COURSEPACK IN EDUC. 111 - THE CHILD and ADOLESCENT LEARNERS and LEARNING PRINCIPLES

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Welcome Message
Hello everyone! Welcome to this module for EDUC.111(The Child and

Adolescent Learner and Learning principles). We are pleased to have you as
part of this course. This module will help you understand the nature of children
and adolescents as well as the principles that govern their learning. This further
aims to equip you with the necessary skills needed as you become a teacher
of these learners in the future. Enjoy learning!
Faculty Information:
Name :DR. NANCY B. GONZALES
Email : n.gonzalez@usep.edu.ph
Contact Number (BEEd Office) :084-218-0998 Local 507
Consultation Schedule :Friday 9:00-12:00 AM
Name : DR. FLORENCE H. GUERRA
Email : florence.guerra@usep.edu.ph
Contact Number (CEd Office) : 224 (Local) 09277996764(Personal)
Name : LOVELYN R. MANLANAT
Email : lrmanlanat@gmail.com
Contact Number (BSEd Office) :084-218-0998 Local 507
Name : ALEX LEONORA

Email : a.leonora@usep.edu.ph
Name :MARICEL A. PALOMATA

Email :m.palomata@usep.edu.ph
Getting help
For academic concerns : (College/Adviser - Contact details)
For administrative concerns : (College Dean - Contact details)
For UVE concerns : (KMD - Contact details)
For health and wellness concerns : (UAGC, HSD and OSAS - Contact details)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE
Cover page ………………………………… 1
Welcome Message ………………………………… 2
Table of Contents ………………………………… 3-4
USeP Vision, Mission and Goals …………………. 5
USeP Graduate Attributes ………………………… 6
USeP Core Values ……………………………….... 6
Course Overview ………………………………… 7
Course Assessment ………………………………. 8-17
Course Map ………………………………… 18
Module 1 Overview ………………………………… 19
The Lessons ………………………………… 20-49
Module 2 Overview ………………………………. 50
Lessons in Module 2………………………………. 51-104
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Worksheets ………………………………………… 273-278
References ……………………………… 279
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
VISION
Premier Research University in the ASEAN.
MISSION
USeP shall produce world-class graduates and relevant research and

extension through quality education and sustainable resource management.
GOALS
At the end of the plan period, the University of Southeastern Philippines

(USeP) aims to achieve five comprehensive and primary goals:
1. Recognized ASEAN Research University

2. ASEAN Competitive Graduates and Professionals
3. Vibrant Research Community
4. Proactive Research-based Economic Empowering
Extension Services
5. Capacity for Innovative Resource Generation
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INSTITUTIONAL GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES
LEADERSHIP SKILLS
Creates and inspires positive changes in the organization; exercises

responsibility with integrity and accountability in the practice of one’s profession
or vocation.
CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL THINKING SKILLS
Demonstrates creativity, innovativeness, and intellectual curiosity in optimizing

available resources to develop new knowledge, methods, processes, systems,
and value-added technologies.
SERVICE ORIENTED
Demonstrates concern for others, practices professional ethics, honesty, and

exemplifies socio-cultural, environmental concern, and sustainability.
LIFELONG LEARNING
Demonstrates enthusiasm and passion for continuous personal and

professional development.
PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE
Demonstrates proficiency and flexibility in the area of specialization and in

conveying information in accordance with global standards.
CORE VALUES OF THE UNIVERSITY
UNITY
STEWARDSHIP
EXCELLENCE
PROFESSIONALISM
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THE COURSE OVERVIEW
COURSE TITLE : EDUC. 111-The Child and Adolescent

Learners and Learning Principles
CREDIT : 3 units
SEMESTER : First Semester
TIME FRAME :
COURSE DESCRIPTION :
This course focuses on child and adolescent development with
emphasis on current research and theory on biological, linguistics, cognitive,
social and emotional dimensions of development of the learners and shall
include appropriate pedagogical principles applicable for each developmental
level.
COURSE OUTCOMES :
 Apply the standards of the pedagogies of learning and teaching
appropriate for each developmental level.
 Demonstrate understanding of supportive learning environments that

nurture and inspire learners at each developmental level.
 Demonstrate understanding of research-based knowledge in child and

adolescent and teaching and learning principle.
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COURSE ASSESSMENT
Learning Evidence and Measurement Rubrics
As evidence of attaining the above learning outcomes, the student has to do and submit the following:
Learning Evidence Description and other Details Course Outcomes it represents
Case Portfolio  You required to submit portfolio as
LE1 tangible outcomes or applications of
what you had taken in this course that
contains the following: Biographical
Case Analysis, graphic organizer, CO1, CO2, CO3
worksheets, library work, reports, library
work, Reflective essay and photo/video
documentations
.
Periodic Papers and  You are to make and submit periodic
LE2 Assignments papers which would include Library
Work with Print Media, Biographical CO1, CO2, CO3
Case Analysis, Video Vignette
Reflective essay, graphic organizer,
activities in the module and worksheets.
Biographical Case  . You are required to write a Biographical

LE3 Analysis /Report Case Analysis, you may research in the
library/on-line readings and discussed
with your instructor, to your
classmates/peers in order that ideas can
be exchanged to stimulate critical CO1, CO2, CO3
thinking and awareness of multiple
perspectives on pedagogies of learning
and teaching appropriate to
developmental level.
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Learning Evidence/Output to Assess: LE1 Case Portfolio
Equivalent Percentage = (Total Sore=/80) x 50+50
Area to Assess Unacceptable (1-4) Acceptable (5-9) Satisfactory (10-13) Expected (14-17) Beyond Expectation (18-20)
Organization Sloppy, poorly organized. Items Difficult to follow or locate some Neatly organized with consistent Satisfactorily organized with Well organized and clearly
(20) are loose, not in appropriate items. Few artifacts are clearly format. Most artifacts are clearly consistent format. Most artifacts tabbed. Artifacts clearly
section, or missing. Pages are not labeled. Pages are not in labeled. Pages are created in a are satisfactorily labeled. Pages labeled. Pages created in a
in professional format. Few, if any, professional format. Sloppy, poorly professional format. are created in a professional professional format.
artifacts are clearly labeled. organized. Items are loose. format.
Completeness of Content 6 or more elements missing or 4-5 key elements missing or “thin”; 2-3 key elements missing or “thin”; 1 key element is missing or All key elements (title page,
(20) “thin”; labels or sequence unclear. elements labeled somewhat clearly most or all elements clearly “thin”; most or all elements introduction, table of contents,
labeled. clearly labeled. individual/group presentation
output, activities, journals,
photo documentations,
references)
Quality of Evidence Portfolio elements for which a Portfolio elements for which a rubric Portfolio elements for which a Portfolio elements for which a Portfolio elements for which a
(20) rubric was provided conform to that was provided conform to that rubric rubric was provided conform to rubric was provided conform to rubric was provided conform to
rubric by 72-77%; few or no by 78-82%; some artifacts/ that rubric by 83-88%; more that rubric by 89-94%; most that rubric by 95-100%; all
artifacts clearly demonstrate the evidence clearly demonstrate the artifacts/ evidence clearly artifacts/ evidence clearly artifacts/evidence clearly
skills of their section. skills of the section in which they demonstrate the skills of the demonstrate the skills of the demonstrate the skills of the
are included. learning outcome section in which learning outcome section in learning outcome section in
they are included. which they are included. which they are included.
Mechanics & Spelling Text contains numerous Text contains several and/or major Text contains more and/or major Text is mostly free of major Text written in the portfolio is
(20) grammatical, spelling, logical, grammatical, spelling, logical, grammatical, spelling, logical, grammatical, spelling, logical, free of grammatical, spelling,
formatting, typing, or linking errors formatting, or typing errors. formatting, or typing errors. formatting, or typing errors. logical, formatting, or typing
that hinder comprehension/ errors.
neatness.
Total Score
9
Learning Evidence/Output to Assess: LE2: Periodic Papers and Assignments
Library Work
Clarity There are frequent lapses in clarity. There are minor, infrequent lapses There is more precise Mostly precise and unambiguous The language is clear and
(20) Concepts are either not discussed in clarity. Abstract concepts are unambiguous wording and clearer wording, mostly clear sentence expressive. The reader can create
or are presented inaccurately. explained fairly accurately. sentence structure. The language structure. The language is that a mental picture of the situation
is that clear and expressive. The clear and expressive. The reader being described. Abstract concepts
reader can somewhat create a often creates a mental picture of the are explained accurately.
mental picture of the situation being situation being described.
described.
Relevance The print media show poor thought The print media show some thought The print media show some thought The print media show more thought The print media show tremendous
(20) and effort. Most of the reflection is and effort. Student makes attempts and effort. The learning experience and effort. The learning experience thought and effort. The learning
irrelevant to student and/or unit to demonstrate relevance, but the being reflected upon is somewhat being reflected upon is usually experience being reflected upon is
learning goals. relevance is unclear in reference to relevant and meaningful to student relevant and meaningful to student relevant and meaningful to student
unit learning goals. and unit learning goals. and unit learning goals. and unit learning goals.
Analysis Student makes attempts at Student demonstrates attempts to The print media reflects student’s The print media reflects student’s The print media moves beyond
(20) applying the learning experience to analyze the experience but analysis attempts to analyze the experience attempts to analyze the experience simple description of the
and/or course concepts but fails to lacks depth. but reflects an analysis and little and reflects an analysis with more experience to an analysis of how
demonstrate depth of analysis. depth. depth. the experience contributed to
student understanding of the
course concepts.
Self-Criticism There is some attempt at self- The print media show ability of the The print media demonstrates The print media demonstrates The print media demonstrates
(20) criticism, but the self-reflection fails student to question their own ability of the student to question ability of the student to question ability of the student to question
to demonstrate a new awareness of biases, stereotypes, their own biases, stereotypes, their own biases, stereotypes, their own biases, stereotypes,
personal biases, etc. preconceptions. New modes of preconceptions. New modes of preconceptions. New modes of preconceptions, and/or
thinking are not evident. thinking are somewhat evident. thinking are usually t evident. assumptions and define new
modes of thinking as a result.
Total Score
10
Video Vignette Reflective Essay
Knowledge/Understanding Demonstrates limited Demonstrates some Demonstrates more Demonstrates considerable Demonstrates thorough
(20) understanding of the overall understanding of the overall understanding of the overall understanding of the overall understanding of the overall
theme and meaning of the video. theme and meaning of the video. theme and meaning of the video. theme and meaning of the video theme and meaning of the video.
Insights Critically analyzes specific themes Critically analyzes specific themes Critically analyzes specific themes Critically analyzes specific themes Critically analyzes specific
(20) with little effectiveness. Makes with some effectiveness. Makes with considerable effectiveness. with more considerable themes with great effectiveness
few connections between specific some connections between Makes good connections between effectiveness. Makes stronger Makes strongest connections
themes and personal specific themes and personal specific connections between specific between specific lyrics and
insights/experiences. insights/ experiences. themes and personal insights/ themes and personal personal insights/experiences.
experiences insights/experiences.
Relevance The reflections show poor thought The reflections show some The reflections show more The reflections show some The reflections show
(20) and effort. Most of the reflection is thought and effort. Student makes thought and effort. Student makes thought and effort. The learning tremendous thought and effort.
irrelevant to student and/or unit attempts to demonstrate attempts to demonstrate experience being reflected upon is The learning experience being
learning goals. relevance, but the relevance is relevance, but the relevance is somewhat relevant and reflected upon is relevant and
unclear in reference to unit clearer in reference to unit meaningful to student and unit meaningful to student and unit
learning goals. learning goals. learning goals. learning goals.
Total Score
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Reflection Paper
Equivalent Percentage=Final Score (/100) x50+50
Area to Assess Performance Standards

Beyond Expectation Expected Acceptable Below Standards
Clarity 21-25 16-20 11-15 6-10
The language is clear and expressive. Mostly precise and unambiguous Minor, infrequent lapses in clarity. There are frequent lapses in clarity.
The reader can create a mental picture of wording, mostly clear sentence structure. Abstract concepts are explained fairly Concepts are either not discussed or
the situation being described. Abstract The language is that clear and accurately. are presented inaccurately.
concepts are explained accurately. expressive. The reader can somewhat
create a mental picture of the situation
being described.
Relevance 26-30 21-25 16-20 11-15

The reflections show tremendous thought The reflections show some thought and The reflections show some thought The reflections show poor thought and
and effort. The learning experience being effort. The learning experience being and effort. Student makes attempts to effort. Most of the reflection is
reflected upon is relevant and meaningful reflected upon is somewhat relevant and demonstrate relevance, but the irrelevant to student and/or unit
to student and unit learning goals. meaningful to student and unit learning relevance is unclear in reference to learning goals.
goals. unit learning goals.
Analysis 21-25 16-20 11-15 6-10

The reflection moves beyond simple The reflection reflects student attempts to The reflection demonstrates student Student makes attempts at applying
description of the experience to an analyze the experience to student attempts to analyze the experience to the learning experience to student
analysis of how the experience understanding of self, but reflect an student understanding of self, but understanding of self, others, and/or
contributed to student understanding of analysis and little depth. analysis lacks depth. course concepts but fails to
self, others, and/or course concepts. demonstrate depth of analysis.
Self-Criticism 16-20 11-15 6-10 1-5

The reflection demonstrates ability of the The reflection demonstrates ability of the The reflection demonstrates ability of There is some attempt at self-criticism,
student to question their own biases, student to question their own biases, the student to question their own but the self-reflection fails to
stereotypes, preconceptions, and/or stereotypes, preconceptions. New mode biases, stereotypes, preconceptions. demonstrate a new awareness of
assumptions and define new modes of of thinking is somewhat evident. New modes of thinking not evident. personal biases, etc.
thinking as a result.
Final Score 100

General Comments
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Graphic Organizer
Areas to Assess Performance Standards

Acceptable Satisfactory Expected Distinguished
Summarization 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40
Very little effort was made to The information from the The information from the The information from the
summarize information. supplemental material was not well supplemental material was supplemental material was well
summarized and unclear. adequately summarized and summarized and easy to understand.
somewhat easy to understand.
Clear Organization 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30

Very little no organization, and the The graphic organizer poorly The graphic organizer was The graphic organizer was logically
5w's and 1H are not listed. arranged and provided insufficient adequately arranged and provided arranged and provided sufficient
detail.
detail. The 5w's and 1H are listed. some detail.
Visually Appealing 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30

Messy, or non-existent The graphic organizer did not use The graphic organizer used some The graphic organizer used graphics
organization elements. graphics and color and was graphics and color to make it and color to make it visually
unappealing. somewhat appealing. appealing.
Final Score
General Comments
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Background-introductory Background details are Introduction adequately Introduction creates interest. Introduction expressively There is a well-developed
and concluding part random, unclear collection explains the background, The case states the position. creates interest. The case introduction that grabs the
(20) of information. The case is but may lack detail. Case Conclusion usually mostly states the position. reader’s interest and continues
vague and unclear. states the topic, but key summarizes the topic. Conclusion usually to engage until the case’s
Conclusion is not effective elements are missing. summarizes the topic and concluding statement. The case
and does not summarize usually wraps up and the statement clearly states and re
main points. topic. stresses the experience and
importance of the case.
Described as well as the effect
on the writer.
Body Content/Knowledge One idea/main point is Two main points are Three main points relate to the Four main points relate to Well-developed main
(20) explained and/or poorly present, but lack details in case, but lack details. The the case, but some may lack points/topic sentences that
developed. The case tells; it describing the event. Little analysis shows events from details. The analysis usually relate directly to the case.
doesn’t show the event. descriptive language is the author’s point of view, but shows events from the Supporting examples are
Student does not have the used. Student is could not use more descriptive author’s point of view, but concrete and detailed. The
grasp of information; student uncomfortable with language. Student is at ease could use most descriptive analysis is developed with an
cannot answer questions information and is able to with expected answers to all language. Student is more effective point of view. Student
about subject. answer only rudimentary questions, but fails to at ease with expected demonstrates full knowledge
questions. elaborate. answers to all questions, but (more than required) by
fails to elaborate. answering all class questions
with explanations and
elaboration.
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Written Report
Organizational structure, Writing is not organized. The Organization is clear. Usual progression of ideas. Logical progression of Logical Progression of ideas
transitions and synthesis transitions between ideas are Transitions are present at Transitions are present ideas. Transitions are with a clear structure that
of the case unclear or non-existent. times, but there is very little throughout the essay, but less present throughout the enhances the case. Transitions
(20) Audience cannot understand variety. Audience has presentations of variety. essay, but lacks variety. are effective and vary
presentation because there is difficulty following Student presents information Student presents throughout the paragraph, not
no sequence of information. presentation because in logical sequence which information in more logical just in the topic sentences.
student jumps around. audience can follow. sequence which audience Student presents information in
more likely to follow. logical, interesting sequence
which audience can follow.
Mechanics Case presentation has Student's case presentation has

Case presentation has ten
(20) thirteen or more misspellings Case presentation has four one to three spelling errors
to twelve misspellings or Case presentation has seven
or grammatical errors. to six misspellings and/or and/or grammatical errors.
grammatical errors. to nine misspellings and/or
Student uses superfluous grammatical errors. Student's infographics explains
Student occasionally uses grammatical errors.
infographics or no and reinforces screen text and
info graphics that rarely Student's infographics relate to
infographics. case presentation.
support text and text and case presentation.
presentation.
Total Score
15
Area to Assess Unacceptable Acceptable Satisfactory Expected Beyond Expectation
(1-4) (5-9) (10-13) (14-17) (18-20)
Content dissemination The dissemination of the There are rudiments of The information is adequate The dissemination of the The content of the information
of what has been presenter does not provide information given but its and the discussion of the information is complete, logical, being disseminated and
discussed in the specific sequenced information of sequence is not yet clear. group is in correct sequence and very clear. presented is creative, highly
group or team what has been discussed by and almost clear. logical and exceeds the usual
(20) the group. expectations.
Presentation and skills The entire presentation is The presenter displays Presenter demonstrates The presentation shows the The presentation and skills of the
(verbal & non-verbal) being read from notes, does minimal skills and audience adequate skills in presentation ability of the presenter to hold presenter is very logical,
(20) not get the interest of the have difficulty in hearing and and the audience understands the interest of the audience in complete and gives ample
audience, and no skills are understanding the what is being presented. the topic. knowledge as well as interest to
displayed. presentation. the audience.
Engagement and The presenter does not A little interaction from the The audience interacts with Presenter and audience are Engagement and interaction with
interaction with and of establish rapport with the audience is elicited but the the presenter, so the actively engaged in the topic the audience is very dynamic and
the audience audience so no engagement rapport is minimal. engagement from both sides is and interaction is lively and presenter has logically and
(20) and interaction happen. established. interesting. clearly responded to them.
Total Score
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Oral Report
Grading System
The final grade in this course will be composed of the following items and their weights in the final grade computation:
Assessment Item Grade Source (Score or Rubric Grade) Percentage of Final Grade
AA1 Score 10%
AA2 Score 10%
LE1 Rubric 30%
LE2 Rubric and Score 20%
LE3 Rubric 30%
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Module Overview:
Welcome my dear students! We are going to explore a very interesting

topic about human development so with 14 learner principles that may
serve as your guide in determining appropriate pedagogy for your future
learners at different stages.
Module Outcomes:
Upon completion of this module, you shall be able to:
 explain the 14 learner-centered principles;
 identify ways on how to apply the 14 principles in instruction as a future
teacher;
 make an initial biographical case analysis;
 identify basic concepts, approaches and meaning of human

development;
 discuss the differences between the traditional and life-span approach

of development;
 describe the developmental tasks in each developmental stage; and
 come up with a short/initial biographical case analysis.
This module contains the following lessons:

Lesson 1: Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)
Lesson 2: Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches
Lesson 3: The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
Lesson 4: Issues on Human Development
Lesson 5: Research in Child Adolescent Development
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Introduction
In this lesson, you will study and gain new insights about Learner-
Centered Psychological Principles and the most important element is the
learner.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson you will:
 explain the 14 principles;
 advocate for use of the 14 principles in the teaching and learning
process; and
 write a reflection paper
ACTIVITY
Motivational
Cognitive & and Affective
Metacognitive Factors
Factor
(3 principles)
(6 principles) 14
Learner-
Centered
Principles
Individual
Developmental Difference
Factors
and Social
Factors (3 principles
(2 principles)
ANALYSIS
Examine the title,” Learner- Centered Principles. List down at
least five words that you are thinking right now.
1. _______________
2. _______________
3. _______________
4. _______________
5. _______________
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ABSTRACTION
LEARNER-CENTERED PSCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

 It refers to the learner and the learning process. It has two aspects
namely:
a. internal - under the control of the learner rather than
conditioned habits or physiological factors;
b. external – contextual factors that interact with these internal
factors and the principles are intended to deal holistically with
learners.
 It is divided into:
1. cognitive and metacognitive;
2. motivational and affective;
3. developmental and social, and;
4. individual difference factors
 Lastly, these principles are intended to apply to all learners- from

children, to teachers, to administrators, to parents and to community
members involved in our educational system.
A. COGNITIVE and METACOGNITIVE FACTORS
1. Nature of the learning process

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an
intentional process of constructing meaning from information and
experience.
2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional
guidance, can create, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge
in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goal.
5. Thinking about thinking
Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical thinking.
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6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,
technology and instructional practices.
B. MOTIVATIONAL and AFFECTIVE FACTORS

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.
Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional
stats, beliefs, interest and goals and habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by
tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and
providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner
effort and guided practice. Without learner’s motivation to learn, the
willing ness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
C. DEVELOPMENTAL and SOCIAL FACTORS
10. Developmental influences on learning
As individual develop, there are different opportunities and constraints
for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development
within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is
taken into account.
11.Social influences on learning
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and
communication with others.
D. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERNCES FACTORS
12. Individual differences in learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s linguistics,
cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account
14. Standards and assessment
Setting appropriate high and challenging standards and assessing
learner as well as learning progress including diagnostic, process and
outcome assessment –are integral parts of the learning process.
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SUMMARY
According to Alexander and Murphy that 14 principles.
1. The knowledge base- knowledge serves as the foundation of all future
learning.
2. Strategic processing and control- that learner develop skills to reflect
and regulate their thoughts and behaviour.
3. Motivation and affect- includes the intrinsic motivation, reasons, goals,
and enjoyment of learning tasks.
4. Development and Individual Differences- that learning is a unique
journey, combination of genetic and environmental factors.
5. Situation or context- that learning happens in the context of a society
as well as within an individual. (Reading Resource: Corpuz, Lucas,
Borado, Lucido, 2018. The Child and Adolescent Learners and Teaching
Principles, Lorimar Publishing House, Inc. Manila.)
APPLICATION
You write your reflection on 14 principles.
Directions:
1. Write a reflection paper. It should be supported with theories and
references.
2. Use Arial 11, 1.5 spacing; one long bond paper only)
REFLECTION NO.1
(Title)
Submitted by : JUAN DELA CRUZ Date : _______
Submitted to : NANCY B. GONZALES, Ed.D.
I. The three (3) most significant learning I got from the topic are:
a…………;
b…………. and;
c………….
II. Why are these learning significant to me?
III. Give your own insights/reflections on the topic.
Research Connection
Instruction: This is a sample on how you will prepare an introductory
part of a simplified action research: Please be guided. (Double Space,
Arial 10, Long Bond Paper, one page only, 3-paragraph form)
23
Title
What is an action research?

 any systematic inquiry (Mills, G.E.)
 form of investigation (Parson and Brown, 2002)
 fancy way of saying lets study what’s happening at our school and
decide how to make it a better place (Calhoun, E. 1994)
A sample matrix for you:
Part 1 What to do…

Introduction/Rationale What is the problem you met?
Purpose and Significance of the Study Identify a question or a particular
problem that you observed.
This action research is conducted mainly
to ___________________________
Closure
Wow! Good Job, my dear students. You did great for this lesson. You
have learned about 14 principles in instruction. You are going to apply these as
we continue our journey. Be ready for the series of lessons you we will
encounter. Happy learning!
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Introduction : In this lesson, you will be acquainted with human
development as a process, the developmental tasks that
come along with each developmental stage and the relevant
issues that are raised about human development.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will:
 define human development in your own word; and
 distinguish between the traditional and life span approach
of development.
ACTIVITY
3
(
R
e
a
d Nancy B. Gonzales
Photos by
i
These are pictures of three-year old Nicole and seven-year old Jeg Ivan. Each
n
one is a bundle of possibilities.
g
R
ANALYSIS e
1. Describe what s they were before birth (their point of origin) and
who they willo be possibly be after birth undo adulthood.
2. What will theyu possibly become?
3. Will three-year
r old Nicole be able to do that seven-year old Jeg
Ivan? Why or c why not?
4. Will there bee anything in common in the pattern of development
of Nicole and : Jeg Ivan? If yes, what?
5. Will there beCdifferences in their development, e.g. pace or rate of
development? o What and why?
r
ABSTRACTION p
Two Approaches uto Human Development
z
If you believe that Nicole and Jeg Ivan will show extensive change from
,
birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old
L
age, your approach to development is traditional.
u
In contrast, if you believe that even in adulthood developmental takes
c
place as it does during childhood,
a your approach is termed life-span approach.
s
,
25
B
o
r
a
d
Life –Span Development Characteristics (Santrock,2002):
1. Developmental is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. Nicole and Jeg Ivan
will continue developing even in adulthood
2. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change.

Development is possibly throughout the lifespan. No one is too old to earn.
Aging is associated with declines in certain intellectual abilities. These declines
can be prevented or reduced. Reasoning abilities of older adults were
improved through retraining. (Willies & Schose,1994 cited by Santrock,2005)
3. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of biological,

cognitive and socio-emotional dimensions. Development as a process is
complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional
processes (Santrock,2005)
Biological process- changes in individual’s physical nature
 Brains of Nicole and Jeg Ivan develop
 Gain height and weight
 Experience hormonal changes during puberty period
 Cardiovascular decline
Development is relatively orderly.

(http://www.c.dipage.com/development.htm)
Proximodistal pattern
 Nicole and Jeg Ivan learn to sit, crawl then walk before run
 Muscular control of the trunk
 Arms comes earlier as compared to the hands and fingers
Cephalo-caudal pattern
 During pregnancy, growth is always at the top-head
 With physical growth in size
 Weight and future differentiation gradually work its way down
from top to bottom (neck, shoulders, middle trunk and so on)
 This development pattern is common to Nicole and Jeg Ivan.
Development takes place gradually.

(http://www.c.dipage.com/development.htm)
Nicole and Jeg Ivan won’t develop into pimply teenagers overnight.
It takes years become they become one.
26
Cognitive process- changes in individual’s thoughts, intelligence and
language
Nicole and Jeg Ivan develop from a mere sound to a word becoming
two words and the words becoming a sentence.
Socio-emotional process- changes in the individual’s relationship with

other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality.
Nicole and Jeg Ivan responded with a sweet smile when
affectionately touched and frowned when displeased and even showed
temper tantrum when they could not get or do what they wanted.
4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in

changing world. Individuals respond to and act on contexts. These
contexts include the individual’s biological make up, physical
environment, cognitive processes, historical, social, and cultural context
(Santrock, 2002).
5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation.

Growth, maintenance and regulation are three goals in human
development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental
stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle and adulthood,
concern growth gets into the back stage while maintenance and
regulation take place the center stage (Reading Resource: Corpuz,
Lucas, Borado, Lucido, 2018. The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Teaching Principles, Lorimar Publishing House, Inc. Manila
APPLICATION
State five characteristics of human development from a life-span
perspective and their implications to child care, education and parenting.
Characteristic of human development Educational Implication to Child Care,

from a life-span perspective Education and Parenting
1. Development is lifelong
2.
3.
4.
5.
1. Directions: Write a reflection paper. It should be supported with

theories and references.
2. Use Arial 11, 1.5 spacing; one long bond paper only)
27
REFLECTION NO.2
(Title)
Submitted by : JUAN DELA CRUZ Date : _______
I. The three (3) most significant learnings I got from the topic are:
a…………;
b………… and;
c…………
II. Why are these learnings significant to me?


