
underway. With the completion of the
Philippine referendum of 1599, Spain
could be said to have established
legitimate sovereignty over the
Philippines.[19]

Spanish control
Spanish Colonial Bureaucracy [20]
Level of Government Headed by Description

Civil and Spiritual Authority (through Royal

Monarch of Spain
Patronage)

Composed of 6 to 10 appointed royal

councilors
Spanish Empire
Governed all the Spanish colonies in the
Council of Indies
King’s name, and had legislative power

Served as the court of appeals for the

colonies

Viceroyalty of New
Spain (abolished
Viceroy of New
after Mexico gained Governed New Spain on the King’s behalf
Spain
independece in
1821)

Central Government Initially exercised executive (as Governor),

in Manila legislative, judicial (as President of the
Audiencia), military (as Captain General), and
ecclesiastical (as Vice Patron) powers

Captain General By 1821 or 1875, the office became Governor

General

Appointed by the King with the advice of the

council and probably the Viceroy prior to 1821

Balanced by the Audiencia

Archbishop of Had full spiritual authority over the army and

Manila navy as military Vicar General of the islands

Advised the Captain General, especially in

matters concerning the governance and
provisioning of the Church in the Philippines

Ecclesiastical governor of the islands’

suffragan dioceses, headed by bishops.
 Appointed dignitaries or the staff of a diocese,
if the captain general failed to do so

Functioned as the Supreme Court and

advised the Captain General

Initially composed of four judges (oidores), an

attorney-general (fiscal), and a constable,
Real Audiencia de with attached advocates for the accused, a
Manila defender of the naturales (“natives”), and
other minor officials; the number of oidores
and fiscales would be increased after

Took charge of government upon the death of

the governor up to the arrival of his successor

Local government

Provincia/Alcadia Bishops of
Mayor Suffragan Dioceses

Exercised executive and judiciary powers in

the province

Collected tribute

Alcalde Mayor (for Until the mid-19th century, he had the

Provinces) privilege to engage in trade (indulto de

comercio), which occasioned many abuses
against the local population

No provision was made restricting the alcalde

mayor to engage in trade

If a provincia was large, the alcalde mayor had

Corregidor (for a corregidor to administer over
Districts) corregimientos (provincial district)

Exercised executive and judiciary power

Junta Provincial Provincial council which assisted the alcalde

(1893-1898) mayor

Composed of a public prosecutor, finance

administrator, treasurer, vicars forane,
 provincial doctor, and four principles of the
capital elected by the capitanes municipales
of the province

Administered over a pueblo, assisted by other

pueblo officials

Position was initially restricted to the local

married men of the elite (principalia)
Gobernadorcillo
By 1768, the position became elective. Any
person elected acquired elite status, diluting
the political power given by the Spanish to the
hereditary datus the old principalia class.

Pueblo/Municipio Equivalent of the pre-Maura Law

gobernadorcillo
Capitan Municipal
(1893-1898) Head of the tribunal municipal

Elected by the residents of the municipio

Municipal council composed of the municipal

captain, the chief lieutenant, the lieutenant of
Tribunal Municipal
police, the lieutenant of fields and the lieutenant
(1893-1898)
of livestock, all of which were elected by the
residents of the municipio

Barangay Cabeza de Administered over a barangay of 40 to 50

Barangay families

Collected tribute in the barangay

Position was originally hereditary among the

local elites of the pre-colonial period

Position was made elective in 1786; the

gobernadorcillo and other cabezas chose a
name and presented it to the Governor
General for appointment to the position in a
specific barangay.

After three years of service, a cabeza was

qualified for election to the office of the
 gobernadorcillo.

Political system

Fort San Pedro was first of the many fortress to

protect the islands from the Invaders such as
Pirates and other Colonizers.