Research Connection
Instruction: This is a sample on how you will prepare an introductory part of a
simplified action research: Please be guided. (Use Arial 10; double spaced;
long bond paper; one page only; 3-paragraph form)
Title

 fancy way of saying, let’s study what’s happening at our school and
decide how to make it a better place (Calhoun, E. 1994).
A sample matrix for you.

Purpose and Significance of the Identify a question or a particular
Study problem that you observed
This action research is conducted

mainly to
___________________________
Closure
You are now done in this lesson. You will be learning more in the succeeding
modules. We encourage you to write a reflection about yourself. A sample
matrix to be filled out as introduction of a simple action research is provided for
you. Have fun in sharing your life’s experiences. Happy learning!
28
Introduction:
For every developmental stage, there is an expected
developmental task. What happens when the expected developmental
tasks are not achieved at the corresponding development stage? How
can you help children achieve these developmental tasks?
Learning Outcomes
 define human development tasks;
 describe the human development tasks in each developmental
stage; and
 come up with biographical case analysis on research abstracts
on human development tasks
ACTIVITY
Middle Middle Late

Pre-natal Early
Infancy Adolescence
Period and Late Adulthood Adulthood Adulthood
Childhood
View a web site about human development

(http:/www./webmd.com/baby/slidesshowconception)
My observations based on developmental stages of my life are the following:
Developmental stages Observations…

Pre-natal Period
Infancy
Middle and Late Childhood
Adolescence
Early Adulthood
Middle Adulthood
Late Adulthood
ANALYSIS
1. How many developmental stages are described? How do these stages

compare to Havighurst’s developmental below?
Havighurst has identified six major age periods:

1. Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5 years)
2. Middle adulthood (6-12 years)
3. Adolescence (13-18 years)
29
4. Early adulthood (19-29 years)
5. Middle Adulthood (30-60 years)
6. Later maturity (61 years onwards)
2. What is an outstanding trait or behaviour of each stage?

3. What task/s is /are expected in each developmental stage?
4. Does a developmental task in a higher level require accomplishment of the
lower level developmental tasks?
5. Observe the difference between Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks and
Santrock’s.
Developmental Tasks
Infancy Middle Adolescenc Early Middle Later
and Early Childhood (6- e (13-18) Adulthood Adulthood Maturity
Childhoo 12) (19-29) (30-60) (61 and
d (0-5) over)
1. Learning to 1. Learning 1. Achieving 1. Selecting a 1. Helping 1. Adjusting to
walk physical skills mature mate teenage decreasing
2. Learning to necessary for relations with 2. Learning to children to strength
take solid ordinary games both sexes live a become and health
foods 2. Building a 2. Achieving a partner happy and 2. Adjusting to
wholesome masculine or responsible retirement
3. Learning to 3. Starting a adults
talk attitude toward feminine family and
oneself social role. 2. Achieving reduced
4. Learning to 4. Rearing adult social income.
control the 3. Learning to get 3. Accepting children
along with age one’s and civic 3. Adjusting to
elimination 5. Managing a responsibilit
of body mates physique. death of
home y spouse.
wastes 4. Learning an 4. Achieving
appropriate sex emotional 6. Starting an 3. Satisfactory 4. Establishin
5. Learning occupation career
sex role independence g relations
of adults achievement with one’s
differences 5. Developing 7. Assuming
and sexual fundamental 5. Preparing for civic 4. Developing own age
modesty skills in reading, marriage and responsibilit adult leisure group
writing and family life y time 5. Meetig
6. Acquiring activities
concepts calculating 6. Preparing for social and
and 6. Developing an economic 5. Relating civic
language concepts career one’s obligations
to describe necessary for spouse a 6. Establishin
7. Acquiring person.
social and everyday living. values and an g
physical 7. Developing ethical system 6. Accepting satisfactory
reality conscience, to guide the living
7. Readiness behavior physiological quarters.
8. morality and a changes of
for reading 8. Desiring and
9. scale of values middle age
8. Learning to achieving
distinguish 10. Achieving socially 7. Adjusting to
right from personal responsible aging parent
wrong and independence behavior
developing 11. Developin
a g acceptable
conscience attitudes toward
society
Source: Robert Havighurst, Development Tasks and Education, 3 rd ed. New York:
David McKay Co.,
30
ABSTRACTION
Developmental Tasks
Developmental Task Outstanding Trait of Each Stage

1. Prenatal Period It involves tremendous growth from a single cell to an
(from conception to organism to complete with brain and behavioral
Birth)
capabilities.
2. Infancy A time of extreme dependence on adults. Many

(from birth to 18-24 psychological activities are just beginning - language,
months)
symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination and social
learning.
3. Early Childhood These are the preschool years. Young children learn to
(end of infancy to 5-6 become more self-sufficient and to café for themselves,
years) (Grade 1)
develop school readiness skills and spend many hours in
play with peers.
4. Middle and Late The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic
Childhood are mastered. The child is formally exposed to the larger
(6-11 years of age,
world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more
the elementary
school years) central theme of the child’s world and self-control
increases.
5. Adolescence Begins with rapid physical changes – dramatic gains in

(10-12 years of age height and weight, changes in body contour, and the
ending up to 18-22
development of sexual characteristics such as
years of age)
enlargement of the breasts, development of public and
facial hair, and deepening of the voice. Pursuit of
independence and identity are prominent. Thought is
more logical, abstract and idealistic. More time is spent
outside of the family.
6. Early Childhood It is a time of establishing personal and economic

(from late teens or independence, career development, selecting a mate,
early 20s lasting
learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting
through 30s)
a family and rearing child.
7. Middle Adulthood It is a time of expanding personal and social involvement

(40-60 years of age) and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in
becoming competent and mature individuals; and of
reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career.
31
8. Late Adulthood It is a time for adjustment to decreasing strength and
(60s and above) health, life review, retirement and adjustment to new
social roles.
APPLICATION
1. Let’s pay particular attention to each of the development stages-prenatal

period, infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood and
adolescence. Then, answer the following:
Preschool period: What do pregnant mothers supposed to do to ensure

the birth of a normal and healthy baby?
Infancy: What should mothers and babysitters do and not do to help

infants become normal and healthy?
Let’s do No. 1. Early Childhood: What are preschool teachers supposed

to do with pre-schoolers?
Teachers should help them develop readiness for school. They should
not be too academic in their teaching approach. They ought to give much
time for pre-schoolers to play or help them develop school readiness by
integrating children’s games in school activities.
Middle and Late Childhood
Elementary school teachers ought to help their pupils by
2. Make a biographical case analysis based on the video of Helen Pearson

in YouTube.
Closure
You are done with this lesson. As you learn more in the succeeding
lessons, you are encouraged to share your personal view on the stages of
development. Enjoy and have a blissful day ahead!
32
Introduction:
Each of us has his/her own informal way of looking at our own and
other people’s development. These paradigms of human
development while obviously lacking in scholastic vigor, provide us
with a conceptual framework for understanding ourselves and
others. Scholars have come up with their own models of human
development. Backed up by solid research, they take stand on
issues on human development.
Learning Outcomes
 make a simplified action research (introduction, RRL, Methods)
on three (3) issues on development.
ACTIVITY
Let’s read the following issues: Write your comments/opinions/reactions.
1. Nature versus Nurture- Which has more significant influence on human

development? Nature or nurture?
Nature - an individual’s biological inheritance
Nurture - environmental experiences
2. Continuity versus Discontinuity. Does development involve gradual,

cumulative change (continuity) or distinct changes (discontinuity)? To make
it concrete, here is a question: Is our development like that of a seedling
gradually growing into an acacia tree? Or is it more like that of a caterpillar
becoming a butterfly?
3. Stability vs. Change- Is development best described as involving stability

or as involving change? Are we what our first experiences have made of us
or we develop into someone different from who we were at the earlier point
in development?
ANALYSIS
After you have answered those given questions, based from
experiences and understanding, write brief statements about
those issues.
What I Know What I want to know What I learn
33
ABSTRACTION
The issues presented can be translated into questions that have sparked
animated debate among developmentalists. Are girls less likely to do well in
Math because of their feminine nature or because of society’s bias? How
extensively can the elderly be trained to reason more effectively? How much, if
at all, does our memory decline in old age? Can techniques be used to prevent
or reduce the decline? For children who experienced a world of poverty, neglect
by parents, and poor schooling in childhood, can enriched experiences in
adolescence remove the ‘deficits’ that they encountered earlier in their
development (Santrock, 2002)?
Based on the presentations, each one has his/her own explanations for
his/her stand on the developmental issues. What is the right answer? Up to this
time, the debate continues. Researchers are on-going. But let me tell you that
most life-span developmentalists recognize that extreme positions on these
issues are unwise. Development is not all nature or all nurture, not all continuity
or discontinuity and not all stability or all change (Lerner, 1998 as quoted by
Santrock, 2002). Both nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity, stability
and change characterize our life-span development. The key to development is
in interaction of nature and nurture rather than either factor along (Rutter, 2001
as quoted by Santrock, 2002). In other words, it is a matter of “both and” not
“either-or.” Just go back to the quote beneath the title of this lesson and the
message gets crystal clear.
To summarize, both genes and environment are necessary for a person

even to exist. Without genes, there is no person; without environment, there is
no person (Scarr and Weinberg, 1980 quoted by Santrock, 2002). Heredity and
environment operated together or cooperate and interact – to produce a
person’s intelligence, temperament, height, weight, ability to read and so on.
If heredity and environment interact, which one has a greater influence

or contribution, heredity or environment? The relative contributions of heredity
and environment are not additive. So, we can’t say 50% is a contribution of
heredity and 50% of environment. Neither is it correct to say that full genetic
expression happens once, around conception or birth, after which we take our
genetic legacy into the world to see how far it gets us. Genes produce proteins
throughout the life span, in many different environments. Or they don’t produce
these proteins, depending on how harsh or nourishing those environments are.
(Santrock, 2002).
34
APPLICATION
Let’s find out where you can apply what you learned from our
presentation of concepts on development issues.
Make a graphic organizer that convinced interactive influence of

heredity and environment of children development for parent’s awareness.
Remember that heredity is already fixed. Their children have been born
and they have passed on these inherited traits at conception and that they
cannot do anything anymore to change them.
So, concentrate on how they can contribute in their children’s favourable

development by crating the environment conducive to development. Like
heredity, environment is complex. It includes nutrition as early as conception,
parenting, family dynamic, schooling, neighbourhood quality and biological
encounters such as viruses, birth complications and even biological events in
cells.
Research Connection
simplified action research on issues on human development: Please be guided.
(Use Arial 10double space, long bond paper; one page only; 3-paragraph form)
Title

A sample matrix for you


mainly to
___________________________
35
: Review the literature
This provides background
information on the question.
Sources:
 General books on teaching
 Educational Resources
Information Center (ERIC)
database
 Journals
Method Plan a research strategy for

data collection.
How is the data related to the study
question?
What exactly am I collecting?
Where am I going to collect it?
When am I going to collect it and for
how long?
Who is going to collect it?
Closure
You are now done with this lesson. You are encouraged to share your
ideas and reactions on the issues of development. Stay fit and have more fun
in learning!
36
Introduction
Well-done! You have gone so this far, huh! You are now about to
study lesson 5 of Module 1. In this lesson, you will gain deeper
understanding about concepts, methods and research designs. As
a future teacher, you will be equipped and capacitated on how to
apply this in real teaching. So, enjoy this lesson for surely you will
learn a lot.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 explain the basic principles of research;
 demonstrate appreciation of the role of the teachers as
consumers and producers of developmental research; and
 read researches on child adolescent development and make
simple action research.
ACTIVITY
Read the statement below and express whether you agree/disagree with
each statement. Put a check mark (/) to indicate your answer.
Statement YES NO
1. Research is only for those who plan to take master’s degree
or doctorate degree.
2. Research is easy to do.
3. Research is all about giving questionnaires and tallying the
responses.
4. Research with one or two respondents not a valid research.
5. Teachers, because they are busy in their classrooms, are
expected to use existing research rather than conduct their
research in their classroom.
6. There is no need to go into because research a lot of
researches have already been conducted.
7. Students are mere users of knowledge arrived at by research.
It is not their task to conduct research.
8. Students do not possess the qualifications to conduct
research.
9. It is not worth conducting research considering the time and
money it requires.
37
ANALYSIS
You can write your own reactions/ insights why you answer Yes
and why you answer NO, on the following statements:
No. Ans. Why…

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
ABSTRACTION
Your answers to the short questionnaire indicate your basic attitude

about research. As a pre-service teacher, it is important to have a positive
regard for research. Best practices in education are usually born out of
research. Research informs practice.
All of the topics discussed in this module are, in one way or another, a
product of research. Research is a very reliable means for teachers to learn
about child and adolescent development. When conducted in an appropriate
and accurate manner, it becomes a strong basis for making decisions about the
things you will do as an effective teacher.
 Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research

Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important
knowledge to use in decision-making for the benefit of learners and their
families. Well-informed teachers are able to use and integrate the most
authoritative research findings. Research enables teachers to come up with
informed decision on what to teach and how to teach. This involves
decisions related to educational policies, curriculum, effective teaching-
learning processes, and even those involving research, too. It can help us,
teachers, to be more knowledgeable about how to fit our teaching with the
developmental levels of our learners.
 Teachers as Researchers
The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and
dissertation writers. It is for students and teachers, too. Let us learn how to
38
conduct research by finding out the different research principles and the
research methods and designs with focus on child and adolescent
development.
 The Scientific Method

One important principle in research is adherence to the scientific
method, since research is a systematic and a logical process. As such,
researchers basically follow the scientific method. Dewey gave us 5 steps
of the scientific method. They are as follows:
1. identify and define the problem
2. determine the hypothesis
3. collect and analyse data
4. formulate conclusions
5. apply conclusions to the original hypothesis
Simply explained, identifying the research problem is the first step.

This is followed by stating a tentative answer to the research problem called
the hypothesis. This hypothesis is also referred to as an “educational
guess.” How correct is your “educated guess” or “hypothesis?” If your
research problem is concerned with determining the cause of an effect or a
phenomenon, you have to gather and analyse data derived from an
experiment. This is true with experimental research.
However, if your research problem is concerned with describing data
and characteristics about the subjects or phenomenon you are studying,
you do not need to perform an experiment. This is description research.
After analysing the data, you formulate your conclusions. Compare your
conclusions to your original hypothesis to find out if your original hypothesis
is correct or not. If your original hypothesis jive with your finding and
conclusion, affirm your hypothesis. If your original does not jibe with your
finding and conclusions, reject your original hypothesis.
 Research Designs
Researches that are done with high level of quality and integrity
provide us with valuable information about child and adolescent
development. To be able to conduct quality research, it is important that you
know various research designs and different data-gathering techniques
used by developmental researchers. Some are given and described below:
39
RESEARCH
DESCRIPTION STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
DESIGN
1. Case Study An in-depth look It provides Need to exercise
at an individual information about caution when
an individual’s generalizing from
fears, hopes, the information; the
fantasies, subject of a case
traumatic study is unique, with
experiences, a genetic make-up
upbringing, family and experiences no
relationships, one else shares;
health, and involves judgements
anything that of unknown
helps a reliability in that
psychologist usually no check is
understand that made to see if other
person’s psychologists agree
development with other
(Santrock, 2002). observations
(Santrock, 2002)
2. Correlational A research Useful because Because
Study design that the more strongly correlational
determines two events are research does not
associations correlated, the involve the
more we can manipulation of
predict one from factors, it is not a
the other dependable way to
isolate cause
(Kantowitz et al.,
2001 cited by
Santrock, 2002)
3. Experimental A research The only true Experimental
design that reliable method of research is limited
determines establishing to what is
cause-and- cause and effect. observable, testable
effect and manipulable.
relationships.
The
experimental Failure to achieve
method randomization may
involves limit the extent to
manipulating which the study
one variable to sample is
determine if representative of
changes in one the parent
variable cause population and, with
40
changes in it, generalizability of
another the findings of the
variable. This study.
method relies Experimentation

on controlled with humans is
methods subject to a number
random of external
assignment and influences that may
the dilute the study
manipulation of results (Donnan,
variables to test 2000)
a hypothesis.
A further limitation
of experimental
research is that
subjects may
change their
behavior or respond
in a specific manner
simply because of
awareness of being
observed
Hawthorne effect
(Haughey, 1994;
Clifford, 1997).
4. Naturalistic A research One of the The disadvantages

Observation design that advantages of this of naturalistic
focuses on type or research observation include
children’s is that it allows the the fact that it can
experiences in researcher to be difficult to
natural settings. directly observe determine the exact
the subject in a cause of a behavior
natural setting. and the
experimenter
cannot control
outside variables.
This does not
involve any
intervention or
manipulation on
the part of the
researcher.
41
This technique
involves
observing
subjects in their
natural
environment.
This type of
research is
often utilized in
situations
where
conducting lab
research is
unrealistic, cost
prohibitive or
would unduly
affect the
subject’s
behavior.
5. Longitudinal This research Allows them to They are expensive

design studies record and and time-
and follows monitor consuming.
through a single developmental
group over a trends.
period of time.
The same
individuals are
studied over a
period of time,
usually several
years or more.
The longer the

study lasts, the
more subjects drop
out – they move, get
sick, lose interest,
etc. subjects can
bias the outcome of
a study, because
those who remain
42
may be dissimilar to
those who drop out.
6. Cross- A research Allows them to It gives no

sectional strategy in record and information about
which monitor how individuals
individuals of developmental change or about the
different ages trends. The stability of their
are compared researcher does characteristics
at one time. not have to wait (Santrock, 2002).
for the individuals
to grow up or
become older.
7. Sequential This is the Allows them to It is complex,

combined record and expensive, and time
cross-sectional monitor consuming.
and longitudinal developmental
approaches to trends. It provides
learn about life- information that is
span impossible to
development obtain from cross-
(Schale, 1993 sectional or
cited by longitudinal
Satrock, 2002). approaches alone
This starts with (Santrock, 2002).
a cross-
sectional study
that includes
individuals of
different ages.
A number of
months or years
after the initial
assessment,
the same
individuals are
tested again-
this is the
longitudinal
aspect of the
design. At this
later time, a
new group of
subjects is
assessed at
each grade
level.
43
8. Action Action research Appropriate in a Typically takes
Research is a reflective particular setting place in one
process of when the purpose organization only at
progressive of study is “to a particular time and
problem-solving create changes could not be
led by and gain interpreted within
individuals information on different
working with processes and organizations in the
others in teams outcome of the same way.
or as part of a strategies used” Therefore, research
“community of (Hunt, 1987) findings are had
practice” to (impossible) to
improve the generalize.
way they Uses different
methods, can get
address issues If research

and solve the best out of the
different methods participants do not
problems feel they understand
(Wikipedia, the employed, if done
well. Stakeholders and ‘own’ the
free research project,
encyclopedia). are included
throughout and so this could lead to a
researchers are potential conflict of
In the context of more likely to interest between
teaching, action make “difference.” researcher and
researches of those participating
teachers stem in the organization,
from their own but also between
questions about the researcher with
and reflections some participants,
on their on the one hand
everyday and other members
classroom of the organization,
practice. on the other.
 Data Gathering Techniques
DATA GATHERING
DEFINITION/DESCRIPTION
TECHNIQUE
1. Observation Observations can be made in either laboratories or
natural settings. In naturalistic observation, behavior is
observed in the real world like classrooms, home in
neighborhood.
2. Physiological Certain indicators or children’s development such as,

Measures among others, heart rate, hormonal levels, bone
growth, body weight, and brain activity are measured.
44
3. Standardized These are prepared tests that assess individuals’
performance in different domains. These tests are
administered in a consistent manner.
4. Interviews and Involve asking the participants to provide information

Questionnaires about themselves based on the interview or
questionnaire given by the researcher.
Gathering of data may be conducted through a printed
questionnaire, over the telephone, by mail, in person, or
on-line.
Information is obtained by utilizing standardized
procedures so that every participant is asked the same
questions in the same manner. It entails asking
participants for information in some structured format.
5. Life-History These are records of information about a lifetime
Records chronology of events and activities. They often involve
a combination of data records on education, work,
family and residence. These include public records or
historical documents or interviews with respondent.
To serve the genuine purposes of research, teacher researchers are subject to

ethical principles. Just as we have the Code of Ethics that governs the behaviour
of teachers, there also exist ethical standards that guide the conduct of research.
These ethical standards serve as reminders that as researchers, we should strive
to protect the subjects of our study and to maintain the integrity of our research.
Details of these ethical principles are found in documents such as the following:
1. Ethical standards of the American Educational Research Association

http://www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/About_AERA/Ethical_Standards/Eth
icalStandards.pdf
2. Ethical Standards for Research with Children – Society for Research in

Child Development (USA)
http://www.srcd.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=68
&itemid=110
3. Standards of the American Psychological Association Concerning

Research http://www.lcsc.edu/policy/Policy/1.112a.PDF
We invite you to read and reflect on them
Common among the three standards given above are the

following considerations for researches conducted with your children
and other vulnerable population which are enumerated by the National
Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).
45
Key points:
1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically or
psychologically.
2. Children and their families have the right to full information
about the research in which they may participate, including
possible risks and benefits. Their decision to participate must
be based on what is called “informed consent.” There must be
informed consent procedures with research participants.
3. Children’s questions about the research should be answered
in a truthful manner and in ways that children can understand.
Researchers must be honest and clear in their
communication.
4. There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained
through research with children should remain confidential.
Researchers should not disclose personal information or the
identity of participants in written or oral reports and
discussions.
The Data Privacy Act of 2012 (R. A. 10173)

This law was passed in the Philippines in 2012 “to protect the fundamental
human right of privacy of communication while ensuring free flow of information to
promote innovation and growth.”
The law states that the collection of personal data “must be a declared,
specified, and legitimate purpose and that … consent is required prior to the collection
of all personal data.”
For more details, read RA 10173.
Impact of Teachers’ Research Involvement on Teachers

Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain and nothing
to lose when they get involved in the research process. Evidence suggests that:
1. teachers who have been involved in research may become more
reflective, more critical and analytical in their teaching, and more
open and committed to professional development (Oja & Pine 1989;
Henson 1996; Keyes 2000; Rust 2007);
2. participation also helps teachers become more deliberate in their
decision-making and actions in the classroom;
46
3. teacher research develops the professional dispositions of lifelong
learning, reflective and mindful teaching, and self-transformation
(Mills 2000; Stringer 2007);
4. engaging in teacher research at any level may lead to rethinking and
reconstructing what it means to be a teacher or teacher educator and,
consequently, the way teachers relate to children and students; and
5. teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers and
prospective teachers that learning to teach is inherently connected to
learning to inquire (Borko, Liston, &Whitcomb 2007).
Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research shows a shift from
thinking about teacher research as something done to teachers to something done by
teachers (Zeichner 1999; Lampert 2000). (Reading Resource: Corpuz, Lucas,
Borado, Lucido, 2018. The Child and Adolescent Learners and Teaching
Principles, Lorimar Publishing House, Inc. Manila
APPLICATION
REFLECTION NO.
(Title)
Submitted by : JUAN DELA CRUZ Date: ________

a …………;
b…………. and;
c…………


Research Connection
simplified action research: Please be guided. (Double Space, Arial 10, Long
Bond Paper, one page only,3 paragraph form)
47
Title

A sample matrix for you.
Part What to do…


mainly to
___________________________
Review the literature
This provides background
information on the question.
Sources:
o General books on teaching
o Educational Resources
Information Center (ERIC)
database
o Journals
Method Plan a research strategy for

data collection.
How is the data related to the study
question?
What exactly am I collecting?
Where am I going to collect it?
When am I going to collect it and for
how long?
Who is going to collect it?
Result and Discussion/Analysis Discuss how will you collect and

analyze the data.
References Five to six references (5 years back,

2015 to 2020)
48
Closure
Module Summary:
Congratulations! We really appreciate your great effort, hard work and patience
to go the next module. May all the principles and stages, issues and researches related
to human development made you more empowered and motivated to go on. Cheers!
Have faith we can survive in next module.
Module Formative Assessment:

You have to pass video vignette reflective essay, a simple research (introductory
part) and answer worksheets
49
Module Overview:
Welcome to the Module 2 of this course pack! This module introduces the
developmental theories and other relevant theories that may guide you to
deeply understand your future students. More so, this module challenges you
to critically read researches. It may help you to become better prepared teacher
in the future. Have focus and save the best thing you will understand and learn.
Module Outcome:
 Identify the different developmental theories and other relevant

theories.
 Explain Freud’s view about child and adolescent development.
 Describe Paget’s Stages of Development.
 Identify 8 stages of life according to Erickson.
 Analyze cases on theory of moral development.
 Devise proper responses on specific cases that require judgment on
Piaget and Vygotsky’s view on cognitive development
 Identify a possible scenario/ devised plan in your own life that exerted
influence on one’s development