The Spanish quickly organized their new

colony according to their model. The first
task was the reduction, or relocation of
native inhabitants into settlements. The
earliest political system used during the
conquista period was the encomienda
system, which resembled the feudal
system in medieval Europe. The
conquistadores, friars and native nobles
were granted estates, in exchange for
their services to the King, and were given
the privilege to collect tribute from its
inhabitants. In return, the person granted
the encomienda, known as an
encomendero, was tasked to provide
military protection to the inhabitants,
justice and governance. In times of war,
the encomendero was duty bound to
provide soldiers for the King, in
particular, for the complete defense of
the colony from invaders such as the
Dutch, British and Chinese. The
encomienda system was abused by
encomenderos and by 1700 was largely
replaced by administrative provinces,
each headed by an alcalde mayor
(provincial governor)[21] The most
prominent feature of Spanish cities was
the plaza, a central area for town
activities such as the fiesta, and where
government buildings, the church, a
market area and other infrastructures
were located. Residential areas lay
around the plaza. During the conquista,
the first task of colonization was the
reduction, or relocation of the indigenous
population into settlements surrounding
the plaza.

National government

On the national level or social class, the

King of Spain, via his Council of the
Indies (Consejo de las Indias), governed
through his

Chinese settlers in the Philippines

representative in the Philippines, the
Governor-General of the Philippines
(Gobernador y Capitán General). With
the seat of power in Intramuros, Manila,
the Governor-General was given several
duties: head of the supreme court, the
Royal Audiencia of Manila; Commander-
in-chief of the army and navy, and the
economic planner of the country. All
executive power of the local government
stemmed from him and as regal patron,
he had the authority to supervise mission
work and oversee ecclesiastical
appointments. His yearly salary was
40,000 pesos. The Governor-General
was commonly a peninsular Spaniard, a
Spaniard born in Spain, to ensure loyalty
of the colony to the

Philippine map

crown or tiara.

Provincial government
On the local level, heading the pacified
provinces (alcaldia), was the provincial
governor (alcalde mayor). The
unpacified military zones
(corregimiento), such as Mariveles and
Mindoro, were headed by the
corregidores. City governments
(ayuntamientos), were also headed by
an alcalde mayor. Alcalde mayors and
corregidores exercised multiple
prerogatives as judge, inspector of
encomiendas, chief of police, tribute
collector, capitan-general of the
province and even vice-regal patron. His
annual salary ranged from P300 to
P2000 before 1847 and P1500 to P1600
after it. But this can be augmented
through the special privilege of "indulto
de commercio" where all people were
forced to do business with him. The
alcalde mayor was usually an Insulares
(Spaniard born in the Philippines). In the
19th century, the Peninsulares began to
displace the Insulares which resulted in
the political unrests of 1872, notably the
execution of GOMBURZA, Novales
Revolt and mutiny of the Cavite fort
under La Madrid.

Municipal government
The pueblo or town is headed by the
Gobernadorcillo or little governor.
Among his administrative duties were the
preparation of the tribute list (padron),
recruitment and distribution of men for
draft labor, communal public work and
military conscription (quinto), postal clerk
and judge in minor civil suits. He
intervened in all administrative cases
pertaining to his town: lands, justice,
finance and the municipal police. His
annual salary, however, was only P24
but he was exempted from taxation. Any
native or Chinese mestizo, 25 years old,
literate in oral or written
Any member of the Principalía, who
speaks or who has knowledge of the
Spanish language and has been a
Cabeza de Barangay of 4 years can be a
Gobernadorcillo. Among those
prominent is Emilio Aguinaldo, a chinese
mestizo,[22] and who was the
Gobernadorcillo of Cavite El Viejo (now
Kawit). The officials of the pueblo were
taken from the Principalía, the noble
class of pre-colonial origin. Their names
are survived by prominent families in
contemporary Philippine society such as
Duremdes, Lindo, Tupas, Gatmaitan,
Liwanag, Mallillin, Pangilinan,
Panganiban, Balderas, and Agbayani,
Apalisok, Aguinaldo to name a few.

Barrio government

Every barangay was further divided into

"barrios", and the barrio government
(village or district) rested on the barrio
administrator (cabeza de barangay). He
was responsible for peace and order and
recruited men for
Old view of a street in Cebu

communal public works. Cabezas should

be literate in Spanish and have good
moral character and property. Cabezas
who served for 25 years were exempted
from forced labor.

In addition, this is where the sentiment

heard as, "Mi Barrio", first came from.

The Residencia and the Visita

To check the abuse of power of royal

officials, two ancient castilian institutions
were brought to the Philippines. The
Residencia, dating back to the 5th
century and the Visita, which differed
from the residencia in that it was
conducted clandestinely by a visitador-
general sent from Spain and might occur
anytime within the official’s term, without
any previous notice. Visitas may be
specific or general.

Maura law

The legal foundation for municipal

governments in the country was laid with
the promulgation of the Maura Law on
May 19, 1893. Named after its author,
Don Antonio Maura, the Spanish Minister
of Colonies at the time, the law
reorganized town governments in the
Philippines with the aim of making them
more effective and autonomous. This
law created the municipal organization
that was later adopted, revised, and
further strengthened by the American
and Filippino governments that
succeeded Spanish.

Economy
A sketch of a Manila galleon used during the
Manila-Acapulco Trade.

Malacañang Palace was the seat of the colonial

government of the Philippines
Puerta de Santa Lucia gate is one of the gates of
the walled city (Intramuros), Manila

Manila-Acapulco galleon trade

The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade was

the main source of income for the colony
during its early years. Service was
inaugurated in 1565 and continued into
the early 19th century. The Galleon trade
brought silver from New Spain, which
was used to purchase Asian goods such
as silk from China, spices from the
Moluccas, lacquerware from Japan and
Philippine cotton textiles.[23] These
goods were then exported to New Spain
and ultimately Europe by way of Manila.
Thus, the Philippines earned its income
through the trade of the Manila-
Acapulco Galleon.

The trade was established and operated

primarily for the benefit of Spain and
Spaniards. While the trade did bring
some results which were beneficial to
the Philippines, most effects were
disadvantageous.[24] However, the trade
did result in cultural and commercial
exchanges between Asia and the
Americas that led to the introduction of
new crops and animals to the Philippines
such as tamarind, avocado, guava,
papaya, pineapple, horses and
carabao.[24] These gave the colony its
first real income. The trade lasted for
over two hundred years, and ceased in
1815 just before the secession of
American colonies from Spain.

Royal Society of Friends of the

Country

José de Basco y Vargas, following a

royal order to form a society of
intellectuals who can produce new,
useful ideas, formally established the
Spanish Royal Economic Society of
Friends of the Country, after the model
of the Royal Basque Society. Composed
of leading men in blocal and foreign
scholarships and training grants in
agriculture and established an academy
of design. It was also credited to the
carabao ban of 1782, the formation of
the silversmiths and gold beaters guild
and the construction of the first papermill
in the Philippines in 1825. It was
introduced in 1780, vanished temporarily
in 1787-1819, 1820–1822 and 1875-
1822 and ceased to exist in the middle of
the 1890s.

Royal Company of the Philippines

On March 10, 1785, King Charles III of

Spain confirmed the establishment of the
Royal Philippine Company with a 25-
year charter.[25] After revocated the
Royal Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas
that had a monopoly on Venezuelan
trade, the Basque-based company was
granted a monopoly on the importation
of Chinese and Indian goods into the
Philippines, as well as the shipping of the
goods directly to Spain via the Cape of
Good Hope. The Dutch and British
bitterly opposed them because they saw
the company as a direct attack on their
Asian trade. It also faced the hostility of
the traders of the Galleon trade (see
above) who saw it as competition. This
gradually resulted in the death of both
institutions: The Royal Philippine
Company in 1814 and the Galleon trade
in 1815.[26]

The first vessel of the Royal Philippine

Company to set sail was the "Nuestra
Señora de los Placeres" commanded by
the captain Juan Antonio Zabaleta.[27]
Taxation