Lesson 1: Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Lesson 2: Piaget”s Stages of Development
Lesson 3: Erickson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development
Lesson 4: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Lesson 5: Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Lesson 6: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
50
Introduction
Freud’s views about human development are more than a century
old. He can be considered the most well-known psychologist because of
his very interesting theory about the unconscious and also about sexual
development, although a lot of his views were criticized and some
considered them debunked, (he himself recanted some of his earlier
views). Freud’s theory remains to be one of the most influential in
psychology. His theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of other
theorists and thus became the starting point of many other theories.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson you will be able to:
 explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development; and
 write a reflection paper.
ACTIVITY
Recall a recent incident in your life when you had to make a
decision. Narrate the situation below. Indicate what the decision was
about, the factors that were involved and how you arrived at your
decision.
ANALYSIS
What factors influenced you in making your decision? Which of
the following did you consider most in making your decision: what
will make you feel satisfied, what is most beneficial or practical,
or what you believed was the most moral thing to do? Elaborate
on your answer.
ABSTRACTION
As a person grows, the personality is also formed. Many
psychologists present different views about how personality develops.
As mentioned, Freud presents a very interesting theory about
personality, its components and development. Read on and hopefully it
will also somehow lead you to understand more your own personality.
51
As you read through Freud’s theory, fill out the graphic organizer
below to highlight the important concepts:
Erogenous Zone
Oral
Description of the
Stage
Stage
Fixations
Erogenous Zone.
A Specific area Erogenous Zone
Anal
that becomes the Description of the
Stage
focus of pleasure Stage
needs. This may Fixations
be the mouth,
Phallic Erogenous Zone
anus and the
Stage Description of the
genitals.
Stage
Fixation. It results Fixations
from failure to Erogenous Zone
satisfy the needs Latency
Description of the
of a particular Stage
Stage
psychosexual Fixations
stage.
Genital Erogenous Zone
Stage Description of the
Stage
Fixations
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud is the most popular psychologist who studied the development of
personality; also, probably the most controversial. His theory of psychosexual
development includes five distinct stages. According to Freud, a person goes
through the sequence of these five stages and along the way there are needs
to be met. Whether these needs are met or not, determines whether the person
will develop a healthy personality or not. The theory is quite interesting for many
because Freud identified specific erogenous zones for each stage of
development. These are specific “pleasure areas” that become focal points for
the particular stage. If needs are not met along the area, a fixation occurs. As
an adult, the person will now manifest behaviours related to this erogenous
zone.
Oral Stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth.
During the oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too
much or too little satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality
which is shown in an increased focus on oral activities. This type of personality
may be oral receptive, that is, have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink
52
alcohol, overeat, or oral aggressive, that is with a tendency to bite his or her
nails, or use curse words or even gossip. As a result, these persons may
become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack leadership traits. On
the other hand, they may also fight these tendencies and become pessimistic
and aggressive in relating with people.
Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this
stage is the anus. The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces.
Through society’s expectations, particularly the parents, the child needs to work
on toilet training. Let us remember that between one year and a half to three
years the child’s favorite word might be “No!”. Therefore, a struggle might exist
in the toilet training process when the child retains feces when asked to
eliminate, or may choose to defecate when asked to hold feces for some
reasons. In terms of personality, fixation during this stage can result in being
anal retentive, an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control; or anal
expulsive where the person may become messy and disorganized.
Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6 years). The pleasure of erogenous zone is
the genitals. During the preschool age, children become interested in what
makes boy and girls different. Pre-schoolers will sometimes be seen fondling
their genitals. Freud’s studies led him to believe that during this stage boys
develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother. Boys then see their father
as a rival for her mother’s affection. Boys may fear that their father will punish
them for these feelings, thus, the castration anxiety. These feelings comprise
what Freud called Oedipus Complex. In Greek Mythology, Oedipus
unintentionally killed his father and married his mother Jocasta.
Psychoanalysts also believe that girls may also have a similar
experience, developing unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. This
is what is referred to as the Electra Complex.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong
competition of their father, boys eventually decide to identify with them rather
than fight them. By identifying with their father, the boys develop masculine
characteristics and identify themselves as males and repress their sexual
feelings toward their mother. A fixation at this stage could result in sexual
deviancies (both overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual
identity to psychoanalysts.
Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). It’s during this stage that sexual urges
remain repressed. The children’s focus is the acquisition of physical and
academic skills. Boys usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during
this stage.
Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual
development begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again
awakened. In the earlier stages, adolescents focus their sexual urges towards
the opposite sex peers, with the pleasure centered on the genitals.
53
Freud’s Personality Components
Freud described the personality structures as having three components,
the id, the ego and the superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the
id, followed by the ego, and last to develop is the superego.
While reading about the three components, use the graphic organizer
below to put your notes and questions about them.
The id. Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital
role in one’s personality because as a baby, it works so that the baby’s essential
needs are met. The id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on
immediate gratification or satisfaction of its needs. So, whatever feels good now
is what is will pursue with no consideration for the reality, logicality or practicality
of the situation. For example, a baby is hungry. Its id wants food or milk… so
the baby will cry. When the child needs to be changed, the id cries. When the
child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold, or just wants attention, the id
speaks up until his or her needs are met.
Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It
is not oriented towards considering reality nor the need of others. Just see how
babies cry any time of day and night! Absolutely no regard of whether mommy
is tired or daddy is sleeping. When the id wants something, it wants it now and
it wants it fast!
The ego. As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a pre-schooler,
he/she relates more with the environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge.
The ego operates using the reality principle. It is aware that others also have
needs to be met. It is practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish
54
can result to negative consequences later, so it reasons and considers the best
response to situations. As such, it is the deciding agent of the personality.
Although it functions to help the id meet its needs, it always takes into account
the reality of the situation.
The superego. Near the end of the preschool years, or he end of the
phallic stage, the superego develops. The superego embodies a person’s
moral aspect. This develops from what the parents, teachers and other persons
who exert influence impart to be good or moral. The superego is likened to
conscience because it exerts influence on what one considers right and wrong.
The Three Components and Personality Adjustment

Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who
can help satisfy the needs of the id without going against the superego while
maintaining the person’s sense of what is logical, practical and real. Of course,
it is not easy for the ego to do all that and strike a balance. If the id exerts too
much power over the ego, the person becomes too impulsive and pleasure-
seeking behaviour takes over one’s life. On the opposite direction, one may find
the superego so strong that the ego is overpowered. The person becomes so
harsh and judgmental to himself and other’s actions. The person’s best effort
to be good may still fall short of the superego’s expectations.
The ability of a learner to be well-adjusted is largely influenced by ow the
learner was brought up. His experiences about how his parents met his needs,
the extent to which he was allowed to do the things he wanted to do, and also
how he was thought about right and wrong, all figures to the type of personality
and consequent adjustment that a person will make. Freud believed that the
personality of an individual is formed early during the childhood years.
Topographical Model
The Unconscious. Freud said that most what we go through in our lives,
emotions, beliefs, feelings and impulses deep within are not available to us at
a conscious level. He believed that most of what influence us is our
unconscious. The Oedipus and Electra Complex mentioned earlier were both
buried down into the unconscious, out of our awareness due to the extreme
anxiety they caused. While these complexes are in our unconscious, they still
influence our thinking, feeling and doing in perhaps dramatic ways.
The Conscious. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored
in our conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of
who we are so that, in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part
of what makes up our personality; most of what we are is hidden and out of
reach.
The Subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subconscious.
This is the part of us that we can reach if prompted, but is not in our active
conscious. Its right below the surface, but still “hidden” somewhat unless we
55
search for it. Information such as our telephone number, some childhood
memories, or the name of your best childhood friend is stored in the
preconscious.
Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we are only aware
of the very small conscious at any given time, Freud used the analogy of the
iceberg to illustrate it. A big part of the iceberg is hidden underneath the water’s
surface.
The water, may represent all that we are not aware of, have not
experienced, and that has not been made part of our personalities, referred to
as the nonconscious.
Conscious
Preconscious
Superego Nonconscious
Ego*
Unconscious
*Note: Ego is free-floating in
Id all three levels
Freud’s Conception of the Human Psyche

(The Iceberg Metaphor)
APPLICATION
REFLECTION NO.
(Title)
Submitted by : JUAN DELA CRUZ Date : ___________

a…………;
56
b………. and;
c…….….

(Reading Resource: Corpuz, Lucas, Borado, Lucido, 2018. The Child and
Adolescent Learners and Teaching Principles, Lorimar Publishing House, Inc.
Manila
Closure
Congratulation! In the succeeding lessons, you will gain knowledge on
developmental theories and other relevant theories. You will discover theories
as the best theory on cognitive development. Have fun to share your life’s
experiences. Happy learning!
57
Introduction
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic in the
field of educational psychology. This theory fueled other researches and
theories of development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct
knowledge.
Learning Outcomes
 describe Piaget’s stages in your own words; and

 conduct an interview
ACTIVITY
Read the situations below. each of the situation before analysis is

done.
It’s Christmas and Uncle Bob is giving “Aguinaldo” to the children.
Three-year-old Karen did not want to receive the one-hundred-peso bill
and instead preferred to receive four 20-peso bills. Her ten-year-old
cousins were telling her it’s better to get the one hundred bill, but they
failed to convince her.
ANALYSIS
Why do you think Karen preferred the 20-peso bills?
ABSTRACTION
The children in the situations presented above were of different ages and
so also have apparent differences in the way they thought. They were in
different stages of cognitive development. Perhaps no one has influenced the
field of cognitive development more than Jean Piaget. As you read through this
module, you will come to understand cognitive development of children and
adolescents and also identify ways of applying this understanding in the
teaching learners.
For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive
development. His research method involved observing a small number of
58
individuals as they responded to cognitive tasks that he designed. These tasks
were later known as Piagetian tasks.
Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic epistemology”
because he was interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms.
Piaget was initially into biology and he also had a background in philosophy.
Knowledge from both these disciplines influenced his theories and research of
child development. Out of his researches, Piaget came up with the stages of
cognitive development.
Piaget examined the implications of his theory not only to aspects of
recognition but also to intelligence and moral development. His theory has been
applied widely to teaching and curriculum design specially in the preschool and
elementary curricula.
Basic Cognitive Concepts
Schema. Piaget used term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures
by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is
an individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing or
experience. It is like the mind has a filing cabinet and each drawer has folders
that contain files of things he has had an experience with. For instance, if a child
sees a dog for the first time, he creates his own schema of what a dog is. It has
four legs and a tail. It barks. It’s furry. The child then “puts this description of a
dog ‘on file’ in his mind.” When he sees another similar dog, he “pulls” out the
file (his schema of a dog) in his mind, looks at the animal, and says, “four legs,
tail, barks, furry…. That’s a dog!”.
Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an
existing or previously created structure or schema. If the child sees another
dog, this time a little smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by
adding this new information (a different-looking dog) into his schema of dog.
Accommodation. This is the process of creating a new schema. If the
same child now sees another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but
somehow different. He might try to fit it into his schema of a dog, and say, “Look
mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too!” With mommy’s further
descriptions, the child will now create a new schema, that of a goat. He now
adds a new file in his filing cabinet.
Equilibrium. Piaget believed that people have the natural need to
understand how the world works and to find order, structure, and predictability
in their life. Equilibrium is achieving proper balance between assimilation and
accommodation. When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of
schema) or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. This
mean there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is
understood. We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to
establish equilibrium once more.
59
Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the
environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense,
Piaget’s theory is similar in nature to other constructivist perspective of learning
like Bruner and Vygotsky.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage. The first stage corresponds from birth to
infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping,
sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity.
The term sensori-motor focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle
movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the world.
In working with children in the sensori-motor stage, teachers should aim to
provide a rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects to play with.
Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to know that an
object still exists even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the
sensory motor stage.
Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage. The preoperational stage covers from about
two to seven years old, roughly corresponding to the preschool years.
Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now
make mental representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer
to the use of symbols. This stage is highlighted by the following:
Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent objects and
events. A symbol is a thing that represents something else. A
drawing, a written word, or a spoken word come to be understood as
representing a real object like a real MRT train. Symbolic function
gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7 years. Riel, a two-
year old may pretend that she is drinking from a glass which is really
empty. Though she already pretends the presence of water, the glass
remains to be a glass. At around four years of age, however, Nico,
may, after pretending to drink from an empty glass, turn the glass into
a rocket ship or a telephone. By the age of 6 or 7 the child can pretend
play with objects that exist only in his mind. Enzo, who is six, can do
a whole ninja turtle routine without any costume nor “props.” Trina,
who is seven can pretend to host an elaborate princess ball only in
her mind.
Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point
of view and to assume that everyone also has his same point of view.
The child cannot take the perspective of others. You see this in five-
year-old boy who buys a toy truck for his mother’s birthday; or a three-
year-old girl who cannot understand why her cousins call her daddy
“uncle” and not daddy.
Centration. This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on
one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspects. For
60
example, when a child is presented with two identical glasses with
the same amount of water, the child will say they have the same
amount of water. However, once water from one of the glasses is
transferred to an obviously taller but narrower glass, the child might
say that there is more water in the taller glass. The child only focused
or “centered” only one aspect of the new glass, that it is a taller glass.
The child was not able to perceive that the new glass is also
narrower. The child only centered on the height of the glass and
excluded the width in determining the amount of water in the glass.
Irreversibility. Pre-operational children still have the inability to
reverse their thinking. They can understand that 2 + 3 is 5, but cannot
understand that 5-3 is 2.
Animism. This is the tendency of children to attribute human like
traits or characteristics to inanimate objects. When at night, the child
is asked, where the sun is, she will reply, “Mr. Sun is asleep.”
Transductive Reasoning. This refers to the pre-operational child’s
type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive. Reasoning
appears to be from particular to particular i.e., if A causes B, then B
causes A. For example, since her mommy comes home every day
around six o’clock in the evening, when asked why it is already night,
the child will say, “because my mom is already home.”
Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage. This stage is characterized by the
ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects. This
covers approximately the ages between 8-11 hears or the elementary school
years. The concrete operational stage is marked by the following:
Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the
different features of objects and situations. No longer is the child
focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This allows the child
to be more logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations.
Reversibility. During the stage of concrete operations, the child can
now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse. For
example, thy can already comprehend the commutative property of
addition, and that subtraction is the reverse of addition. They can also
understand that a ball of clay shaped into a dinosaur can again be
rolled back into a ball of clay.
Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain properties of
objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if
there is a change in appearance. Because of the development of the
child’s ability of decentering and also reversibility, the concrete
operational child can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a
taller but narrower container is still the same as when the water was
in the shorter but wider glass. The children progress to attain
61
conservation abilities gradually being a pre-conserver, a transitional
thinker and then a conserver.
Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a
series based on one dimension such as weight, volume or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. In the final stage of formal operations
covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They
can now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize. This stage is
characterized by the following:
Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with different
hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weight data in order
to make a final decision or judgment. This can be done in the
absence of concrete objects. The individuals can now deal with
“What if” questions.
Analogical Reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the relationship
in one instance and then use that relationship to narrow down
possible answers in another similar situation or problem. The
individual in the formal operations stage can make an analogy. If
United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to ______. The
individual will reason that since the UK is found in the continent of
Europe then the Philippines is found in what continent? Then Asia is
his answer. Through reflective thought and even in the absence of
concrete objects, the individual can now understand relationships
and do analogical reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning. This is the ability to think logically by applying
a general rule to a particular instance or situation. For example, all
countries near the north pole have cold temperatures. Greenland is
near the North Pole. Therefore, Greenland has cold temperature.
From Piaget’s findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive
the following principles:
1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different
stages of cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or
situations that engage learners and require adaptation (i.e.,
assimilation and accommodation).
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate
level of motor or mental operations for a child of given age; avoid
asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their current
cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present
challenges
62
APPLICATION
This activity focuses on a story involving interview or interaction of family
members. Choose a story you want to use for this activity. It can be from a
story you have read or a movie or “telenovela” that you watched or plan to
watch. Use the matrix below to related the characters to Piaget’s stages of
(Reading Resource: Corpuz, Lucas, Borado, Lucido, 2018. The Child

and Adolescent Learners and Teaching Principles, Lorimar
Publishing House, Inc. Manila
Title of Story/Movie: _____________________
Write a brief summary of the story:
63
Closure
Congratulation! In the succeeding lessons, you will enjoy to learn on Eight stages of
Erikson’s psycho-social theory. It includes psychosocial crisis, maladaptation,
malignancy and virtue. It will guide you as a future teacher on how to process a
learner’s emotions and self- identity. For now, we encourage you to write a reflection
journal to relate the concept of Erikson’s psycho-social theory. Here we go!
64
Introduction
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are a very
relevant, highly regarded and meaningful theory. Life is a continuous
process involving learning and trials which help us grow. Erikson’s
enlightening theory guides us and helps to tell us why.
Learning Outcomes
 explain the 8 Stages of Life to someone you care about; and
 write a short story of your life using Erikson’s stages as framework.
ACTIVITY
Eric Erikson’s Stage Theory of Development Questionnaire

This contains selected items from Rhoma Ochse and Cornelis Plug’s
self- report questionnaire assessing the personality dimensions associated with
Erikson’s first 5 stages of psychosexual development. It can serve to make the
stages personally relevant to you.
Indicate how often each of these statements applies to you by using the
following scale:
0 = never applies to you Read the
1 = occasionally or seldom applies to you instructions at
2 = fairly often applies to you the end before
3 = very often applies to you putting scores
here
Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust

Score
(Infancy and Early Childhood)
____ 1. I feel pessimistic about the future of humankind.
____ 2. I feel the world’s major problems can be solved.
____ 3. I am filled with admiration for humankind.
____ 4. People can be trusted.
____ 5. I feel optimistic about my future.
Total Score Stage 1
Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt
Score
(Infancy and Childhood)
____ 6. When people try to persuade me to do something I
don’t want to, I refuse
____ 7. After I have made a decision, I fell I have made a
mistake
65
____ 8. I am unnecessarily apologetic.
____ 9. I worry that my friends will find fault with me.
____ 10. When I disagree with someone, I tell them.
Total Score Stage 2
Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt
Score
____ 11. I am prepared to take a risk to get what I want.
____ 12. I feel hesitant to try out a new way of doing
something.
____ 13. I am confident in carrying out my plans to a
successful conclusion.
____ 14. I feel what happens to me is the result of what I
have done.
____ 15. When I have difficulty in getting something right,
I give up.
Total Score Stage 3
Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority
Score
____ 16. When people look at something I have done, I
feel embarrassed.
____ 17. I get a great deal of pleasure from working.
____ 18. I feel too incompetent to do what I would really
like to do in life.
____ 19. I avoid doing something difficult because I feel I
would fail.
____ 20. I feel competent.
Total Score Stage 4
Stage 5: Identity Versus Identity Diffusion
Score
(Adolescence)
____ 21. I wonder what sort of person I really am.
____ 22. I feel certain about what I should do with my life.
____ 23. My worth is recognized by others.
____ 24. I feel proud to be the sort of person I am.
____ 25. I am unsure as to how people feel about me.
Total Score Stage 5
Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation
Score
(Early Adulthood)
____ 26. I feel that no one has ever known the real me.
____ 27. I have a feeling of complete “togetherness” with
someone.
____ 28. I feel it is better to remain free than to become
committed to marriage for life.
66
____ 29. I share my private thoughts with someone.
____ 30. I feel as though I am alone in the world.
Total Score Stage 6
Scoring: Items on the questionnaire were derived from Erikson’s statements

about each page.
Scores for each subscale range from 0 to 15, with high scores
reflecting greater on a particular personality dimension.
1. The response to item 1 should be reversed (0=3, 1=2, 2=1, 3=0) and then
added to the numbers given in response to items 2, 3, 4 and 5 to obtain a
trust score.
2. Responses to items 7, 8, 9 should be reversed and added to items 6 and 10

to assess autonomy.
3. Answers to 12 and 15 should be reversed and added to items 11, 13 and

14 to measure initiative.
4. Answers to 16, 18, and 19 should be reversed and then added to 17 and 20
to calculate industry.
5. Responses to 21 and 25 must be reversed and added to 22, 23, and 24 to

obtain a measure of identity.
6. Answer to 26, 28 and 30 are reversed and added to 27 and 29 to give

intimacy.
(Source: Ochse, R., & Plug, C. (1986). Cross-culture investigation of the validity
of Erikson’s theory of personality development. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 50, 1240-1252. Copyright © 19869 by the American
Psychology Association.)
ANALYSIS
What did you discover about yourself in this questionnaire?
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ABSTRACTION
Introduction to the 8 Stages:
1. Erikson’s ‘psychosocial’ term is derived from the two source words – namely
psychological (or the root, ‘psycho’ relating to the mind, brain, personality,
etc.) and social (external relationships and environment), both at the heart
of Erikson’s theory. Occasionally you’ll see the term extended to
biopsychosocial, in which “bio” refers to life, as in biological.
2. Erikson’s theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson

extended the theory and incorporated cultural and social aspects into
Freud’s biological and sexually-oriented theory.
3. It’s also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps aided
by his own journey through the “psychosocial crisis” stages model that
underpinned his work.
4. Like other influential theories, Erikson’s model is simple and well-designed.

The theory is a basis for broad or complex discussion and analysis of
personality and behaviour, and also for understanding and for facilitating
personal development – of self and others. It can help the teacher in
becoming more knowledgeable and at the same time understanding of the
various environmental factors that affect his own and his students’
personality and behaviour.
5. Erikson’s eight stages theory is a tremendously powerful model. It is very
accessible and obviously relevant to modern life, from several different
perspectives for understanding and explaining how personality and
behaviour develops in people. As such Erikson’s theory is useful for
teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing with
conflict, and generally for understanding self and others.
6. Various terms are used to describe Erikson’s model, for example Erikson’s
biopsychosocial or bio-psycho-social theory (bio refers to biological, which
in this context means life); Erikson’s human development cycle or life cycle,
and variations of these. All refer to the same eight stage psychosocial
theory, it being Erikson’s most distinct work and remarkable model.
7. The epigenetic principle. As Boeree explains, “This principle says that we

develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight
stages. Our progress through each stage is in part determined by our
success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages. A little like the
unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain time, in a certain
order, which nature, through its genetics, has determined. If we interfere in
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the natural order of development by pulling a petal forward prematurely or
out of order, we ruin the development of the entire flower.” Erikson’s theory
delved into how personality was formed and believed that the earlier stages
served as a foundation for the later stages. The theory highlighted the
influence of one’s environment, particularly on how earlier experiences
gradually build upon the next and result into one’s personality.
8. Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional

forces. A helpful term used by Erikson for these opposing forces is “contrary
dispositions”. Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its
inherent challenges. Erikson used the words “syntonic” for the first-listed
“positive” disposition in each crisis (e.g., Trust) and “dystonic” for the
second-listed “negative” disposition (e.g., Mistrust). To signify the opposing

or conflicting relationship between each pair of forces or dispositions,
Erikson connected them with the word “versus”.
9. If a stage is managed well, we carry away certain virtue or psychosocial

strength which will help us through the rest of the stages of our lives.
Successfully passing through each crisis involves “achieving” a healthy
ration or balance between the two opposing dispositions that represent
each crisis.
10. On the other hand, if we don’t do so well, we may develop maladaptations

and malignancies, as well as endanger all our future development. A
malignancy is he worse of the two. It involves too little of the positive and
too much of the negative aspect of the task. Such as a person who can’t
trust others. A maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much of
the positive and too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too
much.
11. The crisis stages are not sharply defined steps. Elements tend to overlap
and mingle from one stage to the next and to the preceding stages. It’s a
broad framework and concept, not a mathematical formula which replicates
precisely across all people and situations.
12. Erikson’s was keen to point out that the transition between stages is
“overlapping”. Crisis stages connect with each other like interlaced fingers,
not like a series of neatly stacked boxes. People don’t suddenly wake up
one morning and be in the new life stage. Changes don’t happen in
regimented clear-cut steps. Changes are graduated, mixed-together and
organic.
13. Erikson also emphasized the significance of “mutuality” and “generativity” in