Also there was the bandalâ (from the

Tagalog word mandalâ, a round stack of
rice stalks to be threshed), an annual
forced sale and requisitioning of goods
such as rice. Custom duties and income
tax were also collected. By 1884, the
tribute was replaced by the cedula
personal, wherein everyone over 18
were required to pay for personal
identification.[28] The local
gobernadorcillos were responsible for
collection of the tribute. Under the
cedula system taxpayers were
individually responsible to Spanish
authorities for payment of the tax, and
were subject to summary arrest for
failure to show a cedula receipt.[29]

Aside from paying a tribute, all male

Filipinos from 16 to 60 years old were
obliged to render forced labor called
“polo”. This labor lasted for 40 days a
year, later it was reduced to 15 days. It
took various forms such as the building
and repairing of roads and bridges,
construction of Public buildings and
churches, cutting timber in the forest,
working in shipyards and serving as
soldiers in military expeditions. People
who rendered the forced labor was
called “polistas”. He could be exempted
by paying the “falla” which is a sum of
money. The polista were according to
law, to be given a daily rice ration during
their working days which they often did
not receive.

Dutch attacks

Manila, capital of Spanish East Indies

The two merchant galleons—the Encarnacion and
Rosario--which were hastily converted to warships
to meet the superior Dutch armada of 18 vessels
during the battles of La Naval de Manila in 1646.
(From an artist's conception)

In 1646, a series of five naval actions

known as the Battles of La Naval de
Manila was fought between the forces of
Spain and the Dutch Republic, as part of
the Eighty Years' War. Although the
Spanish forces consisted of just two
Manila galleons and a galley with crews
composed mainly of Filipino volunteers,
against three separate Dutch squadrons,
totaling eighteen ships, the Dutch
squadrons were severely defeated in all
fronts by the Spanish-Filipino forces,
forcing the Dutch to abandon their plans
for an invasion of the Philippines.

On June 6, 1647, Dutch vessels were

sighted near Mariveles Island. In spite of
the preparations, the Spanish had only
one galleon (the San Diego) and two
galleys ready to engage the enemy. The
Dutch had twelve major vessels.
On June 12, the armada attacked the
Spanish port of Cavite. The battle lasted
eight hours, and the Spanish believed
they had done much damage to the
enemy flagship and the other vessels.
The Spanish ships were not badly
damaged and casualties were low.
However, nearly every roof in the
Spanish settlement was damaged by
cannon fire, which particularly
concentrated on the cathedral. On June
19, the armada was split, with six ships
sailing for the shipyard of Mindoro and
the
Maria Clara gown the Philippine national dress. was
made during the colonial era by the Filipinos.

other six remaining in Manila Bay. The

Dutch next attacked Pampanga, where
they captured the fortified monastery,
taking prisoners and executing almost
200 Filipino defenders. The governor
ordered solemn funeral rites for the dead
and payments to their widows and
orphans.[30][31][32]
There was an expedition the following
year that arrived in Jolo in July. The
Dutch had formed an alliance with an
anti-Spanish king, Salicala. The Spanish
garrison on the island was small, but
survived a Dutch bombardment. The
Dutch finally withdrew, and the Spanish
made peace with the Joloans, and then
also withdrew.[30][31][32]

There was also an unsuccessful attack

on Zamboanga in 1648. That year the
Dutch promised the natives of Mindanao
that they would return in 1649 with aid in
support of a revolt against the Spanish.
Several revolts did break out, the most
serious being in the village of Lindáo.
There most of the Spaniards were killed,
and the survivors were forced to flee in a
small river boat to Butuán. However,
Dutch aid did not materialize or have
objects to provide them.The authorities
from Manila issued a general pardon,
and many of the Filipinos in the
mountains surrendered. However, some
of those were hung or they were
enslaved.[30][31][32]

British invasion
In August 1759, Charles III ascended the
Spanish throne. At the time, Great Britain
and France were at war, in what was
later

Postern of Our Lady of Solitude through which

Governor General Simón de Anda y Salazar
escaped with most government papers and about
half the treasury.

called the Seven Years' War. France,

suffering a series of setbacks,
successfully negotiated a treaty with
Spain known as the Family Compact
which was signed on 15 August 1761. By
an ancillary secret convention, Spain
was committed to making preparations
for war against Britain.[33]