his theory. The terms are linked. Mutuality reflects the effect of generations
69
on each other, especially among families, and particularly between parents
and children and grandchildren. Everyone potentially affects everyone
else’s experiences as they pass through the different crisis stages.
Generativity, actually a named disposition within one of the crisis stages
(Generativity vs. Stagnation, stage seven), reflects the significant
relationship between adults and the best interests of children – one’s own
children, and in a way everyone else’s children – the next generation, and
all following generations.
Now, you are ready to go over the eight stages. As you read, enjoy filling
up the concept map we made, found at the beginning of each stage. This will
help you remember the important terms in each stage and how these terms are
interrelated. Use the side margins to write your thoughts about the stage and
how they connect to your own life no and as a future teacher.
The Eight Psychosocial Stages of Development:
Stage One
Psychosocial Crisis
The first stage, infancy, is approximately the first year or year and a half
of life. The crisis is trust vs. mistrust. The goal is to develop trust without
completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust. If the primary caregivers, like
the parents can give the base a sense of familiarity, consistency, and continuity,
then the baby will develop the feeling that the world is a safe place to be, that
people are reliable and loving. If the parents are unreliable and inadequate, if
they reject the infant or harm it, if other interests cause both parents to turn
away from the infant’s needs to satisfy their own instead, then the infant will
develop mistrust. He or she will be apprehensive and suspicious around people.
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Maladaptation/Malignancy
Please understand that this doesn’t mean that the parents have to be
perfect. In fact, parents who are overly protective of the child, who are there the
minute the first cry comes out, will lead that child into the maladaptive tendency
which Erikson calls sensory maladjustment: Overly trusting, even gullible, this
person cannot believe anyone would mean them harm, and will use all the
defences at their command to find an explanation or excuse for the person who
did him wrong. Worse, of course, is he child whose balance is tipped way over
on the mistrust side. They will develop the malignant tendency of withdrawal,
characterized by depression, paranoia and possibly psychosis.
Virtue
If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of
hope, the strong belief that, even when things are not going well, they will work
out well in the end. One of the signs that a child is doing well in the first stage
is when the child isn’t overly upset by the need to wait a moment for the
satisfaction of his or her needs: Mod or Dad doesn’t have to be perfect; I trust
them enough to believe that, if they can’t be here immediately, they will be here
soon; things may be tough now, but they will work out. This is the same ability
that, in later life, gets us through disappointments in love, our careers, and
many other domains of life.
Stage 2
Stage 2
Too much Too much
Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy
________________ ________________ ________________
Virtue
________________
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Psychosocial Crisis
The second stage is early childhood, from about eighteen months to
three or four years old. The task is to achieve a degree of autonomy while
minimizing shame and doubt. If mom and dad, or caregiver permits the child,
now a toddler, to explore and manipulate his/her environment, the child will
develop a sense of autonomy or independence. The parents should not
discourage the child, but neither should they push. A balance is required.
People often advise new parents to be “firm but tolerant” at this stage
and the advice is good. The way, the child will develop both self-control and
self-esteem. On the other hand, it is rather easy for the child to develop instead
a shame and doubt. If the parents come down hard on any attempt to explore
and be independent, the child will soon give up with the belief that he/she
cannot and should not act on his/her own. We should keep on mind that even
something as innocent as laughing at the toddler’s effort can lead the child to
feel deeply ashamed and to doubt his or her abilities.
There are other ways to lead children to shame and doubt. If you give
children unrestricted freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to help children
do what they should learn to do for themselves, you will also give them the
impression that they should learn by themselves, you will also give them the
impression that they are not good for much. If you aren’t patient enough to wait
for your child to tie his or her shoelaces, your child will never learn to tie them,
and will assume that this is too difficult to learn!
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Nevertheless, a little “shame and doubt” is not inevitable, but beneficial.
Without it, you will develop the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls
impulsiveness, a sort of shameless wilfulness that leads you, in later childhood
and even adulthood, to jump into things without proper considerations of your
abilities. Worse of course, is too much shame and doubt, which leads to the
malignancy Erickson calls compulsiveness. The compulsive person feels as
if their entire being rides on everything they do, so everything must be done
perfectly.
Following all the rules precisely keeps you from mistakes and mistakes
must be avoided at all costs. Many of you know how it feels to always be
ashamed and always doubt yourself. A little more patience and tolerance with
your own children may help them avoid your path. And give yourself a little
slack, too!
Virtue
If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and
doubt, you will develop the virtue of willpower or determination. One of the
most admirable-and frustrating- things about two- and three-year-olds is their
determination. “Can do” is their motto. If we can preserve that “can do” attitude
(with appropriate modesty to balance it) we are much better off as adults.
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Stage 3
Stage 3
Too much Too much
Virtue
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage three is the early childhood stage, from three or four to five or six.
The task is to learn initiative without too much guilt. Initiative means a positive
response to the world’s challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new
skills, feeling purposeful. Parents can encourage children to try out their ideas.
We should accept and encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This
is a time for play, not for formal education. The child is now capable, as never
before, of imagining a future situation, one that isn’t a reality right now. Initiative
is the attempt to make that non-reality, a reality.
But if children can imagine the future, if they can plan, then they can be
responsible as well, and guilt. If my two-year-old flushes my watch down the
toilet, I can safely assume that there were no “evil intentions”. It was just a
matter of a shiny object going round and round and down. What fun! But if my
five-year-old does the same things… well, she should know what’s going to
happen to the watch, what’s going to happen to Daddy’s temper, and what’s
going to happen to her! She can be guilty of the act and she can begin to feel
guilty as well. The capacity for normal judgment has arrived.
Erickson is, of course, a Freudian, and as such, he includes the Oedipal
experience in this stage. From this perspective, the Oedipal crisis involves the
reluctance a child feels in relinquishing his or her closeness to the opposite sex
parent. A parent has a responsibility, socially, to encourage the child to “grow
up – you’re not a baby anymore! “But if this process is done too harshly and too
abruptly, the child learns to feel guilty about his or her feelings.
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Maladaptation/malignancy
Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency
Erikson calls ruthlessness. To be ruthless is to be heartless or unfeeling or be
“without mercy”. The ruthless person takes the initiative alright. They have their
plans, whether it’s a matter of school or romance or politics or career. It’s just
they don’t care who they step on to achieve goals. The goals are the only things
that matter, and guilty feelings and mercy are only signs of weakness. The
extreme form of ruthlessness is sociopathy.
Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually relatively easy on the
ruthless person. Harder on the person is the malignancy of too much guilt,
which Erickson calls inhibition. The inhibited will not try thins because “noting
ventured, nothing lost” and, particularly, nothing to feel guilty about. They are
so afraid to start and take a lead on a project. They fear that if it fails, they will
be blamed.
Virtue
A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose. A sense
of purpose is something many people crave for in their lives, yet many do not
realize that they themselves make their purposes, through imagination and
initiative. I think an even better word for this virtue would have been courage,
the capacity for action despite a clear understanding of your limitations and past
failings.
Stage 4
Stage 4
Too much Too much
________________ ________________ ________________
Virtue
________________
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage four is the school-age stage when the child is from about six to
twelve. The task is to develop a capacity for industry while avoiding an
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excessive sense of inferiority. Children must “tame the imagination” and
dedicate themselves to education and to learning the social skills their society
requires them. There is a broader social sphere at work now: The parents and
other family members are joined by teachers and peers and other members of
the community at large. They all contribute. Parents must encourage, teachers
must care, peers must accept. Children must learn that there is pleasure not
only in conceiving a plan, but in carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of
success, whether it is in school or in the playground, academic or social.
A good way to tell the difference between a child in the third stage and
one in the fourth stage is to look at the way they play games. Four-years-olds
may love games, but they will have only a vague understanding of the rules;
may change them several times during the course of the game; be very unlikely
to actually finish the games, unless it is by throwing the pieces at their
opponents. A seven-year-old, on the other hand, is dedicated to the rules,
considers them pretty much sacred, and is more likely to get upset if the game
is not allowed to come to its required conclusion.
If the child is allowed too little success, because of harsh teachers or
rejecting peers, for example, then he or she will develop instead a sense of
inferiority or incompetence. Additional sources of inferiority, Erickson mentions,
are racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination. If the child believes that
success is related to who you are rather than to how hard you try, then why try?
Maladaptation/ Malignancy
Too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called narrow
virtuosity. We see this in children who aren’t allowed to “be children” the ones
that parents or teachers push into the area of competence, without allowing the
development of broader interests. These are the kids without a life: child actors,
child athletes, child musicians, child prodigies of all sorts. We all admire their
industry, but we look a little closer, it’s all that stands in the way of an empty
life.
Much more common is the malignancy called inertia. This includes all
of us who suffer from the “inferiority complexes” Alfred Adler talked about. If at
first you don’t succeed, don’t ever try again! Many of us didn’t do well in
Mathematics, for example, so we’d die before we tool another math class.
Others were humiliated instead in the gym class, so we never try out for a sport
or play a game of basketball. Others never developed social skills—the most
important skills of all—and so we never go out in public. We become inert.
Virtue
A happier thing is to develop the right balance of industry and inferiority
that is, mostly industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep us sensibly humble.
Then we have a virtue called competency.
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Stage 5
Stage 5
Too much Too much
________________ ________________ ________________
Virtue
________________
Psychoanalysis Crisis
Stage five is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around 18
– 20 years old. The task during adolescence is to achieve ego identity and
avoid role confusion. It was adolescence that interested Erikson first and most,
and the patterns he saw here were the bases for his thinking about all the other
stages.
Ego identity means knowing who you are and how you fit in to the rest
of society. It requires that you take all you’ve learned about life and yourself
and mold it into a unified self-image, one that your community finds meaningful.
There are a number of things that make things easier: First, we should
have a mainstream adult culture that is worthy of the adolescence’s respect,
one with good adult role models and open lines of communication.
Further, society should provide clear rites of passages, certain
accomplishments and ritual that help to distinguish the adult from the child. In
primitive and traditional societies, an adolescence boy may be asked to leave
the village for a period of time. To live on his own, hunt some symbolic animal,
seek an inspirational vision. Boys and girls may be required to go through
certain tests of endurance, symbolic ceremonies, or educational events. IN one
way or another, the distinction between the powerless, but irresponsible, time
of childhood and the powerful and responsible time of adulthood, is made clear.
Without these things, we are likely to see role confusion, meaning
uncertain about one’s place in society and the world. When an adolescent is
confronted by role confusion, Erikson says, he or she is suffering from an
identity crisis. In fact, a common question adolescent in our society ask is a
straight-forward question of identity: Who I am?”
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One of Erikson’s suggestion for adolescence in our society is the
psychosocial moratorium. He suggests you take a little “time out”. If you have
to go Europe. If you don’t bum around the Philippines. Quit school and get a
job. Quit your job and go to school. Take a break, smell a rose, get to know
yourself. We tend to want to get to “success” as fast as possible, and yet few
of us have ever taken the time to figure out what success means to us. A little
like the young Oglala Lakota, perhaps we need to dream a little.
There is such a thing as too much “ego identity” where a person is so
involved in a particular role in a particular society or subculture that there is no
room left for tolerance. Erikson calls this maladaptive tendency fanaticism. A
fanatic believes that this is the only way. Adolescents are, of course, known for
their idealism, and for their tendency to see things in black-and-white. These
people will gather others around them and promote their beliefs and life-styles
without regard to others’ rights to disagree.
The lack of identity is perhaps move difficult still, and Erikson refers to
the malignant tendency here as repudiation. To repudiate is to reject. They
reject their membership in the world of adults and, even more, they reject their
need for an identity. Some adolescents prefer to go to groups that go against
the norms to form their identity: religious cults, militaristic organization, group
founded on hatred, groups that have divorced themselves from the painful
demands of mainstream society. They may become involved in destructive
activities- drugs, or alcohol- or they may withdraw into their own psychotic
fantasies. After all, being “bad” or being “nobody” is better than not knowing
who you are!
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the virtue Erikson
called fidelity. Fidelity means loyalty, the ability to live by societies standards
despite their imperfections and incompleteness and inconsistencies. We are
not talking about blind loyalty, and we are not talking about accepting the
imperfections. After all, if you love your community, you will want to see it
become the best it can be. But fidelity means that you have found a place in the
community, a place that will allow you to contribute.
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Stage 6
Stage 6
Too much Too much
________________ ________________ ________________
Virtue
________________
Psychosocial Crisis
If you made it this far, you are in the stage of young adulthood, which
lasts from about 18 to 30. The ages in the adult stages are much fuzzier than
in the childhood stages and people may differ dramatically. The task is to
achieve some degree of intimacy, as opposed to remaining in isolation.
Intimacy is the ability to be close to other, as a lover, a friend, and as a
participant in society. Because you have a clear sense of who you are, you no
longer need to fear “losing” yourself, as many adolescents do. The “fear of
commitment” some people seem to exhibit is an example of immaturity stage.
This fear isn’t always obvious. Many people today are always putting off
the progress of their relationships: I’ll get married as soon as I finish school, as
soon as I have a job, as soon as I have a house as soon as… If you’ve been
engaged for the last ten years, what’s holding you back?
Neither should the young adult need to prove him- or herself anymore.
A teenage relationship is often a matter of trying to establish identity through
“couple-hood”. Who I am? I’m her boyfriend. The young adult relationship
should be a matter of two independent egos wanting to create something larger
than themselves. We intuitively recognize this when we frown on a relationship
between a young adult and a teenager: We see the potential for manipulation
of the younger member of the party by the older.
Maladaptation/ Malignancy
Erikson calls the maladaptive from promiscuity, referring particularly to
the tendency to become intimate too freely, too easily, and without any depth
to your intimacy. This can be true of your relationships with friends and
neighbors and your whole community as well as with lovers.
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The malignancy he calls exclusion, which refers to the tendency to
isolate oneself from love, friendship and community and to develop a certain
hatefulness in compensation for one’s loneliness.
Virtue
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will instead carry with you
for the rest of your life the virtue of psychosocial strength Erikson calls. love.
Love, in the context of this theory, means being able to put aside differences
and antagonisms through “mutuality and devotion”. It includes not only the love
we find in a good marriage, but the love between friends and the love of one’s
neighbour, co-worker, and compatriot as well.
Stage 7
Stage 7
Too much Too much
________________ ________________ ________________
Virtue
________________
Psychosocial Crisis
The seventh stage is that of middle adulthood. It is hard to pin a time to
it, it would include the period during which we are actively involved in raising
children. For most people in our society, this would put it somewhere between
the middle twenties and late fifties. The task here is to cultivate the proper
balance of generativity and stagnation.
Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is a concern for
the next generation and all future generations. As such, it is considerably less
‘selfish” than the intimacy of the previous stage: Intimacy, the love between
lovers and friends, is a love between equals, and it is necessarily mutual. With
generativity, the individual, like a parent, does not expect to be paid for the love
he gives to his children, at least not as strongly. Few parents expect a “return
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on their investment” from their children; If they do, we don’t think of them as
very good parents!
Although the majority of people practice generativity by having and
raising children, there are many other ways as well. Erikson considers teaching,
writing, invention, the arts and sciences, social activism and generally
contributing to the welfare of future generations to be generativity as well—
anything, in fact that satisfies that old” need to be needed”. Stagnation, on the
other hand, is self-absorption, caring for no one. The stagnant person stops to
be a productive member of the society.
Maladaptive/ Malignancy
It is perhaps to imagine that we should have any “stagnation” in our lives,
but the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls overextension illustrate the
problem: Some people try to be so generative that they no longer allow times
for themselves, for rest and relaxation. The person who is overextension is no
longer contributes well. I’m sure we are all know someone who belongs to many
clubs, or is devoted to many causes, or tries to take so many classes or hold
so many jobs that they no longer have time for any of them!
More obvious, of course, is the malignant tendency of rejectivity. Too
little generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer participating
in or contributing to society. And much of what we call “the meaning of life” is a
matter of how we participate and what we contribute.
This is the stage of the “midlife crisis”. Sometimes men and women take
a look at their lives and ask a that big, bad question “what am I doing all this
for?” Notice the question carefully: Because the focus is on themselves, they
ask what, rather than whom, they are doing for. In their panic at getting older
and not having experienced and accomplished what they imagined they would
when they were younger, they try to recapture their youth. Men are often most
flamboyant examples: They leave their long-suffering wives, quit their
humdrums jobs, buy some “hip” new clothes and start hanging around singles’
bars. Of course, they seldom find what they are looking for, because they are
looking for the wrong thing!
Virtue
If you are successful at this stage, you will have a capacity for caring that
will serve you through the rest of your life.
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Stage 8
Stage 8
Too much Too much
Virtue
Psychosocial Crisis
This last stage, referred to delicately as late adulthood or maturity, or
less delicately as old stage, begins sometime around retirement, after the kids
have gone, say somewhere around 60. Some older folks will protest and say it
only starts when you feel old and so on, but that’s an effect of our youth-
worshipping culture, which has eve old people avoiding any acknowledgement
of age. In Erikson’s theory, reaching this stage is a good thing, and not reaching
it suggests that earlier problems retarded your development.
The task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair.
This stage, seems like the most difficult of all. First, comes a detachment from
society, from a sense of usefulness, for most people in our culture. Some retire
from jobs they’ve held for years; others find their duties as parents coming to a
close; most find that their input is no longer requested or required.
Then there is a sense of biological uselessness, as the body no longer
does everything it used to. Women go through a sometimes longer menopause.
Men often find they can no longer “rise to the occasion”. Then there are
illnesses of old age, such as arthritis, diabetes, heart problems, concerns about
breast and ovarian and prostate cancers. There come fears about things that
one was never afraid of before- the flu, for example, or just falling down. Along
with the illnesses come concerns of death. Friends die. Relatives die. One’s
spouse dies. It is, of course, certain that you, too, will have your turn. Faced
with all this, it might seem like everyone would feel despair.
In response to this despair, some older people become preoccupied with
the past. After all, that’s where things were better. Some become preoccupied
with their failures, the bad decisions they made, and regret that that they really
don’t have the time or energy to reverse them. We find some older become
depressed, spiteful, paranoid, hypochondriacal, or developing the patterns of
senility with or without physical bases.
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Maladaptation /Malignancy
The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption. This is
what happens when a person “presumes” ego integrity without actually facing
the difficulties of old age. The person in old age believes that he alone is right.
He does not respect the ideas and views of the young. The malignant tendency
is called disdain, by which Erikson means a contempt of life, one’s own or
anyone’s. The person becomes very negative and appears to hate life.
Virtue
Someone who approaches death without fear has the strength Erikson
calls wisdom. He calls it a gift to children, because “healthy children will not
fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death”. He suggests that
a person must be somewhat gifted to be truly wise, but I would like to suggest
that you understand ‘gifted” in as broad a fashion as possible. I have found
there are people of very modest gifts who have taught me a great deal, not by
their wise words, but by their simple and gentle approach to lie and death, by
their generosity of spirit”.
Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby, coming
to terms with the end of life. If you are able to look back and accept the course
of events, the choices made your life as you lived it; as being necessary, then
you needn’t fear death. Although most of you are yet at this point of life, perhaps
you can still sympathize by considering your life up to now. We’ve all made
mistakes, you wouldn’t be who you are. If you had been very fortunate, or if you
had played it safe and made very few, mistakes, your life would not have been
as rich as is.
Stages Psychosocial Maladaptation/Malignancy Virtue
Stages
Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust -overly protection of the child Hope
First year
Goal: To develop Maladaptive tendency: If proper
or year trust without Sensory maladjustment balance is
and a half completely achieved
of life Malignant tendency:
eliminating the
capacity after Withdrawal
mistrust
Characterized by depression,
paranoia, possibly psychosis
Early Shame and Maladaptive tendency: Willpower
childhood doubt or
“Shame and Doubt “
-18 determinati
Task: To achieve Impulsiveness
months to on
a degree of
3 or 4 -a sort of shameless
autonomy while -proper
years old willfulness
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-positive
balance of
minimizing
shame and doubt - to jump things without
proper consideration of
abilities “Shame and
Malignant tendency: Doubt “
Compulsiveness - “can do”
motto
-too much shame and doubt
Persevere
- a feeling of entirely being
that” can
rides on the thing to be done
do” much
- everything must be done better off as
perfectly adults
-mistakes must be avoided at
all cost
Early Task: Maladaptive tendency: Courage
childhood Ruthlessness -capacity for
To learn initiative
stage 3-4 without too much action
to 5 to 6 - too much initiative and little
guilt despite a
years old guilt
clear
Oedipal -to be heartless or unfeeling understandi
experience without mercy ng of
-crisis that limitations
--things that matter and guilt
involves and fast
feelings
reluctance failings
-goal matters
- one’s feeling of
relinquishing -guilty feeling and mercy are
his/her closeness only signs of weakness
to the opposite -extreme form of
sex parent ruthlessness-sociopathy
Malignant tendency:
Inhibition
-too much guilt
-will not try to things –nothing
ventured, nothing lost,
nothing to be felt guilty
Six to 12- Task: To Maladaptive tendency: Competency
years old develop a Narrow Virtuosity To develop
capacity for the right
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industry while -children not allowed to “be balance of
avoiding children” – parents push industry and
excessive into one area of inferiority-
sense of competence sensibly
inferiority humble
-engages child without life:
“tame the Child actors, child
imagination”- musicians, child athletes,
dedicate to child prodigies
education
and to -they are admired, but
learning the stands an empty life
social skills Malignant tendency:
that society
requires Inertia
-sense of - “inferiority complexes”
inferiority or “If at first you don’t
incompetenc succeed, don’t ever try
e-if too little again”
success
because of -other don’t develop social
harsh teacher skills
and rejection
from peers
-other
sources of
inferiority;
racism,
sexism, other
forms of
discrimination
18- 20 years Task: Maladaptive tendency: Fidelity
old Fanaticism
To achieve -successful
ego identity negotiation
-Too much ego identity
and avoid - mean
role of -so, involved in a particular
loyalty- ability
confusion role in a particular society
to live by
-ego identity- -conduct gathering and societies
knowing promote their belief and standards
oneself and life-styles despite
to fit in to the Malignant tendency: imperfections
rest of and
society Repudiation incompletene
ss,
84
- requires to -Lack of identity inconsistencie
take of all s
- to reject membership,
learning need for identity, - found a
about life and place that will
oneself allow
-have a everyone to
mainstream - may become involve in contribute
adult culture destructive activities
-good adult
role models
-open lines to
communicati
on
Rites of
passage-
should be
provided by
the society
-a certain
accomplishm
ents and
rituals that
help to
distinguish
the adult from
the child
Erikson
suggests that
-psychosocial
moratorium –
to take a little
“time out”-
Ex. If you
have money,
take a grand
vacation.
Young -much fuzzier Maladaptive tendency: Love
adulthood, Promiscuity
Task:
from 18 to
85
about 30 To achieve -To become intimate too -psychosocial
years old some degree freely, too easily, and strength
of intimacy without any depth to -if negotiated
intimacy
Intimacy- to successfully, will
be close to carry for the rest
others of life
Malignant tendency:
“fear of Exclusion - being able to
commitment” put aside
- seem to -To isolate oneself to difference and
exhibit an love, friendship, and antagonisms
example of community through “mutual
immaturity -to develop a certain of devotion”
hatefulness in - love bet.
compensation of one’s Friends, one’s
loneliness neighbor, co-
worker, and
compatriot
Middle Task: Maladaptive tendency: If successful,
Adulthood- Overextension
To cultivate -have the
middle the proper capacity for
twenties and -no longer allow time for
balance of caring that will
the late 50 oneself, for rest and
generativity serve through
years old relaxation
and the rest of life
stagnation -no longer contributes
well
-Generativity-
extension of - belongs to so many
love into the clubs, devoted to so
future many causes, to take
many classes, hold so
-concerns on many jobs that no longer
next have time for any
generation
and all future Malignant tendency:
generation Rejectivity
- “return of -too little generativity and
investment- too much stagnation
parent’s
expectation -no longer participating in
(few) or contributing to society.
- other ways - “midlife crisis”
in practicing
generativity:
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writing, - sometimes aske that
teaching, big, bad question ‘what I
invention, the am doing all this for?”
arts and
sciences,
social
activism
Stagnation-
self-
absorption,
caring for no-
one, stops to
be a
productive
member of
the society
Late Task: to Maladaptive tendency: Wisdom
adulthood or develop ego Presumption -approaches
maturity integrity with death fear
a minimal -When a person”
Old age,
amount of presumes” ego integrity - calls a gift to
sometime
despair without actually facing children-
around the difficulties of old age “healthy
retirement -most
children will not
difficult -believes he is right
Around 60 fear if their elder
stage -does not respect the have integrity
-detachment ideas and view of young enough not fear
from society one death”
-sense of Malignant tendency: -some it’s a
uselessness simple, gentle
- sense of
biological
uselessness Disdain
-means a contempt of approach to life
life, one’s own or and death
anyone’s “generosity of
-some -become very negative spirit”
become
preoccupied -appear to hate life
with the past
-some
become
depressed,
87
spiteful,
paranoid,
hypochondri
acal,
develop a
pattern of
senility
Manila
APPLICATION
You are going to make a power point slides or in a scrapbook
style prints outs. You are free to write your own life story using the stages
of psychosocial development as framework. You may ask your parents
and other significant persons in your life. Look at your baby books and
photo albums.
You will also write a short reflection about stages of Psycho-social

Theory of Development.
REFLECTION NO.
(Title)
Submitted by : JUAN DELA CRUZ Date : ___________
a…………;
b………. and;
c……….
Closure
Thank you very much for being so kind and generous in sharing
your life’s best experiences. May you find this lesson more meaningful
in knowing yourself. Let’s move on to the next theory on how you will
process moral reasoning in life. You will get to know more about the
different levels of moral reasoning by Kohlberg. Be still.
88
Introduction
Individuals, when confronted by situations where they need to make
moral decisions, exercise their own ability to use moral reasoning. Lawrence
Kohlberg was interested in studying the development of moral reasoning. He
based his theory on the findings of Piaget in studying cognitive development.
Our ability to choose right from wrong is tied with our ability to understand and
reason logically.
Learning Outcomes
 explain the stages of moral development; and
 analyse cases on theory of moral development
ACTIVITY
Read the moral dilemma below.
Ryan, 17, has been saving up money to buy a ticket for this rock concert
of rock band. His parents have discouraged him from going as the concert will
surely be with a rowdy crowd. The band is notorious for having out-of-control
audience who somehow manages to get drunk and stoned during the concert.
Ryan agreed not ort watch anymore. But a day before the concert, Nic, 15-year-
old brother of Ryan saw a corner of what appeared to be a concert ticket
showing in the pocket of Ryan’s bag. Nic examined it and confirmed it was
indeed a ticket. Looking at Ryan’s bag, Nic also found an extra shirt and 2 sticks
of marijuana. So, he figured Ryan will go to the concert after all. That night,
Ryan told his parents that he was spending tomorrow night at a classmate’s
house for a school requirement. Then later that evening, he told Nic of his plan
to go to the concert. Nic didn’t say anything, but he found it difficult to sleep that
night, thinking whether to tell their parents or not.
1. If you were Nic, what would you do?
2. Why would you choose to do that? What were the thing you considered
in deciding what to do?
89
ANALYSIS
Examine the answer you gave. Compare it with the responses
provided below. In which of these responses is your answer most
similar?
Stage 1:
“Yes, I will tell our parents. Because if they found oud later that I knew, for sure
they will get angry and most likely punish me”
No, I will not tell because Ryan will make my life difficult and also punish me for
telling”.
Stage 2:
“Yes, I will tell my parents because they will reward me for it. I will subtly ask
for that new IPod that I’m wishing to have.”
“No. I will not tell. Ryan will surely grant me a lot of favour for not telling. He’ll
not also squeal on me.”
Stage 3:
“Yes, I will tell so my parents will think I am such an honest boy”.
“No, I will not tell. Ryan will think of me as a really cool brother!”
Stage 4:
“Yes, I will tell because we should follow the rules that our parents say.”
“No, because it’s been our rule to keep each other’s’ secrets”.
Stage 5:
“Yes I will tell because he might be hurt or get in trouble and his welfare is top
most priority.”
“No, because he is big enough to question my parent’s decision not to him go.”
Stage 6- “Yes I will tell because lying is always wrong and I want to be true to
what I believe in”.
“No, because I believe brothers watch out for each other. If he trusted me with
this, I should stay true to him and say anything.”
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In what level of moral development did your response to the dilemma
fall? Reflect about what this indicates about your moral reasoning in this moral
dilemma.
ABSTRACTION
Lawrence Kohlberg built on Piaget’s work, and set the groundwork for
the present debate in psychology on moral development. Like, Piaget he
believed that children form ways of thinking through their experiences which
include understandings of moral concepts such as justice, rights, equality and
human welfare. Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment and
extended that ages covered by Piaget, and found out that the process of
attaining moral maturity took longer and occurred slower than Piaget had
thought.
If Piaget designed specifics tasks to learn about the cognitive

development of children, Kohlberg utilized moral dilemma. The case you read
in the Activity part of this lesson 1 was based on how Kohlberg wrote his
dilemma. Like Piaget, he presented these dilemmas to individuals in his
research and asked for their responses. He did not aim to judge whether the
responses were right or wrong. He was interested in analysing the moral
reasoning behind the responses.
From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning

change in the socio-moral reasoning or perspective of the person.
6 Stages of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Level Stage Description
Preconventional Level Punishment/Obedience…
Moral reasoning is based  Motivated by fear
on the consequence/result 1  Act in order to avoid punishment.
of the act, not on the
whether the act itself is
good or bad
Mutual Benefit…
2  Motivated to act by the benefit that
one may obtain later
Conventional Social Approval…
Moral reasoning is based 3  Motivated by what others expect in
on the conventions or behavior-good boy, good girl
“norms” of society. This  Person acts because he/she values
may include approval of how he/she will appear to others.
others, laws and order.
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 Gives importance on what people
will think or say
Post –conventional Law and Order…
Moral reasoning is based  Motivated to act in order to uphold
on enduring or consistent 4 law and order.
principles. It is not just  Follow the law because it is the
recognizing the law, but law
the principles behind the
law
Social Contract…
5  Laws that are wrong can be
changed
 One will act based on social justice
and the common good.
Universal Principles…
 Associated with the development of
one’s conscience
6  Having a set of standards that
drives one to possess moral
responsibility to make societal
changes regardless of
consequences to oneself.
 Examples:
Mother Teresa
Martin Luther King, Jr.
APPLICATION
Directions: Write on the blank the appropriate stage of moral
development shown in the following:
_______1. Nicole allows her classmates to copy her paper analysis so that they
will think she is kind and will like her to be their friend.
_______2. Gerry does everything to get passing score in Chemistry class
because his mom will not give a vacation ticket for Hongkong if he
will fail.
_______3. A civic group protest the use of pills for family planning, saying that
although the government allows this, it is actually murder because
the pills are abortifacient (causes abortion)
______4. Helen lets Marie coping during their Natural Science test because
Marie agreed to let her copy during their Philippine History test.
______5. Ben decides to return the mobile phone inside he found in the science
laboratory building because he believes it’s the right thing to do.
Manila
92
Read the Moral Dillema Discussion guide found in
(http://tigger,uic.edu/~Inucci/MoralEd/practices/practice3lindext.html).
REFLECTION NO.
(Title)
Submitted by : JUAN DELA CRUZ Date : __________
a…………;
b………. and;
c……….
Closure
Congratulations! Take a breath, another theory will guide you on
how you are being influenced by your parents, peers and environment.
Through this, you will enhance and improve your learning, skills and
emotional stability. Good luck for the next lesson!
93
Introduction
The key them of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays
a very important role in cognitive development. He believed that
individual development could be understood without looking into the
social and cultural context within which development happens.
Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance given by
the teacher to assist the learning accomplish a task. Learn more about
it as you do the activity. Read on!
Learning Outcomes
 explain why Vygotsky’s theory is called “Socio-cultural” theory;
 differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development;
and
 explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill.
ACTIVITY
1. As a child, recall a skill that you wanted to learn and eventually learned
well, through the help of another person. (like swimming, riding a bike,
playing the piano, skating, etc.)
________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
2. What made you interested to learn the skill?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.
3. Who taught or assisted you?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.
4. Describe how you went about learning the skill. Describe what steps or
actions the person did in order to help you learn.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.
ANALYSIS
1. What factors in the environment influenced you to learn the skill?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
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2. Did the person who taught or assisted you make use of scaffolding? If yes,
How?
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
ABSTRACTION
When Vygotsky was a young boy, he was educated under a teacher who
used the Socratic Method. This method was a systematic question and answer
approach that allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher
levels of understanding. This experience, together with his interest in literature
and his work as a teacher, led him to recognize social interaction and
language as two central factors in cognitive development. His theory became
known as the Socio-Cultural Theory of Development.
Piaget and Vygotsky
Vygotsky worked on this theory around the same time as Piaget in

between the 1920’s and 30’s but they had clear differences in their views about
cognitive development. Since Piaget was taken up already in the preceding
lesson, it would be easier now to see how his views compare with Vygotsky’s.
Piaget Vygotsky
More individual in focus More social in focus
Believed that there are universal stages Did not emphasized on cultural factors in
of cognitive development cognitive development
Did not give much emphasis on Stressed the role of language in
language cognitive development
Social Interaction. Piaget’s theory was more individual, while Vygotsky was
more social. Piaget’s work on Piagetian’s tasks focused heavily on how an
individual’s cognitive development became evident through the individual’s own
processing of the tasks. Vygotsky’s on the other hand gave more weight on the
social interactions that contributed to the cognitive development of individuals.
For him, the social environment or the community tasks on a major role in one’s
development.
Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through
participation in social activities, making the social context of learning crucial.
Parents, teachers and other adults in the learner’s environment all contribute to
the process. They explain, model, assist, give directions and provide feedback
to the learner. Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich
the learning experience.
Cultural Factors. Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on
the cognitive development of children. Piaget believed that as the child
95
develops and matures, he goes through universal stages of cognitive
development that allows him to move from simple explorations with senses and
muscles to complex reasoning. Vygotsky, on the other hand, looked into the
wide range of experiences that a culture would give to a child. For instance,
one culture’s view about education, how children are trained early in life all can
contribute to the cognitive development of the child.
Language. Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that
others already have. Learners can use language to know and understand the
world and solve problems. Language serves a social function but it also has an
important function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking.
Children talk to themselves. Observe pre-schoolers play and you may hear,
“Gagawin ko itong airplane (holding a rectangular block), tapos ito ang airport
(holding two long blocks),” for Vygotsky, this “talking-to-oneself” is an indication
of the thinking that goes on in the mind of the child. This will eventually lead to
private speech. Private speech is a form of self-talk that guides the child’s
thinking and action.
Vygotsky believed in the essential role of activities in learning. Children
learn best through hands-on activities than when listening passively. Learning
by doing is even made more fruitful when children interact with knowledgeable
adults and peers.
Zone of Proximal Development
When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be

immediately proficient at it. So, alone she may perform at a certain level of
competency. We refer to this as the zone of actual development. However,
with the guidance of a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO), competent adult
or a more advanced peer, the child can perform at a higher level of competency.
The difference between what the child can accomplish alone and what she can
accomplish with the guidance of another is what Vygotsky referred to as zone
of proximal development. The zone represents a learning opportunity where a
knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more advanced peer can
assist the child’s development.
The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot
accomplish independently is called scaffolding. Scaffolding is not about doing
the task for the child while he watches. It is not about doing shortcuts for the
child. Unzipping the lunch bag, opening the food containers and putting straw
in the child’s tetra pack juice for him is not scaffolding. Scaffolding should
involve the judicious assistance given by the adult or peer so that the child can
move from the zone of actual to the zone of proximal development. When the
adult unzips the zipper an inch or two, and then holds the lunch bag still so that
the child can continue to unzip the lunch bag is scaffolding. Loosening he food
container lid just a bit and letting the child open the lid himself is scaffolding.
Leading the straw to the hole and letting the child put the straw through the tetra
pack hole is scaffolding.
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The examples given above show how a right amount of assistance can
allow the child to accomplish the task. The instructor should scaffold in such a
way that the gap is bridged between the learner’s current skill levels and the
desired skill level. As learners become more proficient, able to complete tasks
on their own that they could not initially do without assistance, the guidance can
be withdrawn. This is called scaffold and fade-away technique. Scaffolding,
when done appropriately can make a learner confident and eventually he can
accomplish the task without any need for assistance.
When the MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four levels:
1. I do, you watch.
2. I do, you help.
3. You do, I help.
4. You do, I watch.
Learning will depend in the skill of the MKO, and learner’s readiness and
ability to learn and the difficulty of the skill being learned.
Manila
97
APPLICATION
An exercise in scaffolding:
1. Choose a skill you are good in.
________________________________________.
2. Identify an individual to whom you can teach this skill. Somebody who will
benefit scaffolding.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Break down the steps you will take in teaching the skill.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. Determine how you will use scaffolding. Describe the specific actions you
will do to scaffolding.
___________________________________________________________
5. Teach the skill to the individual.