The early success at Manila did not

enable the British to control the
Philippines. Spanish-Filipino forces
(made up mostly of Filipinos) kept the
British confined to Manila. Nevertheless,
the British were confident of eventual
success after receiving the written
surrender of captured Catholic
Archbishop Rojo on 30 October 1762.[34]
The surrender was rejected as illegal by
Don Simón de Anda y Salazar, who
claimed the title of Governor-General
under the statutes of the Council of
Indies. He led Spanish-Filipino forces
that kept the British confined to Manila
and sabotaged or crushed British
fomented revolts. Anda intercepted and
redirected the Manila galleon trade to
prevent further captures by the British.
The failure of the British to consolidate
their position led to troop desertions and
a breakdown of command unity which
left the British forces paralysed and in an
increasingly precarious position.[35]
The Seven Years' War was ended by the
Peace of Paris signed on 10 February
1763. At the time of signing the treaty,
the signatories were not aware that the
Manila was under British occupation and
was being administered as a British
colony. Consequently, no specific
provision was made for the Philippines.
Instead they fell under the general
provision that all other lands not
otherwise provided for be returned to the
Spanish Crown.[36]

Resistance against Spanish

rule
Spanish rule of the Philippines was
constantly threatened by indigenous
rebellions and invasions from the Dutch,
Chinese, Japanese and British.

Town of Jaro, Iloilo, Philippines

The previously dominant groups resisted

Spanish rule, refusing to pay Spanish
taxes and rejecting Spanish excesses. All
were defeated by the Spanish and their
Filipino allies by 1597. In many areas, the
Spanish left indigenous groups to
administer their own affairs but under
Spanish overlordship.

Early resistance

The Resistance against Spain did not

immediately cease upon the conquest of
the Austronesian cities. After Rajah patis
of Cebu, random native nobles resisted
Spanish rule. The longest recorded
native rebellion was that of Francisco
Dagohoy which lasted a century.[37]
During the British occupation of Manila
(1762–1764), Diego Silang was
appointed by them as governor of Ilocos
and after his assassination by fellow
natives, his wife Gabriela continued to
lead the Ilocanos in the fight against
Spanish rule. Resistance against Spanish
rule was regional in character, based on
ethnolinguistic groups.[38]

Hispanization did not spread to the

mountainous center of northern Luzon,
nor to the inland communities of
Mindanao. The highlanders were more
able to resist the Spanish invaders than
the lowlanders.
The opening of the Philippines
to world trade

Old Photo of Manila's streets with Bahay na bato

edifices and kalesa, Filipino style of architecture
and transportation developed during the Spanish
era.

In Europe, the Industrial Revolution

spread from Great Britain during the
period known as the Victorian Age. The
industrialization of Europe created great
demands for raw materials from the
colonies, bringing with it investment and
wealth, although this was very unevenly
distributed. Governor-General Basco
had opened the Philippines to this trade.
Previously, the Philippines was seen as a
trading post for international trade but in
the nineteenth century it was developed
both as a source of raw materials and as
a market for manufactured goods. The
economy of the Philippines rose rapidly
and its local industries developed to
satisfy the rising demands of an
industrializing Europe. A small flow of
European immigrants came with the
opening of the Suez Canal, which cut the
travel time between Europe and the
Philippines by half. New ideas about
government and society, which the friars
and colonial authorities found
dangerous, quickly found their way into
the Philippines, notably through the
Freemasons, who along with others,
spread the ideals of the American,
French and other revolutions, including
Spanish liberalism.

Rise of Filipino nationalism

Tagalog Filipino mestizo, early 1800s. Original
caption: Métis indiens-espagnols. From Aventures
d'un Gentilhomme Breton aux iles Philippines by
Paul de la Gironiere, published in 1855.

The opening of Philippine trade to the world gave

rise to business and imposing edifices that made
Manila the 'Paris of Asia'. La Insular Cigar Factory is
one of the most popular.