___________________________________________________________
6. Describe how the learning activity went.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Closure
Congratulations for the job well done! You learned a lot from this
theory. As a future teacher you will apply this theory to help your students
in accomplishing his/her tasks. Always bear in mind the role of cultural
factors in cognitive development of a learner. Be mindful on appropriate
intellectual tools of adaptation in enhancing the student’s cognitive skills.
Have patience. Let’s proceed to the next theory which is more interesting
because you will know a simple paradigm showing the different factors
that influence the child’s development.
98
Introduction
Bronfenbrenner came up with a single yet useful paradigm showing the
different factors that exert influence on an individual’s development. It
points out the ever-widening spheres of influence that shape every
individual, from his/her immediate family to the neighbourhood, the
country, even the world!
Learning Outcomes
 describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Biological Model;
 identify factors in one’s own life that exerted influence on one’s
development; and
 use the bio-ecological theory as a framework to describe the factors
that affect a child and adolescent development.
ACTIVITY
“Looking Back”
Read the following question. Recall your childhood. You may also ask
your parents for some information. Write your answer on the graphic organizer
below.
Answer the following sentence completion items:
1. When I was 5 years old, my parents __________.

2. As a child, my unforgettable playmates were __________.
3. When I was in elementary, I regularly watched the television show
__________.
4. When I was growing up, we went to church in __________.
5. I cannot forget my teacher who __________.
6. When I was growing up, I was away from __________.
7. When I was in high school, I was close to __________.
8. As a child, I can recall this big news about __________.
9. The most serious challenge our family experienced was __________.
10. The most important thing that I learned from my elementary school was
__________.
99
ANALYSIS
Write each answer you gave in the Activity on the circle it belongs.
ABSTRACTION
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems

theory presents child development within the context of relationship systems
that comprise the child’s environment. It describes multipart layers of
environment that has an effect on the development of the child. Each layer is
further made up of different structures. The term “bioecological” points out that
a child’s own biological make-up impacts as a key factor in one’s development.
Through the child’s growing and developing body and the interplay
between his immediate family/community environment, and the societal
landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes or conflict in any one
layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s development then,
we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also at
the interaction of the larger environment as well.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment
The Microsystem. The microsystem is the layer nearest the child. It comprises
structures which the child directly interacts with. It includes structures such as
one’s family, school and neighbourhood. As such, the microsystem covers the
most basic relationships and interactions that a child in his/her immediate
environment. Does the child have strong and nurturing relationships with the
parents and family? Are his/her needs met? In this layer, relationship effects
100
happen in two directions – both away from the child and toward the child. This
means that the child is affected by people with whom he interacts, and in turn
these people are also affected by the child. For example, a mother’s deep
affection for her child moves her to answer to the baby’s smiles and coos bring
the mother feelings of warmth and an affirmation that indeed she is good
mother. The child also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parents.
Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-directional influences, and he shows how they
occur among all levels of environment. This is quite similar to what Erikson
termed as “mutuality” in his psychosocial theory.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory looks into the interaction of structures within a
layer and interaction of structures within a layer and interaction of structures
between layers. At the microsystem level, the child is most affected by these
bi-directional influences. However, interaction at outer layers still influence the
structures of the microsystem.
The mesosystem. This layer serves as the connection between the structure
of the child’s microsystem. For example, the mesosystem will include the link
or interaction between the parents and teachers, or the parent and health
services or community and the church.
The exosystem. This layer refers to the bigger social system in which the child
does not function directly. This includes the city government, the workplace,
and the mass media. The structures in this layer may influence the child’s
development by somehow affecting some structure in the child’s microsystem.
This includes the circumstance of the parent’s work like the location, schedules.
We see change in the children’s routine when for example the mother works in
a call center. That was seen in that burger chain commercial where the mom
and the children go to school and the mom going home from work in a call
center. The child may not interact directly with what is in the exosystem, but he
is likely to feel the positive or negative impact this system creates as it interacts
with the child’s own system.
The macrosystem. This layer is found in the outermost part in the child’s
environment. The macrosystem includes the cultural values, customs, and
laws. The belief system contained in one’s macrosystem permeates all the
interactions in the other layers and reaches the individual. For example, in
western countries like the US, most of the young people are expected to be
more independent by the time they end their teenage years, while in Asian
countries like ours, parent is expected to support or at least want to support
their children for a long period of time. It is not uncommon to see even married
children still living with their parents. In China and also in other parts of the
world, sons are more valuable than daughters. This may pose challenges for
girls as they are growing up. Because of differences in beliefs and customs,
children from different parts of the world experience different child-rearing
practices and therefore differences in development as well.
101
The chronosystem. The chronosystem covers the element of time as it relates
to child’s environments. This involves “patterns of stability and change” in the
child’s life. This involves whether the child’s day is characterized by an orderly
predictable pattern, or whether the child is subjected to sudden changes in
routine. We can also look into the pace of the child’s everyday life. Is it a hurried
or relaxed pace? This system, can affect of influence the child externally, like
the timing of other siblings coming or the timing of parental separation or even
death. Effect can also be internal, like in the bodily changes that occur within
the developing child, like the timing of menstrual onset for girls. As children get
older, they may react differently to environmental changes. The children may
have also acquired the ability to cope and decide to what extent they will allow
changes around them to affect them
No longer Nature vs. Nurture, but Nurturing Nature!
The long debate may be coming to an end. For decades, if not for
centuries, there was a long-drawn debate on which had more impact on child
development, nature or nurture. Another way of putting it is, is it heredity or
environment that influences child development more. More and more research
now point out that both a child’s biology and his environment play a role in the
child’s growth and development. Development theories now stress on the role
played by each and the extent to which they interact in ongoing development.
(See Module 3).
The ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the
child’s environment. Bronfenbrenner pointed out that as a child develops, the
interplay within the layers of environment systems becomes more complex.
This dynamic interaction of the systems happens meantime, while the child’s
physical and cognitive structures also grow and mature. This bioecological
theory helps us determine how the different circumstance, conditions and
relationships in the world affect the child as he or she goes through the more
or less predictable sequence of natural growth and development.
The Role of Schools and Teachers
Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start, the publicly-funded early
childhood program in the US. He concluded that “the instability and
unpredictability of family life is the most destructive force to a child’s
development.” Researches tell us that absence or lack of children’s constant
mutual interaction with important adult has negative effect on their
development. According to the bioecological theory, “if the relationships in the
immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to explore
other parts of his environment. Children looking the affirmations that should be
present in the child/parent (or child/other important adult) relationship look for
attention in appropriate places. These deficiencies show themselves especially
in adolescence as anti-social behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to
provide self-direction.
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Bronfenbrenner’s theory reminds the school and the teachers of their
very important role. If there is a lack of support, care and affection from the
home, if here is a serious breakdown of the basic relationships in a child’s life,
what can the school, the teachers in particular do? This theory helps teaches
look into every child’s environmental systems in order to understand more
about the characteristics and needs of each child, each learner. The schools
and the teachers can contribute stability and long-term relationships, but only
to support and not replace the relationships in the home. Bronfenbrenner
believes that, “the primary relationship needs to be with someone who can
provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime. This relationship must
be fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of the child’s
influence.”
Schools and teacher’s crucial role are not to replace the lack in
the home if such exists, but to work so that the school becomes an environment
that welcomes and nurtures families. Bronfenbrenner also stressed that society
should value work done on behalf of children at all levels, and consequently
value parents, teachers, extended family, mentors, work supervisors,
legislators. (Reading Resource: Corpuz, Lucas, Borado, Lucido, 2018. The
Child and Adolescent Learners and Teaching Principles, Lorimar Publishing
House, Inc. Manila
APPLICATION
Looking at your answers in the ACTIVITY phase of this Module, describe
how these people or circumstances have influenced your attitudes, behavior
and habits.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
From the graphic organizer that you filled out, it is clear that there were
people, situations and circumstances that shape who you are now. Even the
things happening in the government or even in America like the 9-11 terrorist
attack could have influenced your own circumstances and therefore your own
development as a unique person. As a future teacher, we can see our students
from this perspective in mind. Every child has different people, different
situations and circumstances that influenced his/her growth and development.
As you read through Bronfenbrenner’s model you will see the widening
systems that affect child and adolescent development.
Closure
We are happy for your great achievement in knowing all those
developmental theories and other relevant theories that will equip you to
become a better teacher.
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Module Summary
These are the Developmental Theories and other Relevant Theories:
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory; Paget’s Stages of Development; Erickson’s
Psycho-Social Theory of Development; Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development; Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory and Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Theory
Module Formative Assessment

You are going to pass a short, written report, a slide presentation, and
answered worksheets.
104
Module Overview:
In the previous Module you met Nicole and Jeg Ivan. You were asked
what they were before they have become what and who they are at
present. This is the concern of this module 3 in Lesson 1 – Pre-natal or
antenatal development.
Module Outcome:
 Trace the course of pre-natal development.

 Explain the most common hazards to pre-natal development.
 Apply pedagogical principles in the development process during the pre-
natal period.

Lesson 1: Synthesis of the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional
development of pre-natal period
Lesson 2: Synthesis (Worksheets)
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Introduction
All the developmental theories which we lengthily discussed dwelt
on the development process after birth. None of them was concerned
with what development when on before birth. To make the description of
human development complete, it may be good to understand the
beginnings of the child and the adolescent, the learners.
Learning Outcomes
 trace the course of the pre-natal developmental process that you
went through;
 explain the most common hazards to pre-natal development; and
 become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an anti-
abortion stand.
ACTIVITY
1. on Pro-life anti-abortion video at You tube and High-Tech Photographs

of Fetal Development.
2. Then, read the article “Life Before Birth” and answer the following
questions:
a. What are your feelings and reactions about what you read?
b. Do you agree that which is developing in the womb is a mere “blob of

tissue” or “uterine contents” as abortionists claim? Share your
explanation.
LIFE BEFORE BIRTH

The development of the unborn child
The development of human life in the womb was once a mystery, but
science and medicine have changed that. Abortion advocate still try to
dehumanize the developing baby in the womb by speaking of the child as “a
blob of tissue” or “uterine contents.” But ultrasound images, prenatal surgery
and other advances in obstetrics are shattering the blob-of-tissue myth.
Dr. Paul Rockwell, a New York physician, made these profound
observations after his amazing encounter with a tiny unborn baby boy: “Eleven
years ago while I was giving an anaesthetic for a ruptured ectopic pregnancy
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(at two months gestation), I was handed what I believe was the smallest living
human ever seen. The embryo sac was intact and transparent. Within the sac
was a tiny human male swimming extremely vigorously in the amniotic fluid,
while attached to the wall by the umbilical cord.”
This tiny human was perfectly developed, with long, tapering fingers, feet
and toes. It was transparent, as regards the skin, and the delicate arteries and
veins were prominent to the ends of the fingers. “The baby was extremely alive
and swam about the sac approximately one time per second, with a natural
swimmer’s stroke. This tiny human did not look at all like the photos and
drawings and models of ‘embryos’ which I have seen, nor did it look like a few
embryos I have been able to observe since then, obviously because this one
was alive!”
“When the sac was opened, the tiny human immediately lost its life and
took on the appearance of what is accepted as the appearance of an embryo
at this stage (blunt extremities, etc.)
“It is my opinion that if the lawmakers and people realize that this very
vigorous life is present, it is possible that abortion would be found more
objectionable than euthanasia.”
The point at which Dr. Rockwell witnessed this unborn baby – eight
weeks after conception – is during the period that a majority of abortionists
describe as most desirable for performing an abortion
Source: http://www.mccl.org/Document.Doc?id=159
3. Write your own understanding.
a. Why are pregnant mothers advised not to smoke, not to drink
alcoholic drinks, not to take in any medication without doctor’s
advice?
ANALYSIS
Here are questions for further discussion.
1. It is more reasonable to believe that which is developing in the mother’s
womb is a human being?
2. What are proofs that which is developing in the mother’s womb is a living
human being?
3. Has any realization from today’s discussion changed your stand on
abortion? Explain your answer.
107
4. What are the effects of alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine on the developing
embryo/fetus?
ABSTRACTION
The Stages of Pre-natal Development

Pre-natal development is divided into three (3) periods – germinal,
embryonic and fetal.
1. Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after conception) – This includes the
a) creation of the zygote, b) continued cell division and c) the
attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. The following are the
details of development during this period:
a. 24 to 30 hours after fertilization – the male (sperm) and female
(egg) chromosome unite
b. 36 hours – the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two (2); 2
cells
c. 48 hours (2 days) – 2 cells become 4 cells
d. 72 hours (3 days) – 4 cells become a small compact ball of
16-32 cells
e. 96 hours (4 days) – hollow ball of 64-128 cells
f. 4-5 days – inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus
g. 6-7 days – blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus
h. 11-15 days – blastocyst invades into uterine wall and
becomes implanted in it (implantation)
In the germinal period, the differentiation of cells already begins as inner
and outer layers of the organism are formed. The blastocyst, the inner layer of
cells that develops during the germinal period, develops later into the embryo.
The trophoblast, the outer layer of the cells that develops also during the
germinal period, later provides nutrition and support for the embryo (Nelson,
Textbook of Pediatrics, 17th ed., 2004).
2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception) – in this stage, the
name of the mass cells, zygote, become embryo.
The following developments take place:

a) cell differentiation intensifies
b) life-support systems for the embryo develop and
c) organs appear
As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells
are formed. The embryo’s endoderm, the inner layer of cells, develops into the
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digestive and respiratory systems. The outer layer of cells is divided into two
parts – the ectoderm and mesoderm. The ectoderm is the outermost layer
which becomes the nervous system, sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and
the skin parts (nails, hair). The mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes
the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive systems. This
process of organ formation during the first wo months of prenatal development
is called organogenesis.
As the three layers of the embryo form, the support system for the
embryo develop rapidly. These life-support systems are the placenta, the
umbilical cord and the amnion. The placenta is a life-support system that
consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from
the mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join. The umbilical cord
contains two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the placenta. The
amnion is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the
developing embryo floats. All these embryo life-support systems develop from
the fertilized egg and not from the mother’s body.
3. Fetal Period (2 months to 7 months after conception) – Growth and
development continue dramatically during this period. The details of
the developmental process are as follow (Santrock, 2002):
a) 3 months after conception – fetus is about 3 inches long and
weighs about 1 ounce; fetus has become active, moves its arms
and legs, opens and closes its mouth, and moves its head; the
face, eyelids, nose, chin can now be distinguished and also the
upper arms, lower arms, hands, and lower limbs; the genitals can
now be identified as male or female.
b) 4 months after conception – fetus is about 6 inches long and
weighs 4 to 7 ounces; growth spurt occurs in the body’s lower
parts; pre-natal reflexes are stronger; mother feels arm and leg
movements for the first time.
c) 6 months after conception – fetus is about 12 inches long; weighs
close to a pound; structures of the skin (fingernails, toenails) have
formed; fetus is more active.
d) 6 months after conception – fetus is about 14 inches long and
weighs one and half pound; eyes and eyelids are completely
formed; fine layer and irregular movements occur.
e) 7 months after conception – fetus is about 16 inches long and
weighs 3 pounds
f) 8 and 9 months after conception – fetus grows longer and gains
substantial weight, about 4 pounds
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Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development
Teratology is the field that investigate the causes of congenital (births)
defect. A teratogen is that which causes birth defects. It comes from the Greek
word “tera” which means “monster”.
Below are cluster of hazards to pre-natal development:
1. Prescription and non-prescription drugs- These include
prescription as well as non-prescription drugs. Antibiotic is an
example of a prescription drug that can be harmful. Examples of
harmful non-prescription drugs are diet pills, aspirin, and coffee.
Remember the thalidomide tragedy in 1961? Many pregnant women
took in thalidomide, a tranquilizer, to alleviate their morning sickness
that gave rise to several deformed babies.
Cocaine exposure during pre-natal development is associated with
reduced birthweight, length and head circumference (Hurt, et al,
1999 cited by Santrock, 2002), impaired motor development (Arendt,
et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002) and poor attention skills
(Bandastra, 2000 cited by Santrock, 2002).
2. Psychoactive drugs – These includes nicotine, caffeine and illegal
drugs such as marijuana, cocaine and heroin.
Researchers found that pregnant women who drank more
caffeinated coffee were more likely to have preterm deliveries and
newborns with lower birthweight compared to their counterparts who
did not drink caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi et al., 1999 quoted by
Santrock 2002).
Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to the so called fetal
alcohol syndrome (FAS) which is a cluster of abnormalities that
appears in the children of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during
pregnancy. These abnormalities include facial deformities and
defective limbs, face and heart (Santrock, 2002). Most of these
children are below average in intelligence and some are mentally
retarded (Olson, 2000 and Burgess, 1996 quoted by Santrock, 2002).
Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher among mothers. These are also
higher incidence of preterm births and lower birthweights among with
children with smoking mothers (Wang, et al, 2000 quoted by
Santrock, 2002).
On the average, maternal heroin addicts deliver smaller than average
size babies with more incidence of toxaemia premature separation of
placenta, retained placenta, hemorrhaging after birth, and breech
delivers.(http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1980/5/80.05.03
.x.html#f)
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3. Environmental hazards – These include radiation in jobsites and X-
ray, environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and prolonged exposure
to heat in saunas and bath tubs. Research found that chromosomal
abnormalities are higher among the offspring of fathers exposed to
high levels of radiation in their occupations (Schrag and Dixon, 1985
cited by Santrock, 2002). Radiation from X-ray also can affect the
developing embryo and fetus, with the most dangerous time being
the first several weeks after conception when women do not yet know
that they are pregnant (Santrock, 2002). Researchers found that
toxic wastes such as carbon dioxide, mercury and lead caused
defects in animals exposed to high doses. For instance, early
exposure to lead affects children’s mental development. (Markowits,
2000 cited by Santrock, 2002). Remember the action of the U.S.A.
for the children’s toys with high lead content manufactured in china?
Prolonged exposure of pregnant mothers to sauna or hot tubs raises
the mother’s body temperature creating fever that endangers the
fetus. The high temperature due to fever may interfere with cell
division and may cause birth defects or even fetal death if the fever
occurs repeatedly for prolonged periods of time (Santrock, 2002).
4. Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles),
syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress,
age, (too early or too late, beyond 30)
A rubella (German Measles) in 1964-65 resulted in 30,000 pre-natal
and neonatal (newborn) deaths and more than 20,000 affected
infants who were born with malformations, including mental
retardation, blindness, deafness and heart problems (Santrock,
2002).
Syphilis damages organs after they have formed. These damages
include eye lesions. When syphilis is present at birth, other problems
involving the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract, can
develop.
About one-third of babies delivered through a herpes-infected birth canal
die; another one-fourth become brain-damage.
A mother can infect her child in three ways: 1) during gestation across
the placenta, 2) during delivery through contact with maternal blood or fluids,
and 3) postpartum (after birth) through breastfeeding.
Studies show that increased stress during pregnancy leads to premature
birth and reduced birth weight. Other studies have shown that increased stress
during pregnancy is related to ADHD even schizophrenia later in life.
(familyanatomy.com/2009/04/20the-effects-of-stress-during-pregnancy)
Admittedly, more research on the effects of emotional states and stress
needs to be conducted for more conclusive findings.
111
It is recognized that maternal malnutrition during pregnancy may result
to inadequate growth in the fetus. If a fetus does not receive enough
nourishment, the rate of cell division is seriously hampered. An extremely
deprived fetus may have 20% fewer brain cells than normal. If an infant has
been malnourished both in utero and infancy, the brain may be as much as 60%
smaller than that of the normal child. (Vore, David. Prenatal Nutrition and
Postnatal Intellectual development, Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1973, 19:253-260
cited in (http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/ curriculum/units/1980/5/ 80.05.03.x.html#f)
Folic acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. Folic acid can reduce the
risk of having a baby with a serious birth defect of the brain and spinal cord,
called the “neural tube”. A baby with spina bifida, the most common neural tube
defect is born with a spine that is not closed. The exposed nerves are damaged,
leaving the child with varying degrees of paralysis and sometimes mental
retardation. (http://www.squidoo.com/folicacidpregnant)
As maternal age increases, the risks for numerical chromosomal
abnormalities increase. (http://en.widipedia.org.wiki/Material_age_effect)
The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of
infants born to mothers in their twenties.
A baby with Down syndrome rarely is born to mother under age 30 but
the risk increase after the mother reaches 30. By age 40, the probability is
slightly over 1 in 100, and by age 50 it is almost 1 in 10. The risk is also higher
before age 18. (Santrock, 200)
5. Paternal factors – Father’s exposure to lead, radiation, certain
pesticides and petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in sperm
that lead to miscarriage or diseases such as childhood cancer.
As in the case of older mother’s, older fathers also may place their
offspring at risk of certain defects. (Santrock, 2002)
Human Life Begins at Conception
That which is in the mother’s womb is indeed a developing human being.
An unborn baby of eight (8) weeks is not essentially different from one of
eighteen (18) weeks or twenty-eight (28) weeks. From conception the zygote,
the embryo and the fetus are undeniably human life.
Human life begins from the moment of conception. All that we have and
all that we are have been here are the moment of conception! The fact that you
have brown eyes and black, straight or curly hair and the fact that you will turn
bald at age 50 have been there already at the moment of conception. What
were added in the process of development is nutrition.
I remember the film on abortion that I once saw, “The Silent Scream.”
The mother submitted herself to a medical doctor for abortion in her third month
of pregnancy. When the abortionist inserted his scalpel into the woman’s womb
to crush the head of the fetus, very clearly in that film, the fetus had his/her
112
mouth open like he was screaming for help as he evaded the deadly scalpel of
the abortionist. That’s why the film was given the title “The Silent Scream.”
This only means that the developing being in the womb is a human being not
just a conglomeration of cells or tissues.
Based on these facts, it is wrong to do abortion. The womb is supposed
to be the safest of all places for human development. Unfortunately, however,
with the scourge of abortion, it has become a tomb!
The development that takes place in 3 stages proves that the developing
embryo in a mother’s womb is truly a human being.
APPLICATION
1. A short report
You are going to write a short information on normal and healthy
development of the embryo and the fetus by means of a viewing again the
PowerPoint presentation in You Tube.
2. Pretend you are “Junior,” 4 months old in the womb. Your mother is
concentrating on doing abortion. Write her a letter convincing her that you
are a human being developing contrary to what she and other pro-
abortionists are thinking. Describe to her the development that has already
taken place in 4 months. Reflect what you learned on pre-natal development
in this lesson. Give your letter this title “A Letter from Junior” (or you may
want to write your name).
3. Give some hazards of pre-natal development. Use the given graphic

organizer.
Manila)
113
Closure
Congratulation! In the succeeding lessons, you will synthesize the
key features of the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development
of pre-natal period. This will improve your knowledge on how to handle
parents of your learners on this stage Happy learning!
114
Introduction
Well - done! You have gone this far, huh! You are now in lesson
of this module 3. Have a great day in answering this activity for you to
gain more knowledge on this lesson.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
 summarize key features of the physical, cognitive and socio-
emotional development during the pre-natal period; and
 apply pedagogical principles in the development process during the
pre-natal period.
SYNTHESIS
Give a summary of the key characteristics of pre-natal
development by filling out the table below.
KEY FEATURES OF PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
Physical Development
Cognitive Development Socio-Emotional Development
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The Pedagogical Principles as Applied to Pre-natal Development
You studied the 14 pedagogical principles in Module 1. Cite and explain
at least one pedagogical principle that applies to pre-natal filling out the table
below. You may choose only those principles that are relevant.
APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLE
LEARNER-CENTERED PRINCIPLE
IN PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
Cluster 1 – Principle referring to How is this principle applied in pre-
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors natal development?
(State the relevant learner-centered

principle here)

Motivational and Affective Factors natal development?

principle here)

Developmental and Social Factors natal development?

principle here)
116
Individual Differences Factors natal development?

principle here)
Name _____________________________ Section _________ Date __________

WEEK____
General Instruction: Absolutely no erasures. Any form of erasure will be
counted as a wrong answer.
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Read the questions carefully. Choose the letter of the
best/correct answer and write it on the space before the number. Use
UPPERCASE letters only.
_____ 1. Which statement on brain development is CORRECT?
A. Most of the neurons in the adult brain are produced before birth.
B. Most of the neurons in the adult brain are produced at birth.
C. Most of the neurons in the adult brain are produced after birth.
D. Brain development stops at childhood.
_____2. Is the brain capable of learning before birth?
A. Yes.
B. No.
C. Depends on mother’s nutrition
D. Depends on baby’s health condition
_____ 3. Which term refers to the explosive growth of synapses during pre-
natal development?
A. Myelination
B. Spermatogenesis
C. Synaptogenesis
D. Oogenesis
_____4. Which process increases the connections between areas of the brain
during pre-natal development?
A. Synaptogenesis
B. Myelination
C. Spermatogenesis
D. Oogenesis
117
_____ 5. When infants are born, they immediately begin to observe the world
and make sense of it through sucking, grasping and looking. In which stage is
this, according to the Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
A. Pre-operational stage
B. In between sensorimotor and preoperational stages
C. Pre-sensorimotor stage
D. Sensorimotor stage
_____ 6. It is observed that there is brief delay between pinching a finger and
infant’s crying. Which can explain this?
A. Brain is not yet fully functioning.
B. Sense of touch is not yet fully developed.
C. This is due to incomplete myelination.
D. Infants are less sensitive to pain.
_____ 7. Which term refers to one’s inability to remember things that occurs
from infancy to one’s first memories?
A. Childhood amnesia
B. Decay
C. Retrieval failure
D. Interference
_____ 8. What is an indicator of separation distress between 1 and 2 years of
age?
A. Children cry at the sight of strangers.
B. Children cry and cling when their attachment figure tries to leave.
C. Children aren’t bothered by temporary disappearance of mother.
D. Children are comfortable with strangers.
_____ 9. Which characteristics apply to children with secure attachment?
I. Ready soothed
II. Emotionally open
III. Afraid of people
A. I and II
B. II only
C. I only
D. III only
_____ 10. Infants are directly influenced by their mother’s emotional
expressions. Which term is explained?
A. Emphatic distress
B. Emotion contagion
C. Affective perspective-taking
D. Social referencing
2. Reading Resource: Corpuz, Lucas, Borado, Lucido, 2018. The Child and
Adolescent Learners and Teaching Principles, Lorimar Publishing House,
Inc. Manila)
3.
118
Closure
key features of the pre-natal development. For now, we encourage you
to write a reflection on promoting your student’s socio-emotional well-
being. Have fun to share your life’s experiences. Happy learning!
Module Summary:
In this module you have gained concepts about pre- natal

development and you synthesized the physical, cognitive and socio-
emotional development of pre-natal period. Congratulations!!!

You make a graphic organizer and answer worksheets.
119
Module Overview:
Congratulations! We are now on half way of this course pack. At last, we

survive and thankful for the strength and wisdom we’ve gained from the
previous modules. So amazing! Isn’t it! We come to know our whole
being why we existed to this world. By God’s grace becoming a teacher
someday. It is a great opportunity to know and learn more in this module.
Let’s begin!
Module Outcome:
 Trace the physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development of

infants and toddlers.
 Identify factors that enhance the physical infancy and toddlerhood

development.
 Describe factors that enhance cognitive development of infants and

toddlers.
 Discuss actors that enhance the socio-emotional development of

 Apply pedagogical of learning and teaching appropriate for infants and

toddlers.

Lesson 1: Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers
Lesson 2: Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers
Lesson 3: Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers
development of Toddlers (Worksheets).
120
Introduction
We have just traced the developmental process before birth. We
shall continue to trace the developmental process by following the infant
or the baby who is just born up to when he reaches age 2. The period
that comes after pre-natal or antenatal stage is infancy which, in turn, is
followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span the first two
years of life.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson you should be able to:
 trace the physical development that you have gone through as infants
and toddlers;
 identify factors that enhance/impede the physical development of
infants and toddlers; and
 present you own or other’s research on the physical development of
ACTIVITY
Take a learning partner and together study the figures below. Look
closely at the changes in the sizes of the human body parts as person
grows.
(Adapted from Santrock, J.W. Life-Span Development, 8th Edition, 2002.)
121
ANALYSIS
1. What do you notice about the size of the head in relation to the other
parts of the body as a person grows older?
2. Does physical development begin from the top or below? from the
side to the corner? Explain your answer.
ABSTRACTION
Cephalocaudal and Proximal Patterns

As you learned in Lesson 1, the cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal
from conception to 5 months when the head grows more than the body. This
cephalocaudal trend of growth that applies to the development of the fetus also
applies in the first months after birth. Infants learn to use their upper limbs
before their lower limbs. The same pattern occurs in the head area because the
top parts of the head – the eyes and the brain – grow faster than the lower parts
such as the jaw.
The proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth from 5 months to birth
when the fetus grows from the inside of the body outwards. This also applies in
the first months after birth as shown in the earlier maturation of muscular control
of the trunk and arms, followed by that of the hands and fingers. When referring
to motor development, the proximodistal trend refers to the development of
motor skills from the center of the body outward.
Height and Weight

 It’s normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight
within a couple of weeks of birth. That is due to the baby’s adjustment to
neonatal feeding. Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting,
they grow rapidly.
 Breastfed babies are typically heavier that bottle-fed babies through the first
six months. After six months, breastfed babies usually weight less than
bottle-fed babies.
 In general, an infant’s length increases by about 30 percent in the first five
months.
 A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the
second year of life.
 Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along
a natural curve of steady development.
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Brain Development
 Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life
are the spreading connections of dendrites to each other. Remember
neurons, dendrites, axon, synapses? You discussed them in your General
Psychology class. (You may wish to review on them).
Myelination or myelinization, the process by which the axons are covered

and insulated by layers of fat cells, begins prenatally and continues after birth.
The process of myelination or myelinization increases speed at which
information travels through the nervous system.
 At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By the
second birthday, the brain is about 75% of its adult weight.
 Shortly after birth, a baby’s brain produces trillions more connection
between neurons than it can possibly use. The brain eliminates connections
that are seldom or never used (Santrock, 2002). The infant’s brain is literally
waiting for experiences to determine how connections are made.
 A study on rats conducted by Mark Rosenzweig in 1969 revealed that the
brains of rats that grew up in the enriched environment developed better
than the brains of the animals reared in standard or isolated conditions. The
brains of the “enriched” animals weighted more, had thicker layers, had
more neuronal connections and had higher levels of neuro-chemical activity.
Such finding implies that enriching the lives of infants who live in
impoverished environments can produce positive changes in their
development (Santrock, 2002).
 Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grew up in a
depressed environment (Circhetti, 2001, cited by Santock, 2002).
Motor Development
Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from
reflexes, to gross motor skills and fine motor skills.
Reflexes
 The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course automatic, and
serve as survival mechanisms before they have the opportunity to learn.
Many reflexes which are present at birth will generally subside within a few
months as the baby grows and matures.
 There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that
babies have are:
Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the
roof of an infant’s mouth. Infants have a strong sucking reflex which helps to
ensure they can latch onto a bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very strong
in some infants and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.
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Rooting Reflex: the rooting reflex is most evident when an infant’s cheek is
stroked. He baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the
touch and opening their mouth for feeding.
Griping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is paced in their palm. The
strength of this grip is strong, and most babies can support their entire weight
in their grip.
Curling Reflex: when the inner sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant
respond by curling his or her toes. When the outer sole of a baby’s foot is
stroked, the infant will respond by spreading out their limbs back into their
bodies.
Galant Reflex: The galant reflex is shown when an infant’s middle or lower
back is stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby will respond by curving his or
her body toward the side which is being stroked.
Tonic Neck Reflex: The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who are
placed on their abdomens. Whichever side the child’s head is facing, the limbs
on that side will straighten, while the opposite limbs will curl.
(http://www.mamashealth.com/child/inreflex.asp)
Gross Motor Skills

Study the figure below. See how you developed in your gross motor
skills.
Source: Santrock, J.W. Life-Span Development, 8th Edition, 2002.
It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic

changes in the infant’s first year of life. This dramatic motor development is
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shown in babies unable to even lift their heads to being able to grab things off
the cabinet, to chase the ball and to walk away from parent.
Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skills, are skills that involve a refined use of the small muscles
controlling the hand, fingers, and thumb. The development of these skills allows
one to be able to complete tasks such as writing, drawing and buttoning.
The ability to exhibit fine motor shills involve activities that involve
precise eye-hand coordination. The development of reaching and grasping
becomes more refined during the first two years of life. Initially, infants show
only crude shoulder and elbow movements, but later they show wrist
movements, hand rotation and coordination.
What are some research findings regarding newborns’ visual
perceptions? Can newborns see?
 The newborn’s vision is about 10 to 30 times lower than normal adult vision.
By 6 months of age, vision becomes better and by the first birthday, the
infant’s vision approximates that of an adult. (Banks & Salapatek, 1993
citied by Santrock 2002).
 Infants look at different things for different lengths of time. In an experiment
conducted by Robert Fantz (1963 citied by Santrock, 2002), it was found out
that infants preferred to look at patterns such as faces and concentric circles
rather than at color or brightness. Based on these results, it is likely that
“pattern perception has an innate basis” (Santrock, 2002). Among the first
few things that babies learn to recognize is their mother’s face, as mother
feeds and nurses them.
Can newborns hear?
 These sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the birth of the
baby. When in the womb, the baby hears his/her mother’s heartbeats, the
grumbling of his/her stomach, the mother’s voice and music. How soothing
it must have been for you to listen to your mother’s lullaby.
 Infants’ sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than those of adult which
means that stimulus must be louder to be heard by a newborn than by an
adult.
Can newborns differentiate odors?
 In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975) “young infants
who were breastfed showed a clear preference for smelling their
mother’s breast pad when they were 6 days old. This preference
did not show when the babies were only two days old. This shows
that it requires several days of experience to recognize their
mother’s breast pad odor.”
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Can newborns feel pain? Do they respond to touch?
 They do feel pain. Newborn males show higher level of cortisol
(an indicator of stress) after a circumcision than prior to the
surgery (Taddio, et al, 1997 cited by Santrock, 2002).
 Babies respond to touch. In the earlier part of this Module on
motor development, you learned that a newborn automatically
sucks an object placed in his/her mouth, or a touch of the cheek
makes the newborn turn his/her head toward the side that was
touched in an apparent effort to find something to suck.
Can newborns distinguish the different tastes?
 In a study conducted with babies only two-hour old babies made
different facial expressions when they tasted sweet, sour, and bitter
solutions (Rosentein and Oster, 1998, citied by Santrock, 2002).
 When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a near term
fetus, increased swallowing was observed.
 This indicates that sensitivity to taste might be present before birth.
Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, are
infants capable of intermodal perception?
 Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect and integrate
information about two or more sensory modalities such as vision
and hearing.
 In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979), it was found
out that as early as at 3 ½ months old, infants looked more at their
mother when they also heard her voice and longer at their father
when they also heard his voice.
This capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect information coming
through various modes gets sharpened considerably through experience.
Manila)
APPLICATION
Observe one 1) 0-6-month infant; 2) 7-12 months infant; 3) 13-18 months
infant and 4) 19-24-month-old infant. Refer to “What Infants and Toddlers Can
Do Physically” based in the Philippines Early Learning and Development
Standards (ELDS) formulated by the Child and Welfare Council now merged
with Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD).
Directions: Put a check () on those items that you observed the
infants/toddler demonstrated.
A Summary of What Infants and Toddlers Can Do Physically
Domain: Physical Health, Well-Being and Motor Development
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PHYSICAL HEALTH
Standard 1: The child demonstrates adequate growth (weight, height, head
circumference.
Standard 2: The child has adequate sensory systems to participate in daily
activities.
0 – 6 months
 Startles to loud sounds
 Visually follows a moving object from side to side
 Visually follows a moving object up and down
 Reacts to pain by crying
 Withdraws or cries when in contact with something hot
 Withdraws or reacts with surprise when in contact with something cold
 Reacts with pleasure/smiles or relaxed expression when he/she tastes
something delicious
 Reacts by making a face/ frowns/grimace when he/she tastes something
he/she does not like
7 – 12 months
 Reacts with pleasure when he/she smells something nice
 Reacts by making a face when he/she smells something foul
Standard 3: The child has adequate stamina to participate in daily activities.

 Pushes and/or pulls moderately heavy objects (e.g., chairs, large boxes)
 Walks without tiring easily
13 – 18 months
 Plays without tiring easily, able to keep pace with playmates
 Participates actively in games, outdoor play and other exercises
19 – 24 months
 Sustains physical activity (e.g., dancing, outdoor games, swimming) for
least 3-5 minutes
MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (GROSS MOTOR SKILLS)
Standard 1: The child shows control and coordination of body movements
involving large muscle groups.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed
on and/or performed by a child on the specified age?
0 – 6 months
 Holds head steadily
 Moves arms and legs equally to reach at dangling object
 Rolls over
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 Bounces when held standing, briefly bearing weight on legs
 Sits with support
 Starting to crawl but not yet very good at this
7 – 12 months
 Sits alone steadily without support
 Creeps or crawls with ease as a primary means of moving around
 Stands without support
 Stands from a sitting position without any help
 Squats from a standing position with ease
 Stands from a standing position with ease
 Bends over easily without falling
 Stands from a bent position without falling
 Walks sideways by holding onto the sides of crib or furniture (cruise)
 Walks with one hand held
13 – 18 months
 Walks without support
 Walks backwards
 Walks up the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on each step
 Walks down the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on each step
 Jumps in place
 Climbs onto a steady elevated surface (e.g., bed, adult chair, etc.)
 Kicks a ball but with little control of directions
 Throws a ball but with little control of speed
 Runs without tripping or falling
 Maintaining balance (walking on a low, narrow ledge; between 2 lines)
without assistance
 Moves with music when he hears it
 Can move body to imitate familiar animals
 Can move body to imitate another person/TV character
19 – 24 months
 Walks up the stairs with alternating feet, without help
 Walks down the stairs with alternating feet, without help
 Kicks a ball with control of direction
 Throws a ball with control of direction
 Throws a ball with control of speed
MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (FINE MOTOR SKILLS)
Standard 1: The child can control and coordinate hand finger movements.
Based on you experience, are these indicators generally observed
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0 – 6 months
 Hands open most of the time
 Brings both hands together towards dangling object/toy
 Uses either hand interchangeably to grasp objects
 Uses all 5 fingers in a raking motion to get food/toys placed on a flat
surface
 Grasps objects with the same hand most of the time (hand preference
emerging)
7 – 12 months
 Pulls toys by the string
 Bangs 2 large blocks together
 Picks up objects with thumb and index finger
 Grasps and transfers objects from hand to hand
 Grasps objects with the same hand all the time (definite hand preference
established)
13 – 18 months
 Puts small objects in/out of container
 Unscrews lids
 Unwraps candy/food
 Holds thick pencil or crayon with palmar grip (i.e., all 5 fingers wrapped
around pencil)
 Scribbles spontaneously
19 – 24 months
 Colors with strokes going out of the lines
PERSONAL CARE AND HYGIENE (ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING)

Standard 1: The child participates in basic personal care routines.
Based on you experience, are these indicators generally observed
0 – 6 months
 Sucks and swallows milk from breast/bottle
 Begins to take complementary or semi-solid foods by the end of 6 moths
 Keeps reasonably still while being dressed, undress bathed and while
diaper is being changed
7 – 12 months
 Holds a feeding bottle by himself
 Helps hold cup for drinking
 Chews solid foods well
 Feeds self with finger foods
 Scoops with a spoon with spillage
19 – 24 months
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 Feeds self with assistance
 Feeds self using fingers to eat/viands with spillage
 Feeds self using spoon with spillage
 No longer drinks from feeding bottle
 Drinks from cup unassisted
 Participates when being dressed by lifting arms or raising legs
 Pulls down gartered short pants/underpants or panties
 Removes shoes/sandals
 Informs caregiver of the need to move his bowels so he/she can be
brought to comfort room
 Takes a bath with assistance
 Brushes teeth after meals with assistance from adult
 Washes and dries hands under adult supervision
 Washes and dries face with the assistance of an adult
19 – 24 months
 Drink for self unassisted
 Removes loose sando
 Removes socks
 Informs caregiver of the need to urinate so he/she can be brought to the
comfort room
 Goes to the designated place to urinate but sometimes wets his/her
pants
 Goes to the designated place to move his/her bowels but sometimes still
soils his/her pants
 Goes to the designated place to move his/her bowels but needs help
with wiping and washing
 Brushes teeth after meals with adult supervision
 Washes and dries face under adult supervision
(Source: The Philippines Early Learning and Development Standards (ELDS) formulated the
Child and Welfare Council now emerged with the Early Childhood Care and Development
Council)
Closure
Now, you are ready to proceed to the next lesson.
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Introduction
Cognitive development in infancy refers to development in the
way a baby thinks. This includes his/her language, communication and
exploration skills. Examples of cognitive activities include paying
attention, remembering, learning to talk, interacting with toys and
identifying faces.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson you are challenged to:
 trace the cognitive development of infants and toddlers;
 identify factors that enhance/impede the cognitive development of
infants and toddlers;
 present your own or others’ research on the cognitive development
of infants and toddlers; and
 draw implications of cognitive development concepts to child care,
education and parenting.
ACTIVITY
You will be assigned a task to do.
I – Read the story of Laurent, Lucienne and Jacqueline, three children of Piaget
whom he observed. After reading and re-reading, make a summary outline of
the behaviors of the three children separately. Don’t forget to indicate the age
of each child. This can help you in the next activity.
Laurent, Lucienne, and Jacqueline
The following provide a glimpse of Piaget’s observation of his children’s
cognitive development in infancy (Piaget, 1952). These are lifted from Santrock
(2002).
 At 21 days of age, Laurent finds his thumb after three attempts; once
he finds his thumb, prolonged sucking begins. But, when he is placed
on his back, he doesn’t know how to coordinate the movement of his
arms with that of his mouth; his hands draw back, even when his lips
seek them.
 During the third month, thumb sucking becomes less important to
Laurent because of new visual and auditory interests. But, when he
cries, his thumb goes to the rescue
 Towards the end, Lucienne’s thrusts her feet at the doll and makes it
move. Afterward, she looks at her motionless foot for a second, the
kicks at the doll again. She has no visual control of her foot because
her movement are the same whether she only looks at the doll or it
is placed over her head. By contrast, she does have tactile control of
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her foot; when she tries to kick the doll and misses, she slows her
foot movement to improve her aim.
 At 11 months, Jacqueline shakes a little bell. She then pauses
abruptly so she can delicately place the bell in front of her right foot;
then she kicks the bell hard. Unable to recapture the bell, she grasps
a ball and places it in the same location where the bell was. She gives
the ball a firm kick.
 At 1 year, 2 months, Jacqueline holds in her hands an object that is
new to her: a round, flat box that she turns over and shakes; then she
rubs it against her crib. She lets it go and with her index finger, being
unable to fully reach and grasp it. She keeps trying to grasp it and
presses to the edge of her crib. She makes the box tilt up, but it
nonetheless falls again. Jacqueline shows an interest in this result
and studies the fallen box.
 At 1 year, 8 months, Jacqueline arrives at a closed door with a blade
of grass in each hand. She stretches her right hand toward the
doorknob but detects that she cannot turn it without letting go of the
grass, so she puts the grass on the floor, opens the door, picks up
the grass again, and then enters. But, when she wants to leave the
room, things get complicated. She puts the grass on the floor and
grasp the doorknob. Then she perceives that, by pulling the door
toward her, she simultaneously chases away the grass that she had
placed between the door and the threshold. She then picks up the
grass and places it out of the door’s range of movement.
II –You write your answers to the following questions:
1. Do you remember anything about yourself when you were two years old?
2. At what age were you first memories? Share those memories briefly.
III – You will answer the following:

1. Based on your observations or experiences with your others/sisters/
nieces/nephews, as a group trace the language development of an infant
until he/she grows into a toddler.
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2. It is said that children learn language faster than adults. Why is this so? Give
your hypothesis.
ANALYSIS
You are going to write a short report on the following:
1. There are four stages of cognitive development according to Piaget – the

sensorimotor, the preoperational, the concrete operational and the formal
operational stage. These were discussed in Module 2, of this course pack.
This lesson will focus on the sensorimotor stage; Piaget’s stage that covers
the infant and the toddler’s cognitive development
Here are the 6 sub-stages of the sensorimotor development stage
(Santrock, 2002):
Sensorimotor Stage
The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages of cognitive
development. “In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world
by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with
physical, motoric actions. Infants gain knowledge of the world from the
physical actions they perform on it. An infant progress from reflexive,
instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the
end of the stage.” Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six sub-stages:
SUB-STAGE AGE DESCRIPTION
1. Simple Reflexes Birth - 6 Coordination of sensation and action
weeks through reflexive behaviors. Three
primary reflexes are described by Piaget:
sucking of objects in the mouth, following
moving or interesting objects with the
eyes, and closing of the hand when an
object makes contact with the palm
(palmar grasp). Over the first six weeks
of life, these reflexes begin to become
voluntary actions; for example, the
palmar reflex becomes intentional
grasping. (Remember the other reflexes
discussed in Module 3- Lesson 1)
2. First habits and 6 weeks Coordination of sensation and two types
primary circular –4 of schemes: habits (reflex) and primary
reactions phase months circular reactions. Primary reaction
because the action is focused on the
infant’s body. Circular reaction because
it is a repetition of an action that initially
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occurred by chance. As an example of
this type of reaction, infants might repeat
the motion of passing their hand before

their face. Also, at this phase, passive
reactions, caused by classical or operant
conditioning, can begin. Infants tend to
repeat interesting sensations.
3. Secondary circular 4–8 Development of habits. Infants become
reactions phase months more object-oriented, moving beyond
self-preoccupation repeat actions that
bring interesting or pleasurable results.
This stage is associated primarily with
the development of coordination
between vision and comprehension.
Three new abilities occur at this stage:
intentional grasping for a desired object,
secondary circular reactions, and
differentiations between ends ad means.
At this stage, infants will intentionally

grasp the air in the direction of a desire
object, often to the amusement of friends
and family. Secondary circular reactions,
or the repetition of an action involving an
external object begin; for example,
moving a switch to turn on a light
repeatedly. This means that a secondary
action is focused on an object outside the
body of an infant. The differentiation
between means and ends also occurs.
This is perhaps one of the most
important stages of a child’s growth as it
signifies the dawn of logic.
4. Coordination of 8 – 12 Coordination of vision and touch-hand-
reactions stage months eye coordination; of schemes and
secondary circular intentionality. This stage is associated
primarily with the development of logic
and the coordination between means
and ends. This is an extremely important
stage of development, holding what
Piaget calls the “first proper intelligence.”
Also, this stage marks the beginning of
goal orientation, the deliberate planning
of steps to meet an objective. The action
is directed towards a goal.
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5. Tertiary circular 12-18 Infants become intrigued by the many
reactions, novelty, months properties of objects and by the many
and curiosity things then can make happen to objects;
they experiment with new behavior. This
stage is associated primarily with the
discovery of new means to meet goals.
Piaget describes the child as this
juncture as the “young scientist,”
conducting pseudo-experiments to
discover new methods of meeting
challenges.
6. Internalization of 18-24 Infants develop the ability to use primitive
Schemes (Invention months symbols and form enduring mental
of New Means representations. This stage is associated
Through Mental primarily with the beginnings of insight,
Combination 18-24 or true creativity. This marks the passage
months) into the preoperational stage.
Evidence of an internal representational

system. Symbolizing the problem-
solving sequence before actually
responding.
By the end of sensorimotor period, objects are both separate from the
self and permanent. Object permanence is the understanding that objects
continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development#Sensorimotor_sta
ge)
2. Go back to Piaget’s children – Laurent, Lucienne, and Jacqueline. Determine
the sub-stage of sensorimotor development that was demonstrated by each
child. Do this with a learning partner. With your teacher as facilitator, you will
share and defend your answers with the whole class.
3. Based on your experiences with children, share observed behaviors that
illustrate any of the sub-stages of sensorimotor developmental stage.
2 – Learning and Remembering
Guide Questions:
1. Based on the experiences shared, is it more correct to say that an infant
does not remember anything during infancy?
2. Is it safe to say that memory begins at age three?
3 – Language Development
Guide Questions:
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1. Do all toddlers learn language at the same pace?
2. Are there toddlers that engage in telegraphic speech immediately without
passing through one-word stage and two-word stage in language
development?
3. Do infants have an innate capacity to learn language? Even if they are not
taught a language, can infants and toddlers learn that language?
ABSTRACTION
Sensorimotor Stage
 An analysis of the 6 sub-stages of the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s
cognitive development shows that development begins from reflexive
behaviors to more refined and more coordinated activities. Cognitive
development of infants evolves in orientation from becoming focused on
themselves to becoming object or world-oriented, from one that is
action-based to one that is mentally-based, from one that does not
involve much of coordination of schemes to one involving
intentionality, novelty and curiosity and from a thinking that is purely
sensorimotor to a symbolic one.
 Piaget’s sub-stages are termed circular because the adaptive behaviour to
the world involves repeated actions. Circular reactions are attempts to
repeat an event that the baby likes. Circular reactions serve as the building
blocks for intelligence (Pasek, P. and Golinkoff, R. 2003).
 Primary circular reactions are oriented toward the infant’s own body,
whereas secondary circular reactions are aimed toward the environment
including others. There is an example of a primary circular reaction:
At first, by accident, the baby gets her thumb in her moth. But she doesn’t
know how to do it again. She waves her hand around and, after many
attempts, eventually succeeds in doing it again. Gradually, she learns how
to do it at will (Pasek, K. and R. Golinkoff, 2003).
 Secondary circular reactions are repetitive actions that involve recreating
events which 4-10-month-old babies observe outside of their own bodies,
such as making their mobile crib shake by kicking their legs (Pasek, K. and
R. Golinkoff, 2003).
 Tertiary circular reactions, seen from approximately 10 to 18 months, is
when a baby does things over and over again, just a little differently each
time. e.g. When a baby seems to enjoy dropping the spoon over and over
again in many different ways, a proof of the creation of the creation of novel
variations in events. Piaget described he baby at this stage as “the scientist.”
When parents don’t understand their child’s behavior, they see this act as
abusive and get frustrated.
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 From dropping the spoon many times in many different ways, the baby
discovers a pattern “objects fall down --- not up.” They create the patterns
with their repetitive actions and then evaluate them. Babies are born pattern
seeks (Pasek, K. and R. Golinkoff, 2003).
 “Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant’s most
important accomplishments, according to Piaget.” Object permanence is
the understanding that objects continue to exist even when the objects are
not immediately perceptible through the senses. Before the infant’s
acquisition of the sense of object permanence, the principle that applies is
“out of sight, out of mind.”
There are some criticisms of Piaget’s theory on cognitive development.
One criticism from other developmental theorist is his fundamental assumption
that cognitive development occurs in fixes sequence of discontinuous spurts
across task domains, tasks, and contexts. Many theorists (e.g. Brainerd, 1978)
believe that cognitive development occurs as a continuous process rather than
in discontinuous stages of development. Recent studies in the cognitive
development of infants support the view that Piaget underestimated young
infants’ cognitive ability. Furthermore, Piaget’s methods of research were said
to be quite loose, the fact that he simply observed his three children and a few
others which were limited only to European children.
Learning and Remembering
Do infants learn and remember?
Yes! Pavlov’s classical conditioning and Skinner’s operant conditioning
have been proven to apply to infants. We’ll ask you to research on researches
that prove this.
All of us experience infantile amnesia, the inability to recall events that
happened when we were very young (Spear, 1979). Generally, we can
remember little or nothing that has happened to us before the age of about 5
years, and it is extremely rare for someone to recall many memories before
age3 years. Reports of childhood memories usually involve memories of
significant events (e.g. birth of a sibling or the death of a parent; Fivush &
Hammond, 1991). For example, some adults have recalled their own
hospitalization or the birth of a sibling as far back as age 2 years, and the death
of a parent or a family move may be recalled from as far back as age 3 years
(Usher and Neisser, 1993).
I have vivid memories of my childhood as early as age 3. I remember the
deaths of a baby brother and a baby sister in a row. Before age 3, I have a vivid
picture of my father carrying me home in his arms after he was informed that I
was chilling due to very high fever in my grandmother’s house.
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Language Development
From day one, infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their
linguistic environment with the specific goal of acquiring language. Infants
clearly have remarkably acute language learning abilities even from an early
age (Marcus, Vijayan. Bandi Rao and Vishton, 1999; Pinker, 1997, 1999 cited
by Sternberg, Robert, 2003).
Within the first years of life, we humans seem to progress through the
following stages in producing language (Sternberg, 2003).
1. Cooing, which comprises largely vowel sounds
2. Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds; to most
people’s ears, the babbling of infants growing up among speakers from
different language groups sounds very similar.
3. One-word utterances; these utterances are limited in both the vowels
and the consonants they utilize (Ingram, 1999 cited by Sternberg, 2003)
4. Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech
5. Basic adult sentence structure (present by about age 4 years) with
continuing vocabulary acquisition.
The infant utters his/her first word – followed by one or two more, and
soon after, yet a few more. The infant uses these one-word utterances termed
holophrases – to convey intentions, desires and demands. Usually, the words
are nouns describing familiar objects that the child observes (e.g. book, ball,
baby) or wants (e.g. Mama, Dada).
By 18 months of age, children typically have vocabularies of 3 to 100
words (Siegler, 1986). Because the young child’s vocabulary is very limited at
this point in the development process, the child overextends the meaning of
words in his/her existing lexicon to cover things and ideas for which a new word
is lacking. For example, the general term for any kind of four-legged animal may
be “doggies”. In linguistics this is called overextension error.
Gradually between 1.5 and 2.5 years of age, children start combining
single words to produce two-word utterances. These two-word or three-word
utterances with rudimentary syntax but with articles and prepositions missing
are referred to as telegraphic speech.
Vocabulary expands rapidly, more than tripling from about 300 words at
about 2 years of age to about 1,000 words at about 3 years of age. At about 4
years, incredibly children acquire the foundations of adult syntax and language
structure (Sternberg, 2003).
It is clear that no toddler blossoms all of a sudden into one capable of
telegraphic speech. As the 5 stages above show, the acquisition of language
comes in stages beginning with cooing, then babbling, to one-word utterances,
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to two - or three-word utterances or even more but without articles and
prepositions thus called telegraphic speech.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972), noted linguist, claims that humans have
an innate language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is a “metaphorical
organ that is responsible for language learning. Just as a heart is designed to
pump blood this language acquisition device is pre-programmed to learn
language, whatever the language community children find themselves in.”
This means that we, humans seem to be biologically preconfigured to be
ready to acquire language. Indeed, children seem to have a knack for acquiring
an implicit understanding of the many rules of language structure, as well as for
applying those rules to new vocabulary and new contexts. This may partly
explain why children are said to learn language fast.
Professor Laura-Ann Petito of Dartmouth College of Hanover, New
Hampshire and her colleagues conducted a recent study that concluded that
“by 5 months of age, babies are already specializing by using the left side of
their brains for language sounds and the right side for expression emotion….
We all speak out from the right side of our mouths…. Babies babble out from
the right side of their mouth.”
The right side of the body is controlled by he left side of the brain while the left
side of the body is controlled by the right side of the brain (connections in the
brain are contralateral or crossed), Babies use the right side of their mouths for
babbling, then babbling is a language function controlled by the left side of the
brain.
APPLICATION
1. Observe one 1) 0-6 months infant; 2) 7-12 months infant; 3) 13-18 months
infant and 4) 19-24-month-old infant. Refer to “What Infants and Toddlers
Can Do Cognitively” from Childhood Care and Development (ECCD).
2. Share your observations.
1. What did you observe that they can do? cannot do? Why so?
A Summary of What Infants and Toddlers Can Do Cognitively