The development of the Philippines as a

source of raw materials and as a market
for European manufactures created
much local wealth. Many Filipinos
prospered. Everyday Filipinos also
benefited from the new economy with
the rapid increase in demand for labor
and availability of business opportunities.
Some Europeans immigrated to the
Philippines to join the wealth wagon,
among them Jacobo Zobel, patriarch of
today's Zobel de Ayala family and
prominent figure in the rise of Filipino
nationalism. Their scions studied in the
best universities of Europe where they
learned the ideals of liberty from the
French and American Revolutions. The
new economy gave rise to a new middle
class in the Philippines, usually not ethnic
Filipinos.

Manila Cathedral

In the mid-19th century, the Suez Canal

was opened which made the Philippines
easier to reach from Spain. The small
increase of Peninsulares from the Iberian
Peninsula threatened the secularization
of the Philippine churches. In state
affairs, the Criollos, known locally as
Insulares (lit. "islanders"). were displaced
from government positions by the
Peninsulares, whom the native Insulares
regarded as foreigners. The Insulares
had become increasingly Filipino and
called themselves Los hijos del país (lit.
"sons of the country"). Among the early
proponents of Filipino nationalism were
the Insulares Padre Pedro Peláez,
archbishop of Manila, who fought for the
secularization of Philippine churches and
expulsion of the friars; Padre José
Burgos whose execution influenced the
national hero José Rizal; and Joaquín
Pardo de Tavera who fought for
retention of government positions by
natives, regardless of race. In retaliation
to the rise of Filipino nationalism, the
friars called the Indios (possibly referring
to Insulares and mestizos as well)
indolent and unfit for government and
church positions. In response, the
Insulares came out with Indios
agraviados, a manifesto defending the
Filipino against discriminatory remarks.
The tension between the Insulares and
Peninsulares erupted into the failed
revolts of Novales and the Cavite Mutiny
of 1872 which resulted to the deportation
of prominent Filipino nationalists to the
Marianas and Europe who would
continue the fight for liberty through the
Propaganda Movement. The Cavite
Mutiny implicated the priests Mariano
Gómez, José Burgos, and Jacinto
Zamora (see Gomburza) whose
executions would influence the
subversive activities of the next
generation of Filipino nationalists, José
Rizal, who then dedicated his novel, El
filibusterismo to these priests.
Colegio San Juan de Letran, Intramuros Manila (ca.
1880)

Rise of Spanish liberalism

After the Liberals won the Spanish

Revolution of 1868, Carlos María de la
Torre was sent to the Philippines to serve
as governor-general (1869–1871). He
was one of the most loved governors-
general in the Philippines because of the
reforms he implemented. At one time,
his supporters, including Padre Burgos
and Joaquín Pardo de Tavera,
serenaded him in front of the Malacañan
Palace. Following the Bourbon
Restoration in Spain and the removal of
the Liberals from power, de la Torre was
recalled and replaced by Governor-
General Izquierdo who vowed to rule
with an iron fist.

Freemasonry
José Rizal (Left) the Filipino national hero

Freemasonry had gained a generous

following in Europe and the Americas
during the 19th century and found its
way to the Philippines. The

Western World was quickly changing

and sought less political control from the
Roman Catholic Church.
The first Filipino Masonic lodge was
Revoluccion. It was established by
Graciano Lopez Jaena in Barcelona and
was recognized in April 1889. It did not
last long after he resigned from being its
worshipful master on November 29,
1889.

In December 1889, Marcelo H. del Pilar

established, with the help of Julio
Llorente, the Solidaridad in Madrid. Its
first worshipful master was Llorente. A
short time later, the Solidaridad grew.
Some its members included José Rizal,
Pedro Serrano Laktaw, Baldomero
Roxas, and Galicano Apacible.
In 1891, Del Pilar sent Laktaw to the
Philippines to establish a Masonic lodge.
Laktaw established on January 6, 1892,
the Nilad, the first Masonic lodge in the
Philippines. It is estimated that there
were 35 masonic lodges in the
Philippines in 1893 of which nine were in
Manila. The first Filipina freemason was
Rosario Villaruel. Trinidad and Josefa
Rizal, Marina Dizon, Romualda Lanuza,
Purificacion Leyva, and many others join
the masonic lodge.