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DOMAIN: LANGUAGE, PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH LANGUAGE
(RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE)
0 – 6 months
 Watches primary caregiver intently as she speaks to him/her
7 – 12 months
 Understands “No”
 Points to family member when asked to do so
13 – 18 months
 Points to 5 body parts on him/herself when asked to do so
 Follows one-step instructions without need for gestures
19 – 24 months
 Points to 5 named pictured objects when asked to do so
LANGUAGE (EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE)

Standards 1: The child is able to use words and gestures to express his
thoughts and feelings.
0 – 6 months
 Makes gurgling, cooing, babbling or other vocal sounds
 Uses gestures (e.g., stretching his/her arms, pointing) to indicate what
he/she wants
7 – 12 months
 Repeats sounds produced by others
 Says meaningful words like papa, mama, to refer to specific persons
 Uses animal sounds to identify animals (e.g., meow-meow for cat)
 Uses environmental sounds to identify objects/events in the environment
(e.g., boom for thunder)
13 – 18 months
 Speaks in single words
 Says “yes” and” no” appropriately
 Uses words accompanied by gestures to indicate what he/she wants
 Responds to simple questions with single words
19 – 24 months
 Uses pronouns
 Uses possessive pronouns
 Says what he/she wants without accompanying this with gestures
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 Attempts to converse even if he cannot be clearly understood
PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH (MATCHING)

Standards 1.1: The child is able to match identical objects, colors, shapes,
symbols.
7 – 12 months
 Able to match 2 identical objects (e.g., 2 spoons, 2 balls)
19 – 24 months
 Matches identical objects
 Matches identical pictures
PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH (ROTE SEQUENCING)

Standards 1.2: The child is able to recite the alphabet and numbers in
sequence.
19 – 24 months
 Counts from 1 to 5 with errors, gaps or prompts
Domain: Cognitive Development

ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL
Standards 1: The child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity at
age-expected levels.
0 – 6 months
 Looks steadily at novel stimuli (e.g., rattle, dangling toy)
7 – 12 months
 Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these (e.g.,
pulling apart)
 Looks with interest at picture books
 Able to sit through an entire meal without fussing
13 – 18 months
 May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus
 Resists interruption while engaged in play
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CONCEPT FORMATION)

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Standards 1: The child develops basic concepts pertaining to object constancy,
space, time, quantity, seriation, etc. and uses these as the basis for
understanding now materials are categorized in his/her environment.
0 – 6 months
 Experiments with new objects or toys by hanging or putting them in his
mouth
 Looks in the direction of a fallen object.
7 – 12 months
 Looks for partially hidden objects
 Looks for completely hidden objects
13 – 18 months
 Can tell whether something is hot or cold
 Hands over 1 object when asked
19 – 24 months
 Can tell which is shorter of 2 items
 Can tell which is taller/longer of 2 items
 Can tell which is bigger of 2 items
 Can tell which is nearer of 2 items
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CAUSE-EFFECT

RELATIONSHIP)
Standards 1: The child is able to understand the cause-effect relationships.
0 – 6 months
 Acts on an object to achieve an objective (e.g., shakes rattle)
7 – 12 months
 Uses an object to get something he/she wants (e.g., spoon to reach an
object)
19 – 24 months
 Asks “Why?” questions
 Understands reasons behind daily practices (e.g., washing hands before
meals)
 Understands reasons behind safety rules and practices at home (e.g.,
why one must not play matches)
 Knows where to return most of his/her things
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR EXPERIENCES: EPISODIC MEMORY)
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Standards 1: The child is able to recall people he has met, events, and places
he has been to.
0 – 6 months
 Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of someone he/she has met
several times but who does not live in his/her home
13 – 18 months
 Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of a familiar place besides his/her
home
19 – 24 months
 Child is brought somewhere and correctly recalls having been there
before
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR CONCEPT-BASED KNOWLEDGE: SEMANTIC

MEMORY)
Standards 1: The child is able to store verbal information in short and long-term
memory
19 – 24 months
 Hums a recognizable tune
 Memorizes some gestures of action songs
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (LOGICAL REASONING)

Standards 1: The child is able to follow the logic of events (i.e., reasons why
these happen) and draw accurate conclusion by evaluating the facts presented
to him.
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (PLANNING AND ORGANIZING)
Standards 1: The child is able to plan and organize a simple, familiar activity.
19 – 24 months
 Enjoys constructing objects or structures out of manipulative toys (e.g.,
blocks, clay, sand, paper)
 Uses toys or objects as symbols in play (e.g., pretends empty mile can
is a drum)
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 Can use the same toy or object in more than one way (e.g., big empty
box as house)
What Infants and toddlers can do Cognitively?
ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL

Standards 1: The child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity at
age expected levels.
0 – 6 months
 Looks steadily at novel stimuli (e.g., rattle, dangling toy)
7 – 12 months
 Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these (e.g.,
pulling apart)
 Looks with interest at picture books.
 Able to sit through an entire meal without fussing
13 – 18 months
 May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus
 Resists interruption while engaged in play
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CONCEPT FORMATION)

Standards 1: The child develops basic concepts pertaining to object constancy,
space, time, quantity, seriation, etc. and uses these as the basis for
understanding how materials are categorized in his/her environment.
0 – 6 months
 Experiments with new objects or toys by banging or putting them in his
mouth
 Looks in the direction of a fallen object
7 – 12 months
 Looks for partially hidden objects
 Looks for completely hidden objects
13 – 18 months
 Can tell whether something is hot or cold
 Hands over 1 object when asked
19 – 24 months
 Can tell which is shorter of 2 items
144
 Can tell which is taller/longer of 2 items
 Can tell which is bigger of 2 items
 Can tell which is nearer of 2 items
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CAUSE-EFFECT

RELATIONSHIP)
Standards 1: The child is able to understand the cause-effect relationships.
0 – 6 months
 Acts on an object to achieve an objective (e.g., shakes rattle)
7 – 12 months
 Uses an object to get something he/she wants (e.g., spoon to reach an
object)
19 – 24 months
 Asks “Why?” questions
 Understands reasons behind daily practices (e.g., washing hands before
meals)
 Understands reasons behind safety rules and practices at home (e.g.,
why one must not play matches)
 Knows where to return most of his/her things
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR EXPERIENCES: EPISODIC MEMORY)

Standards 1: The child is able to recall people he has met, events, and places
he has been to.
0 – 6 months
 Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of someone he/she has met
several times but who does not live in his/her home
13 – 18 months
 Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of a familiar place besides his/her
home
19 – 24 months
 Child is brought somewhere and correctly recalls having been there
before
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR CONCEPT-BASED KNOWLEDGE: SEMANTIC

MEMORY)
Standards 1: The child is able to store verbal information in short and long-term
memory
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19 – 24 months
 Hums a recognizable tune
 Memorizes some gestures of action songs
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (LOGICAL REASONING)

Standards 1: The child is able to follow the logic of events (i.e., reasons why
these happen) and draw accurate conclusion by evaluating the facts presented
to him.
19 – 24 months
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (PLANNING AND ORGANIZING)
Standards 1: The child is able to plan and organize a simple, familiar activity.
19 – 24 months
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CREATIVE THOUGHT)
Standards 1: The child is able to generate new ideas or concepts, or new
associations between existing ideas or concepts
19 – 24 months
 Enjoys constructing objects or structures out of manipulative toys (e.g.,
blocks, clay, sand, paper)
 Uses toys or objects as symbols in play (e.g., pretends empty milk can
is a drum)
 Can use the same toy or object in more than one way (e.g., big empty
box as house)
(Source: The Philippines Early Learning and Development Standards (ELDS) formulated by
the Child and Welfare Council now merged with the Early Childhood Care and Development
Council) (Reading Resource: Corpuz, Lucas, Borado, Lucido, 2018. The Child
and Adolescent Learners and Teaching Principles, Lorimar Publishing House,
Inc. Manila)
Closure
Wow! You did great for this lesson. You have more to learn in the
next lesson… Good luck!
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Introduction
In this lesson, you will gain deeper understanding on socio-
emotional development of infants and toddlers. So? Enjoy and collect
more memorable insights to make you become a better teacher
someday.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson challenge yourself to:
 describe the socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers;
 identify factors that enhance/impede the socio-emotional
development of infants and toddlers;
 present an abstract of others’ or your own research related to the
socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers; and
 draw implications of socio-emotional development concepts to child
care, education and parenting.
ACTIVITY
Read Nolte’s poem then answer the following questions:
1. Do you agree with D. Nolte’s poem?
2. Which line of the poem is most meaningful to you? Explain.
Children Learn What They Live
If a child lives with criticism, he learns to condemn…

If a child lives with hostility, he learns to fight…
If a child lives with fear, he learns to be apprehensive…
If a child lives with pity, he learns to feel sorry for himself…
If a child lives with ridicule, he learns to be shy…
If a child lives with jealousy, he learns to feel guilt…
But…
If a child lives with tolerance, he learns to be patient…
If a child lives with encouragement, he learns to be confident…
If a child lives with praise, he learns to be appreciative…
If a child lives with acceptance, he learns to love…
If a child lives with honesty, he learns what truth is…
If a child lives with fairness, he learns justice…
If a child lives with security, he learns to have faith in himself and those about
him…
If a child lives with friendliness, he learns the world is a nice place in which to
live
With what is your child living?
Dorothy L. Nolte, Trained Family Counselor
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ANALYSIS
1. Based on Nolte’s poem, which plays a very important role in the socio-
emotional development of children?
2. From what kind of home environment do children who are well adjusted
most probably come? What about maladjusted children?
3. State in a sentence what the poem is saying about a child’s socio-emotional

development.
ABSTRACTION
The Formative Years

Much has been said about the importance of the first three years in
human development. They are so-called the formative years that is why,
parents and other caregivers at this stage of human development play a
significant role in the development of infants and toddlers.
As the poem: Children Learn What They Live” expresses, the kind of
home and school environment that parents and teachers produce determines
to a very great extent the quality of the development of children.
Let us discuss those elements that have something to do with the
wholesome socio-emotional development of children.
Attachment
 For healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs to establish an
enduring emotional bond characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain
closeness to a specific figure, particularly during stressful situation. This is
the social phenomenon of attachment.
 According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of attachment theory, the
beginnings of attachment occur within the first 6 months of a baby’s life with
a variety of built-in signals that baby uses to keep her caregiver engaged.
The baby cries, gazes into her mother’s eyes, smile, etc. in the next few
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months, the baby develops in her degree of attachment of her parents. She
smiles more freely at them than at any stranger whom she seldom sees.
This is what Bob Greene must have experienced. (See quote below the tittle
of this Module).
 The key to a good start in the social development of the baby is a lot
responsive interaction with the baby (K. Pasek and R. Golinkoff, 2003).
Babies thrive on social interaction when it is in response to their social bids.
Babies seem to let us know when they want to interact or not. The timing of
the caregiver’s response to the baby is important.
 Other relevant and interesting research findings cited by K. Pasek and R.
Golinkoff, (2003) in their book “Einstein Never Used Classcards” are given
below:
 What is absolutely central to babies’ emotional well-being is not so much
feeding but the consistent involvement of caregivers. Being fed by your
mother is not what attached you to her. It is consistent, close nurturing
that matters in early relationships.
 Children who have good attachment relationships as infants make better
adjustments in a number of areas in future life. But remember, having a
good attachment in infancy gives you a great start but can’t carry you
through life. You have to be treated sensitively and responsibly as you
grow up if you are to develop favorably.
 Infants attach to more than one caregiver and they are developing
emotional relationships with multiple caregivers at once.
 Even when children are in child care for more than 30 hours pre weak,
the family contributes more to child’s social and cognitive well-being than
does the child care arrangement. Parents matter and children are in child
care.
 Parents and caregivers help children regulate their emotions by working
with them and by serving as their models.
TEMPERAMENT
1. Another factor related to the infant’s socio-emotional development is
temperament. Temperament is a word that “captures” the ways that
people differ, even at birth, in such things as their emotional reactions,
activity level, attention span, persistence, and ability to regulate their
emotions” (K. Pasek and R. Golinkoff, 2003). Every baby expresses
personality traits we call temperament. How a child responds emotionally to
objects, events, and people is a reflection of his individual temperament.
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2. Researchers Thomas, Chess, and Birch describe nine different
temperament categories (Honig, 2010, secure Relationships: Nurturing
Infant-Toddler Attachments in Early Care Settings.)
These include:
 Activity level
 Mood
 Threshold for distress
 Rhythmicity
 Intensity of response
 Approach-Withdrawal
 Distractibility
 Adaptability
 Persistence
To determine a child’s temperament, make the following observations:

Activity level. Some babies are placid or inactive. Other babies thrash about
a lot and, as toddlers, are always on the move. At this stage, they must be
watched carefully.
The mood. Some babies are very smiley and cheerful. Although securely
attached emotionally to their teachers, others have a low-key mood look more
solemn or unhappy.
Child’s threshold for distress. Some babies are very sensitive. They become
upset very easily when stressed. Other babies can comfortably wait when they
need a feeding or some attention.
The rhythmicity of children. Some babies get angry or sleepy on a fairly
regular and predictable basis. Other babies sleep at varying times, urinate or
have bowel movements at unpredictable times, and get hungry at different
times. They are hard to put on a “schedule”.
The intensity of response in each baby. When a baby’s threshold for distress
has been reached, some babies act restless. Others act cranky or fret just a
little. Still others cry with terrific intensity or howl with despair when they are
stressed. They shriek with delight and respond with high energy when reacting
to happy or challenging situations.
Approach to new situations. Some infants are very cautious. They are wary
and fearful of new teachers, being placed in a different crib, or being taken to
visit a new setting. Other infants approach new persons, new activities, or new
play possibilities with zest and enjoyment.
Distraction. Some children can concentrate on a toy regardless of surrounding
bustle or noise in a room. Others are easily distracted.
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Adaptability of each child. Some children react to strange or difficult situations
with distress, but recover fairly rapidly. Others adjust to new situations with
difficulty or after a very long period.
Child’s attention span. Some children have long attention span. They
continue with an activity for a fairly long time. Others flit from one activity to
another.
 Based on these temperament traits, psychiatrists Alexander Thomas
and Stella Chess studied babies’ 1) the easy child; 2) the difficult child;
and 3) the slow-to-warm –up child and those that did not fall under any
other 3 basic types. The “easy child” easily readily establishes regular
routines, is generally cheerful, and adapts readily to new experiences.
The “difficult child” is irregular in daily routines, is low to accept new
experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely to new things
while the “slow-to warm-up-child” shows mild, low-key reactions to
environmental changes, is negative in mood, and adjusts slowly to new
experiences.
The Development of Emotions
Here are the milestones of the baby and the toddler’s emotional
development and social development:
Early infancy (birth-six months)
 It is not clear whether infants actually experience emotions, or if adults,
using facial expressions as the standard, simple superimpose their own
understanding of the meaning of infant facial expressions.
 Between six and ten weeks, a social smile emerges, usually
accompanied by other pleasure-indicative actions and sound, including
cooing and mouthing. This social smile occurs in response to adult
smiles and interactions.
As infants become more aware of their environment, smiling occurs in
response to a wider variety of contexts. They may smile when the see a
toy they have previously enjoyed. Laughter, which begins at around
three or four months, requires a level of cognitive development
because it demonstrates that the child can recognize incongruity. That
is, laughter is usually elicited by actions that deviate from the norm, such
as being kissed on the abdomen or a caregiving playing a peek-a-boo.
Because it fosters reciprocal interactions with others, laughter promotes
social development.
Later infancy months (7-12)
 During the last half of the first year, infants begin expressing fear,
disgust, and anger because of the maturation of cognitive abilities.
Anger, often expressed by crying, is a frequent emotion expressed by
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infants. Although some infants respond to distressing events with
sadness, anger is more common.
 Fear also emerges during this stage as children become able to compare
an unfamiliar event with what they know. Unfamiliar situation or objects
often elicit fear responses in infants. One of the most common is the
presence of an adult stranger, a fear that begins to appear at about
seven months. A second fear of this sage is call separation anxiety.
Infants seven to twelve months old may cry in fear if the mother or
caregiver leaves them in an unfamiliar place.
Socialization of emotion begins in infancy. It is thought that this
process is significant in the infant’s acquisition of cultural and social
codes for emotional display, teaching them how to express their
emotions, and the degree of acceptability associated with different types
of emotional behaviors.
Another process that emerges during this stage is social referencing.
Infants begin to recognize the emotions of others, and use this
information when reacting to novel situations and people. As infants
explore their world, they generally rely on the emotions expressions of
their mothers or caregivers to determine the safety or appropriateness
of a particular endeavor.
Toddlerhood years (1-2)
During the second year, infant express emotions of shame or
embarrassment and pride. These emotions mature in all children and adults
contribute to their development.
Emotional understanding
During this stage of development, toddlers acquire language and are
learning to verbally express their feelings. This ability, rudimentary as it is during
early toddlerhood, is the first step in the development of emotional self-
regulation skills.
In infancy, children largely rely on adults to help them regulate their
emotional saes. If they are uncomfortable, they may be able to communicate
this state by crying, but have little hope of alleviating the discomfort of their own.
In toddlerhood, however, children begin to develop skills to regulate their
emotions with the emergence of language providing an important tool to assist
in this process. Being able to articulate an emotional state in itself has a
regulatory effect in that it enables children to communicate their feelings to a
person capable of helping them manage their emotional state. Speech also
enables children to self-regulate, using soothing language to talk themselves
through difficult situations.
 Empathy, a complex emotional response to a situation, also appears in
toddlerhood, usually by age two. The development of empathy requires
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that children read others’ emotional cues, understand that other people
are entities distinct from themselves, and take the perspective or another
person (put themselves in the position of another). (Source:
http://psychology/jrank.org).
Erikson’s Psychosocial theory
The first two stage (of the 8 stages of a person’s psychosocial
development) apply at the periods of infancy and toddlerhood, that is why they
are discussed below:
Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)
 Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
 Virtue: Hope
The first stage of Erik Erikson’s centers around the infant’s basic needs
being met by the parents. The infant depends on the parents, especially the
mother, for food, sustenance, and comfort. The child’s relative understanding
of world and society come from the parents and their interaction with the child.
If the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection,
the infant’s view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to
provide a secure environment and to meet the child’s basic need a sense of
mistrust will result. According to Erik Erikson, the major development task in
infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers
are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust –
that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even
abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust – that the world is in an
undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place.
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)
 Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
 Main Question: “Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?”
 Virtue: Will
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities,
they begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base
of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents’
patience and encouragement help foster autonomy in the child. Highly
restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instil in the child a sense of
double and reluctance to attempt new challenges.
As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers
become capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed
themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers
encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy – a
sense able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand
too much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are
capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead
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develop shame and double about their ability to hand problems
(en.wikipedia.org. wiki. Erikson’s-stages-of-psychosocial-development-)
APPLICATION
1. Observe one 1) 0-6 months infant; 2) 7-12 months infant; 3) 13-18 months
infant and 4) 19-24-month-old infant. Refer to “What Infants and Toddlers
Can Do Socio-emotionally” from Childhood Care and Development (ECCD).
2. Share your observations.
1. What can the infants and toddlers do?
A Summary of What Infants and Toddlers Can Do Socio-emotionally

DOMAIN: Social and Emotional Development
SUB-DOMAIN: EMOTONAL (EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION)
Standards 1.1: The child expresses different basic emotions
0 – 6 months
 Cries in different ways to express different needs (e.g., hungry, sleepy,
wet)
 Shows excitement or pleasure by moving arms, kicking, moving the
entire body and face lighting up
 Smiles or laughs in response to a pleasant experience (e.g., caregiver
singing to him/her)
 Amuses self by simple repetitive muscle movements without objects
(e.g., rolling back and forth)
 Amuses self by simple repetitive muscle movements with objects (e.g.,
shaking, rattle)
 Likes playing with water
 Enjoys going to the park
 Shows fear and hesitation towards unfamiliar persons
7 – 12 months
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 Has a favorite toy
13 – 18 months
 Smiles/laughs when happy or amused
 Cries when sad, angry or scared
 Shows varying degrees or intensities of various emotions

Standards 1.2: The child demonstrates ability to self-regulate feelings/emotions
and follows schedules as well as rules and regulations
0 – 6 months
 Stops crying almost immediately when need is met
 Eventually gets used to an imitating experience (e.g., honking horn) and
calms down
13 – 18 months
 Able to stop an undesirable behavior or activity when instructed to do so
(e.g., going out to street)
 Can calm down or stop tantruming with help from adults
 Can follow simple rules
19 – 24 months
 Can wait his/her turn
 Shows ability to contact his/her expression of anger or frustration when
source is removed
 Shows ability to contain one’s expression of anger or frustration in a
public place when asked by parent/caregiver
 Tries to control his tears when in pain or scared
Standards 1.3: The child comprehends and displays self-appraisal emotions

(shame, pride, guilt)
7 – 12 months
 Smiles or claps his hands when he/she displays a learned behavior (e.g.,
close-open)
13 – 18 months
 Recognizes and is able to label self-appraisal emotions such as shame,
pride, guilt, envy, jealousy
 Will do something that gets him/her praised (e.g., doing a task property,
singing etc.)
19 – 24 months
 Shows interest in doing things that are his/her own creation
 Says “sorry when he/she has made a mistake or has hurt someone
SUB-DOMAIN: EMOTIONAL (RECEPTIVITY TO OTHER’S EMOTIONS)

Standards 1: The child is receptive to the different emotions of other people
and shows empathy.
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7 – 12 months
 Can mimic people’s facial expressions
13 – 18 months
 Demonstrates appropriate/acceptable responses to other people’s
emotions (e.g., does not laugh at someone who is crying)
19 – 24 months
 Identifies feelings in others
 Shows respect for rights and properties of others (e.g., asks permission,
does not deliberately destroy others’ things)
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (EMERGING SENSE OF SELF)

Standards 1: The child expresses knowledge of self and basic roles of people
in his/her immediate environment.
0 – 6 months
 Explores own body (e.g., observes hands and toes), often smiles and
vocalizes
 Looks at self in the mirror
 Responds to own name by turning to look or reaching to be picked up
when called
7 – 12 months
 Identifies self in the mirror or photograph via patting or pointing to his/her
image
13 – 18 months
 Identifies what part of his/her body hurts by pointing to this
 Refers to self by first or nickname
 Calls family members by their name/role (mama, papa, ate, kuya)
 Asks for what he/she needs without hesitation
 Expresses dislike or disagreement (e.g., no, ayaw) but in a manner that
remains respectful and polite
19 – 24 months
 Identifies self by first and last name
 Identifies what part of his/her body huts by naming this
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (FORMING ATTACHMENTS)

Standards 1: The child forms healthy attachments to primary caregivers and
other significant adults and children in his/her life.
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0 – 6 months
 Looks for caregiver during times of distress or discomfort
 Shows distress (e.g., inability to eat or sleep, crying) if primary caregiver
is absent
13 – 18 months
 Is affectionate towards primary caregivers and other family members
 Goes to primary caregivers for help
 Is comfortable in the company of strangers if primary caregiver is present
 May play alone but likes to be near familiar adults or siblings
 Hugs or cuddles toys
 Enjoys playing regularly with significant adults and children
19 – 24 months
 Eventually moves away from primary caregiver when playing with
unfamiliar children or adults, but may look occasionally in his/her
direction
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHILDREN)

Standards 1: The child plays and has positive interactions with other children.
0 – 6 months
 Plays with toys by himself (e.g., mouths, examines, swipes toys)
 Smiles in response to the facial expressions of other children
 Looks at other children with interest; watches them play
 Displays amusement interacting with other children (e.g., cooing, flailing
arms and legs)
7 – 12 months
 Engages in play alongside but not necessarily with other children (i.e.,
parallel play)
 Plays with other children (i.e., interactive play)
13 – 18 months
 Plays cooperatively with other children
 May hug/kiss or hold hands with other children
 Shows or shares food, books, and toys with other children
 Asks o play with other children or invite them to ply with him/her
19 – 24 months
 Talks to other children, asks them questions
 Shows preference for some children and interacts more with them
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SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (INTERACTIONS WITH ADULTS)
Standards 1: The child has positive relations and interactions with adults.
0 – 6 months
 Will look at adult’s faces and make eye-to-eye contact.
 Listens to verbalizations by adult
 Coos or smiles when talked o by a familiar adult
 Plays peek-a-boo interactively with others
7 – 12 months
 Hugs, pats, kisses “familiar” persons
13 – 18 months
 Friendly with strangers but initially may show slight anxiety or shyness
 Asks adults (other than primary caregiver or adult family members) for
help or to indicate what he/she wants or needs
 Willingly does what familiar adults ask him/her to do
 Appropriately uses cultural gestures of greeting without prompting (e.g.,
mano/bless, kiss)
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (PAKIKIRAMDAM-SENSITIVITY)

Standards 1: The child takes social cues from the environment and adjusts
his behavior accordingly.
0 – 6 months
 Is shy or more quiet with strangers
 Refers to caregiver to cues about novel situations, people or objects
13 – 18 months
 Usually quiets down or stops when caregiver shushes him/her
 Takes notice when there is a sudden change in mood of caregiver or
people around him/her
19 – 24 months
 If he/she needs something, can wait quietly, as told, until caregiver is
able to attend to him
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (APPRECIATING DIVERSITY)

Standards 1: The child recognizes and respects similarities and differences
in people, language, culture.
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19 – 24 months
Able to differentiate between boys and girls Sub-domain: Social
(Pakiramdam-Sensitivity)
Standards 1: The child takes social cues from the environment and adjusts
his behavior accordingly.
0 – 6 months
 Is shy or more quiet with strangers
 Refers to caregiver to cues about novel situations, people or objects
13 – 18 months
 Usually quiets down or stops when caregiver shushes him/her
 Takes notice when there is a sudden change in mood of caregiver or
people around him/her
19 – 24 months
 If he/she needs something, can wait quietly, as told, until caregiver is
able to attend to him
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (APPRECIATING DIVERSITY)

Standards 1: The child recognizes and respects similarities and differences
in people, language, culture.
19 – 24 months
Treats house help or those less fortunate with respect (e.g., talking to them in
a polite manner) (Reading Resource: Corpuz, Lucas, Borado, Lucido, 2018.
The Child and Adolescent Learners and Teaching Principles, Lorimar
Publishing House, Inc. Manila)
My Observations
Baby and Adult Caregiver
Toddler and Adult Caregiver
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My Interpretations in the context of Erikson’s theory
Closure
key features of the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development
of toddlers. For now, we encourage you to write a report, graphic
organizer and have your initial portfolio. Have more fun!
160
Introduction
Great job! You have gone this far, wow! Have more patience in
answering this lesson 4. It made you more capacitated on physical,
cognitive and socio-emotional development of toddlers. Good luck!
Learning Outcomes

emotional development during the toddlers; and
 apply pedagogical principles in the teaching-learning process for
toddlers
SYNTHESIS
Give a summary of the key characteristics of toddlers’
KEY FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF TODDLERS
The Pedagogical Principles as Applied to Toddlers’ Learning and

Development
You studied the 14 pedagogical principles in module 1-Lesson 1. Cite
and explain at least one pedagogical principle that applies to the teaching-
learning process of TODDLERS by filling out the table below. You may choose
only those principles that are relevant.
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LEARNER-CENTERED PRINCIPLE IN THE TEACHING-LEARNING
PROCESS OF TODDLERS
Cluster 1 – Principle referring to How is this principle applied in the
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors teaching-learning process of
toddlers?
principle here) e.g. Make the classroom or home
environment safe and nurturing for
e.g. Cognitive and metacognitive toddlers to learn by ensuring their
factors safety while they climb the stairs,
Context of learning – learning is jumps, explores, etc. Make the
influenced by environmental factors, environment conducive by talking to
including culture, technology and them, reading to them, playing
instructional practices. – The matching games with them, taking
classroom environment, the degree field trips together to the garden,
to which it is nurturing or not, can park, to the bus ride. Give them
have significant impact on toddlers’ toddler learning toys appropriate to
learning. their developmental stage.