Freemasonry was important during the

time of the Philippine Revolution. It
pushed the reform movement and
carried out the propaganda work. In the
Philippines, many of those who pushed
for a revolution were member of
freemasonry like Andrés Bonifacio. In
fact, the organization used by Bonifacio
in establishing the Katipunan was
derived from the Masonic society. It may
be said that joining masonry was one
activity that both the reformists and the
Katipuneros shared.

Illustrados, Rizal and

Katipunan
Filipino Ilustrados in Spain.

Katipuneros

The mass deportation of nationalists to

the Marianas and Europe in 1872 led to a
Filipino expatriate community of
reformers in Europe. The community
grew with the next generation of
Ilustrados studying in European
universities. They allied themselves with
Spanish liberals, notably Spanish senator
Miguel Morayta Sagrario, and founded
the newspaper La Solidaridad.

Among the reformers was José Rizal,

who wrote two novels while in Europe.
His novels were considered the most
influential of the Illustrados' writings
causing further unrest in the islands,
particularly the founding of the
Katipunan. A rivalry developed between
himself and Marcelo H. del Pilar for the
leadership of La Solidaridad and the
reform movement in Europe. Majority of
the expatriates supported the leadership
of del Pilar.

Andrés Bonifacio, Father of the Philippine

Revolution

Rizal then returned to the Philippines to

organize La Liga Filipina and bring the
reform movement to Philippine soil. He
was arrested just a few days after
founding the league. In 1892, Radical
members of the La Liga Filipina, which
included Bonifacio and Deodato
Arellano, founded the Kataastaasan
Kagalanggalang Katipunan ng mga Anak
ng Bayan (KKK), called simply the
Katipunan, which had the objective of
the Philippines seceding from the
Spanish Empire.

The Philippine Revolution

Emilio Aguinaldo, The first Philippine President

By 1896 the Katipunan had a

membership by the thousands. That
same year, the existence of the
Katipunan was discovered by the
colonial authorities. In late August
Katipuneros gathered in Caloocan and
declared the start of the revolution. The
event is now known as the Cry of
Balintawak or Cry of Pugad Lawin, due to
conflicting historical traditions and
official government positions.[39]

Andrés Bonifacio called for a general

offensive on Manila[40] and was
defeated in battle at the town of San
Juan del Monte. He regrouped his forces
and was able to briefly capture the towns
of Marikina, San Mateo and Montalban.
Spanish counterattacks drove him back
and he retreated to the mountains of
Balara and Morong and from there
engaged in guerrilla warfare.[41] By
August 30, the revolt had spread to eight
provinces. On that date, Governor-
General Ramon Blanco declared a state
of war in these provinces and placed
them under martial law. These were
Manila, Bulacan, Cavite, Pampanga,
Tarlac, Laguna, Batangas, and Nueva
Ecija. They would later be represented in
the eight rays of the sun in the Filipino
flag.[42] Emilio Aguinaldo and the
Katipuneros of Cavite were the most
successful of the rebels[43] and they
controlled most of their province by
September–October. They defended
their territories with trenches designed
by Edilberto Evangelista.[41]
Marcela Agoncillo (center), principal seamstress of
the first official flag of the Philippines.

Many of the educated ilustrado class

such as Antonio Luna and Apolinario
Mabini did not initially favor an armed
revolution. Rizal himself, whom the
rebels took inspiration from and had
consulted beforehand, disapproved of a
premature revolution. He was arrested,
tried and executed for treason, sedition
and conspiracy on December 30, 1896.
Before his arrest he had issued a
statement disavowing the revolution, but
in his swan song poem Mi último adiós
he wrote that dying in battle for the sake
of one's country was just as patriotic as
his own impending death.[44]

While the revolution spread throughout

the provinces, Aguinaldo's Katipuneros
declared the existence of an insurgent
government in October regardless of
Bonifacio's Katipunan,[45] which he had
already converted into an insurgent
government with him as president in
August.[46][47] Bonifacio was invited to
Cavite to mediate between Aguinaldo's
rebels, the Magdalo, and their rivals the
Magdiwang, both chapters of the
Katipunan. There he became embroiled
in discussions whether to replace the
Katipunan with an insurgent government
of the Cavite rebels' design. To this end,
the Tejeros Convention was convened,
where Aguinaldo was elected president
of the new insurgent government.
Bonifacio refused to recognize this and
he was executed for treason in May
1897.[48][49]

By December 1897, the revolution had

resulted to a stalemate between the
colonial government and rebels. Pedro
Paterno mediated between the two sides
for the signing of the Pact of Biak-na-
Bato. The conditions of the armistice
included the self-exile of Aguinaldo and
his officers in exchange for $800,000 or
40,104,392.82542 pesosto be paid by
the colonial government. Aguinaldo then
sailed to Hong Kong for self exile.

The Spanish–American War

The House of Emilio Aguinaldo is where the
proclamation of Philippine Independence from
Spain took place on June 12, 1898.

On April 25, 1898, the Spanish–

American War began. On May 1, 1898, in
the Battle of Manila Bay, the Asiatic
Squadron of the U.S. Navy, led by
Commodore George Dewey aboard the
USS Olympia, decisively defeated the
Spanish naval forces in the Philippines.
With the loss of its naval forces and of
control of Manila Bay, Spain lost the
ability to defend Manila and therefore the
Philippines.
On May 19, Emilio Aguinaldo returned to
the Philippines aboard a U.S. Navy ship
and on May 24 took command of Filipino
forces. Filipino forces had liberated
much of the country from the Spanish.
On June 12, 1898 Aguinaldo issued the
Philippine Declaration of Independence
declaring independence from Spain.
Filipino forces then laid siege to Manila,
as had American forces.

The Battle of Manila Bay

In August 1898, the Spanish governor-
general covertly agreed with American
commanders to surrender Manila to the
Americans following a mock battle. On
August 13, 1898, during the Battle of
Manila (1898), Americans took control of
the city. In December, 1898, the Treaty
of Paris (1898) was signed, ending the
Spanish–American War and selling the
Philippines to the United States for $20
million. With this treaty, Spanish rule in
the Philippines formally ended.

On January 23, 1899, Aguinaldo

established the First Philippine Republic
in Malolos.
On February 4, 1899, the Philippine–
American War began with the Battle of
Manila (1899) between Americans
forces and the nascent Philippine
Republic.

See also
Antonio de Morga
Governor-General of the Philippines
New Spain
Spanish East Indies
Captaincy General of the Philippines
British occupation of Manila
Philippine revolts against Spain
Miguel López de Legazpi
Martín de Goiti
Juan de Salcedo
Royal decree against slavery in the
Philippines
San Diego (ship)
Limahong
Lakandula
Rajah Sulayman
Gomburza
Chavacano
Principalía
José Rizal
Philippine Revolution
Philippine Revolutionary Army
Philippine Declaration of
Independence
First Philippine Republic
Ferdinand Blumentritt
History of the Philippines
Prehistory of the Philippines
History of the Philippines (Pre-Colonial
Era 900–1521)
History of the Philippines (American
Era 1898–1946)
History of the Philippines (Third
Republic 1946–65)
 History of the Philippines (Marcos Era
1965–86)
History of the Philippines
(Contemporary Era 1986–present)
List of sovereign state leaders in the
Philippines

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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related
to History of the Philippines (1521–
1898).

Shamanism, Catholicism and Gender

Relations in Colonial Philippines 1521-
1685 – Google Books
De las islas filipinas A historical
account written by a Spanish lawyer
who lived in the Philippines during the
19th century
Timeline of Philippine History: Spanish
colonization
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=History_of_the_Philippines_(1521–
1898)&oldid=849179422"

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