Motivational and Affective Factors teaching-learning process of
toddlers?
principle here)

Developmental and Social Factors teaching-learning process of the
toddler?
principle here)
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Individual Differences Factors teaching-learning process of the
toddler?
principle here)
Name ______________________________ Section ___________ Date ___________

WEEK____
best/ correct answer and write it on the space before the number. Use
_____ 1. In which stage in Erickson’s psychosocial stage are toddlers supposed
to assert their independence?
A. Autonomy versus shame and doubt
B. Trust versus mistrust
C. Initiative versus guilt
D. Industry versus inferiority
_____ 2. When toddlers developed too negatively or are ignored, which do they
develop?
A. Mistrust
B. Shame
C. Total dependence
D. Inferiority
_____ 3. In which Piagetian stage of development is the toddler?
A. Pre-operational
B. Concrete operational
C. Sensorimotor
D. Formal operational
_____ 4. What is meant by sensorimotor stage of toddlerhood?
A. Children rely on senses and behavioural schemes to acquire
knowledge.
B. Children imitate an action that was observed in the past.
C. Children are able to have one thing represent another.
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D. Children know that objects that are out of view continue to exist
_____ 5. By the end of the sensorimotor period, the toddler understands object
permanence. What does object permanence mean? The understanding that
objects:
A. continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.
B. don’t exist when they are no longer seen.
C. never change.
D. change in shape and in color.
_____ 6. The toddler’s speech is usually telegraphic. What does this mean?
A. Two to three-word utterances with articles and prepositions
B. Short and long utterances
C. Incomprehensible language
D. Mispronounced words
_____ 7. With Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device (LAD) what is TRUE of

toddlers?
A. Learn language slowly
B. Learn language fast
C. Can’t pronounce words well
D. Can pronounce words well
_____ 8. Which CORRECLY explains infantile amnesia?
A. Ability to recall events that happened when the person was very
young
B. Ability to imagine events that happened in toddlerhood
C. Inability to recall events that happened when the person was very
young
D. Inability to understand events that happened when the person was
very you
_____ 9. A toddler is capable of creative thought. Which proves this?
I. Can use the same toy in more than one way
II. Pretends empty milk can is a drum
III. Constructs objects out of manipulative toys
A. I, II
B. I, II and III
C. II and III
D. I and II
_____ 10. To test a toddler’s logical reasoning, you must find out if the child
can:
A. make new things out of old toys
B. pronounce words correctly
C. reason out why something happens
D. distinguish father from other men
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and Adolescent Learners and Teaching Principles, Lorimar
Publishing House, Inc. Manila)
Closure
Congratulation! In the succeeding lessons, you will synthesize the key
features of the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of infants
and toddlers. For now, we encourage you to write a personal reflection
promoting your students’ socio-emotional well-being. Have fun in sharing your
life’s experiences. Happy learning!
Module Summary:
Hurrayy!!! You made it again. You learned about the following, physical
development of infants and toddlers, cognitive development of infants and
toddlers, socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers and synthesis of
the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of toddlers
(worksheets)
You make an initial compilation of your portfolio for all the learning
evidences you have completed and worksheets you have answered and
checked through hardcopy. Send through email and group chat.
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Module Overview:
In this module you will learn more about the preschoolers, their physical,
cognitive and socio-emotional development. Across, this module you will surely
enjoy and relate to the amazing and interesting development of a preschooler.
Module Outcome:
 describe the physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development of a

preschooler;
 identify the different characteristics of a preschooler
• Apply pedagogical of learning and teaching appropriate for primary
schoolers.
Lesson 1: Preschoolers’ Physical Development
Lesson 2: Cognitive Development of the Preschoolers
Lesson 3: Socio Emotional Development of the Preschooler
Lesson 4: Synthesis of the Physical, Cognitive and Socio-emotional

Development of the Preschooler
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Introduction
The pre-schooler years is commonly known as “the years before formal
schooling begins”. It roughly covers 3-5 years of age. Although it is known as
the years before formal school, it is by no way less important than the grade
school years. The preschool years is very important as it lays foundation to later
development. At this stage, pre-schoolers achieve many developmental
milestones. As such, pre-service teachers who might be interested to teach and
care for pre-schoolers need to be knowledgeable about them to be truly an
intentional and effective teacher.
This module on the physical development of pre-schoolers focuses on
the acquisition of gross and fine motor skills, artistic expression, proper nutrition
and sleep, and what teachers and caregivers should do to maximize the
preschoolers’ development.
Learning Outcomes
 Describe preschool children’s physical growth;
 Identify the different gross and fine motor skills; and
 Draw implications of these concepts on physical development on
teaching pre-schoolers.
ACTIVITY
Examine the pictures below. Think about the physical characteristics of

pre-schoolers. Put a caption for the pictures.
A day at the playground…… (photos by Teacher Lot Zamora)
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Picture 1 and 2
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ANALYSIS
From the captions you wrote for the pictures, what physical
characteristics pf pre-schoolers came out? Write the below.
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ABSTRACTION
From the activity you are able to see what’s really an activities made by
the preschoolers during their years. Now, it’s time for you to read and learn
more how to deal with their physical development and most importantly, the
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issues and concerns they are experiencing and how the teachers and
caregivers can help them to maximize their growth and development.
BIG IDEAS ABOUT THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOLERS

(Corpus, et.al, 2018)
1. There are significant changes in physical growth of preschoolers.

2. The preschoolers’ physical development is marked by the acquisition of
gross and fine motor skills.
3. Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age.
4. Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important for the
preschoolers.
5. Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and
development of preschoolers.
6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms can thrive well
with the appropriate adaptations made in the classroom, materials and
activities.
GROSS AND FINE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Gross Motor Development
- It refers to acquiring skills that involve the large muscles.
These gross motor skills are categorized into three:
Locomotor Skills
- Those that involve going from one place to another, like walking,
running, climbing, skipping, hopping, galloping, and dodging.
Non-locomotor Skills
- Those where the child stays in place, like bending, stretching,
turning, and swaying.
Manipulative skills
- Those that involve projecting and receiving objects, like throwing,
striking, bouncing, catching and dribbling.
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Fine Motor Development
- It refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles in the arm,
hands, and finger purposefully.
(picking, squeezing, pounding, opening things, holding and using a
writing implement)
PRESCHOOLERS’ ARTISTIC DEVELOPMENT
Victor Lowenfeld studied and came up with stages of drawing in early

childhood.
•Scribbling Stage -
Stage 2 •Schematic stage -
this stage begins with more elaborate scnes
large zig-zag lines •Preschematic are depiced by the
and make other forms Stage - drawings child. drawings mat
of artistic expressions usually comprise of include trees, houses,
a prominent head sun,etc.
with basic elements
Stage 1 Stage 3
What Preschoolers Can Do: (Physical Skills)
This bulleted list of Preschoolers’ physical skills is lifted from the Physical
Domain component of the Philippine Early Learning and Development
Standards (ELDS). This set of standards was based on a study commissioned
by UNICEF and the Child Welfare Council (CWC). This is how adopted for use
by the Early Childhood Care and Development Council.
36 – 48 Months 49 – 60 Months
Gross Motor Skills  Hops 1 to 3 steps on
preferred foot
 Skips 9with alternating
feet)
 Jumps and turns
 Stands on one leg
without falling for at
least 5 seconds
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 Throws a ball overhead
with control of direction
 Throws a ball overhead
with control of speed
 Kicks a ball with control
of speed
Fine Motor Skills  Consistently turns  Copies a simple
pages of a picture or pattern of different
story book one page at basic shapes
a time, looking at  Draws a human figure
pictures with interest (head, eye, mouth,
 Purposefully copies trunk, arms, legs, etc.)

diagonal lines without prompts
 Purposefully bisects a  Draws a house without
cross prompts using
 Purposefully copies a geometric forms
square  Colors with strokes
 Purposefully copies a staying within the lines
triangle
 Cuts with scissors
following a line
Personal Care and  Pours from pitcher  Feeds self-using
hygiene (Self-help Skills) without spillage fingers without spillage
 Feeds self-using spoon  Prepares own food
without spillage  Dresses without
 Dresses without assistance, including
assistance except for buttoning and tying
buttons and tying laces  Wipes/cleans
 Puts on socks him/herself after a
independently bowel movement
 Brushes teeth after
meals
The Role of Caregivers in the Growth and Development of the Preschooler
For all preschoolers:

a. Engage preschool children in simple games that involves running and
walking.
b. Provide them with toys for catching and throwing such as soft large balls
and beans bags.
c. Have balancing activities for preschoolers. Use low balance beams and
lines on the classroom floor or playground. Montessori schools have blue
and red lines on their preschool classroom floors.
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d. Allow opportunities for rough and tumble play like in a grassy area or soft
mats. Keen observation and monitoring is, of course expected to keep
them safe from injury.
e. Ensure that preschoolers get enough rest and sleep. Setting a routine
for bed time is ideal.
f. Model good eating habits to preschoolers. Encourage more fruits,
vegetables, water and fresh juices, rather than processed foods, sugary
snacks and sodas.
For three-year-olds
g. Encourage development of hand-eye coordination by providing large
buttons or old beads to string on a shoe lace/
h. Play ball. Show how to throw, catch, and kick balls of different sizes.
i. Show children how to hop like a rabbit, tiptoe like a bird, waddle like a
duck, slither like a snake, and run like a deer.
j. Encourage free expression in art projects. Avoid ask “what” children are
drawing. Three-year-old may not know or care, but simply enjoy the
process of drawing.
k. Provide a variety of art experiences. Make play dough. Create collages
from magazine pictures, fabric, wallpaper, and newsprint. Encourage to
experiment with new media like wire and cork, soda straws, string, or
yarn. Teach children to mix different colors with paint.
For four-year-olds
l. Encourage physical development. Play follow the leader. Pretend to
walk like various animals.
m. Set up an obstacle course indoors with challenges such as crawling,
climbing, leaping, balancing, and running across stepping stones.
n. Encourage walking with a beanbag on the lead.
For five-year-olds
o. Encourage body coordination and sense of balance by plating “Follow
the Leader” with skipping, galloping and hopping. Skip or jump rope to
music, teach folk dances and games, provide a balance beam, a tree for
climbing, and a knotted rope suspended from a sturdy frame.
p. Teach sack-walking and “twist-em”, “statue”, or “freeze” games to
provide an outlet for their drive for physical activity.
q. Play games that can teach right and left direction, like “Hockey-Pokey,”
“Looby-Loo,” and “Simon Says.”
r. Help children learn to use a pair of scissors by letting them cut out
coupons.
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APPLICATION
Make your own photo essay about the physical development of

preschoolers. Observe preschoolers in action and take their pictures. Describe
the gross and fine motor skills that you saw them do.
Physical Domain Skills Proposed Learning Activities
Cognitive Domain Skill Socio-emotional Domain Skill
Closure
REFLECTION
From this Lesson on the Physical Development of Preschoolers, I realized

that
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Introduction
Someone once wrote in his journal: “Childhood is a world of miracle and
wonder; as if creation rose, bathed in light, out of darkness, utterly new, fresh
and astonishing. The end of childhood is when things cease to astonish us.
When the world seems familiar, when one has got used to existence, one has
become an adult.”
Early childhood (preschool age) is just one stage of childhood. Do you
remember how you were as a preschooler? What do you remember most as a
preschooler? What did you enjoy doing?
Learning Outcomes
 Describe the cognitive development that takes place among
preschoolers.
 Apply concepts on preschoolers’ cognitive in preschool teaching and in
child care.
 Take an informed stand/positive on current preschool teaching
practices.
ACTIVITY
Below are behaviors or remarks from children. Your early childhood

experience may help you arrive at the correct answer. Put a check ( / ) on the
item is TRUE of preschoolers and an ( x ) on the item that does NOT apply to
preschoolers.
_____1. “Someone switched on the thunder,” a child remarked.

_____2. Child silently nods on the telephone to answer his Father who is on the
other side of the phone inquiring if Mom is around.
_____3. “That tree pushed tge leaf off and it fell down,” says a child.
_____4. A child is presented with two identical beakers each filled to the same
level with liquid. The child is asked if these beakers have the same
amount and she says YES. The liquid from the beaker is poured into
a third beaker, which is taller and thinner than the first two. The child
is then asked if the amount of liquid in the tall, thin beaker is equal to
that which remains in one of the original beakers. The child said YES.
_____5. Child asks a series of “why” questions.
_____6. Child is strongly influenced by the features of the task that stand out,
such as flashy, attractive clown.
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_____7. Child pays attention to the more relevant dimensions of the task such
as directions for solving a problem and not on the prominent clown.
For instance.
_____8. Jun does not realize that the juice in each glass can be poured back
into the juice box from which it came.
_____9. Mike did not like to share a piece of cake with his younger sister. Mike’s
younger sister was sick. Mike concludes that he made his younger
sister got sick.
ABSTRACTION
Symbolic thinking involves language literacy and dramatic play. Children

rapidly conclude that sounds linked together to make words and words present
ideas, people, and things . Throughout the preschool years, children's language
development becomes increasingly complex in the four main areas: phonology
(speech sounds), semantics (word meaning), syntax (sentence construction),
and pragmatics (conversations or social uses of language). As they advance in
age and as they continuously interact with people, preschool children expand
rapidly in their vocabulary through fast mapping, a process by which children
absorb the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or twice in conversation.
Preschool children combine syllables into words and words into sentences in
an increasingly sophisticated manner.
In asking questions, preschoolers tend to cling to a consistent word order and

soda form questions not by following the pattern "subject- verb- object" order
by but simply saying with a rising intonation the sentence in the natural order
such as "Mother is coming?". Likewise, preschool children tend to have difficulty
with a sentence in the passive voice. When told, "The car was pushed by a
truck," preschoolers demonstrate a car pushing a truck.
Parents, teachers, and caregivers can monitor a child's language development

in this for a yes to identify where some children may struggle. Children with mild
to severe speech difficulties can be referred to a specially trained professional
called speech pathologist in order to work with a child or suggest helpful
strategies for caregivers to improve language proficiency.
Language and social interaction
Vygotsky believed that young children use language both to communicate

socially and to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory
fashion - called inner speech or private speech (Santrock, 2002).
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For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature, but Vygotsky it is an
important tool of thought during early childhood. Full cognitive development
requires social interaction and language. Children must use language to
communicate with others before they can focus on their own thoughts
(Santrock, 2002). This implies the importance of interaction of preschoolers with
caregivers for language development.
Vygotsky asserted that preschool children are unable to achieve their highest
cognitive development (language development included) on their own and that
they can improve their cognitive development through the use of scaffolding
from more - skilled children and adults. He introduced the term zone of
proximal development (ZPD) to refer to tasks too difficult for a child to master
alone but can be mastered with the guidance and assistance of adults or more
skilled children ( Santrock, 2002). In short, the ZPD captures the preschool
children’s' cognitive skills that are in the process of maturing. The ZPD has a
lower limit and upper limit. The lower limit of the ZPD is "the level of cognitive
development reached by the preschool child independently. The upper limit is
the level of additional responsibilities the child can accept with assistance of an
able instructor." (Santrock, 2002)
Closely linked to the idea of ZPD incognito and language development is the
concept of scaffolding, a term that refers to the "changing support over the
course of a teaching session, with a more skilled person adjusting guidance to
fit the child's current performance level" (Santrock, 2002). The more skilled
person is also called More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Can you think of
ways of scaffolding preschoolers to help them reach optimum cognitive
language development?
Information processing theory-attention and memory
The information processing model is another way of examining and

understanding how the children develop cognitively. This model conceptualizes
children's mental processes through the metaphor of a computer processing,
encoding, storing, and decoding data.
The preschooler’s attention span lasts longer than that of toddlers. The child's
ability to pay attention changes significantly during the preschool years.
But one deficit in attention during preschool years is that attention is focused
only on aspects that stand out at the expense of those that are relevant to
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solving a problem to perform well on a task. Preschool children recognize
previously encountered information, recall old information, and reconstruct it in
the present. Try asking a preschooler what she did on Christmas vacation when
she returns to preschool after the holiday. She will be able to.
Among the interesting questions about memory in the preschool years are
those involving short - term memory, (STM) retain information up to 15 to 30
seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal, which can help keep information in
STM for a much longer period (Santrock, 2002).
Differences and memory span occur across the ages due to: a) rehearsal and
b) speed and efficiency of processing information. Older children rehearse
items more than younger children. On this account, preschool children may
have shorter memories than primary and intermediate pupils. The speed with
which a child processes information is an important aspect of the child's
cognitive abilities.
Between ages of 2 and 5, long - term memory also begins to form, which is why
people cannot remember anything in their childhood prior to age 2 or 3.
Part of long-term memory involves storing information about the

sequence of events during familiar situations as "scripts." Scripts help children
understand, interpret, and predict what will happen in future scenarios. For
example, children understand that entering the classroom as a + after the flag
ceremony involves a specific sequence of steps: one bell means put across
your hands right over left on your chest, two bells mean pass quietly and follow
the line until you reach your seat. Children ages 2 through 5 also start to
recognize that there are often multiple ways to solve a problem and can
brainstorm different (though sometimes primitive) solutions.
Between the ages of 5 and 7, children learn how to focus and use their cognitive
abilities for scientific purposes. For example, children can learn to pay attention
to and memorize lists of words or facts. This skill is obviously crucial for children
starting school who need to learn new information, retain it and produce it for
tests and other academic activities. Children of this age have also developed a
larger overall capacity to process information. Miss expanding information
processing capacity allows young children to make connections between old
and new information. For example, children can use their knowledge of the
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alphabet and letter sounds (phonics) to start sounding out and reading words.
During this age, children's knowledge base also continues to grow and become
better organized. (http://www.milestonecentersinc.org)
In early childhood, as information processing increases in speed,

memory becomes increasingly longer. Young children can remember a great
deal of information if they are given appropriate cues and prompts. Sometimes,
however, the memories of preschoolers seem to be erratic, but these
inconsistencies may be to some degree the result of inadequate prompts and
cubes. Rehearsal and organizing information or deliberate mental activities
that can be employed to improve the processing information. Young children
typically, however, do not use rehearsal and organization.
The young children's theory of mind
Theory of mind refers to individual's thoughts about how mental

processes work (Santrock, 2002).
By the age of two or three, children become aware that the mind exists. They
refer to needs, emotions, and mental states. When a preschool child says, "I
forgot my doll," "I want my ice cream," these imply that he/she is aware that a
mind exists. Cognitive terms such as know, remember, and think usually appear
after perceptual and emotional terms, but are used by age 3 (Santrock, 2002).
As their representation of the world and ability to remember and solve

problems improve, children start to reflect on their own thought processes. They
begin to construct a theory of mind or a set of ideas about mental activities
(Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007). This develops markedly between
ages of 3 and 5. It includes awareness of one's own thought processes, social
cognition, understanding that people can hold false beliefs, ability to deceive,
ability to distinguish appearance from reality and ability to distinguish fantasy
from reality (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007).
How do children manage to develop a theory of mind at such a young age?

various speculations and research findings suggest that social experience is
very important. Social experience includes 1) early forms of communication, 2)
imitation, 3) make believe play 4) language, and 5) social interaction.
(Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007).
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Receptive language
Standards 1: the child is able to understand both verbal and nonverbal forms
of communication.
31 to 36 months: 3 to 4 years old
● Speaks in simple sentences
● Talks about an event in is understood
37 to 48 months
● Uses some prepositions
● Uses plurals
● Uses past tense
● Uses newly learned words appropriately and sentences
● Uses newly learned words appropriately when in group conversations
49 to 60 months: 4-5 years old
● Draws and tells a story about his drawing
Pre-reading and Pre-math (matching)

Standards 1.1: the child is able to match identical objects, colors, shapes,
symbols.
31 to 36 months: 2 ½ to 3 years old
● Matches identical objects with two attributes ( e.g. colors and shapes)
● Matches identical uppercase letters
● Matches identical lowercase letters
● Copy simple pattern with two or more attributes (e.g. color, shape,
sequence) and continuous this without guidance
● Recognizes familiar logos (e.g. Mcdonald's, Coke, etc.)
● Recognize signs (e.g. male and female restrooms; stop and go; danger
or poison, etc.)
● Matches identical two to four letter words
● Matches identical single-digit numbers
● Matches two digit numbers
Pre-reading and Pre-math (Copying letters and numbers)

Standards 1.2: the child is able to recite the alphabet and numbers in
sequence.
● prints uppercase letters with a model with some reversals
● Prints complete name without model
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● Prints uppercase letters with a model with no reversals
● Prince lowercase letters with a model with some reversals
● Prince numbers 1 to 5 with the model with some reversals

Attention and Activity level
Standards 1: the child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity at
age-expected levels
31 to 36 months: 2½ to 3 years old
● Complete simple task without prodding
● May be destructed battery focuses on his/her own
● Remain settled while leafing through a picture book for 5 minutes
● Remains settled while listening to a story using picture books for 5
minutes
● Sustains attention and concentration on a tabletop activity for 10 minutes
● Can work on a school assignment with minimal supervision
● sustains attention and concentration on a tabletop activity for 15 to 20
minutes
● Can work on a school assignment with minimal supervision
● Can work on a school assignment independently.
Higher-ordered mental abilities (concept formation)

Standards 1: the child develops basic concepts pertaining to object constancy,
space, time, quantity, seriation, etc. And uses these as the basis for
understanding how materials are categorized in his/ her environment.
● Knows the difference between a recent event and one that happened a
long time ago
● Counts and one-to-one correspondence
● Understands the concept of number - quantity relations from 1 through
5 (e.g., hands over 5 objects when asked)
● Group subjects by shape
● Arranges as objects by links
● Arranges subjects according to size
● Can tell in what way 2 things are the same
● Can tell in what way 2 things are different
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● Can tell which is prettier/nicer of two items based on his/her a criteria
● Groups pictured objects according to category
● Can tell which is left and right on him/herself
● Understands "more" or "less"
● Understands the concept of conservation of matter at a rudimentary level
● Can tell which is left and right of people facing him/her
● Knows the difference between yesterday, today, and tomorrow
● Understands the concept of number quantity relation for 1-10
● Demonstrate concept of addition using finger or objects
● Demonstrate concept of subtraction using fingers or objects
Higher-ordered mental abilities (Cause and Effect Relationship)

Standards 1: the child is able to understand the cause-effect relationships.
● Can complete a simple pattern (e.g., beans , pictures , shapes) with
occasional guidance
37 to 48 months: 3-4 years old
● Understands reasons behind the rules and practices in school
● understands reasons behind rules and practices in the community , like
those pertaining to sanitation , environment help reservation , etc.
Memory: (EPISODIC MEMORY)

Standards 1: the child is able to recall people he has met , events , and places
he has been to.
● talks about things that happened during a particular event that occurred
some time back
Memory: (MEMORY FOR CONCEPT-BASED KNOWLEDGE-SEMANTIC

MEMORY)
Standards 1: the child is able to store verbal information and short and long-
term memory
● Repeat 5- to 7-word sentences correctly
● Memorizes the lyrics of a short song
● Memorizes a short rhyme
● Remembers the gist and many details of stories told or read
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● Can recite the days of the week with some errors
● Remembers lessons learned in school even after several days have
passed
● Can recite the days of the week with no errors
● Can recite the months of the year with some errors
Higher-ordered mental abilities (logical reasoning)

Standards 1: the child is able to follow the logic events (i.e. reasons why these
happen) and draw accurate conclusion bible waiting the facts presented to him
● Can complete a simple pattern (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes) with
occasional guidance
● can tell what is silly or wrong with absurd pictured scenes
● Relates experiences in sequence or as these happened
● Can appreciate numerous stories or jokes that his/her peers also find
funny (e.g. "knock-knock" jokes)
● Knows that certain things are the same and therefore can be substituted
for each other (e.g., liquid and powdered detergents)
● Can state opposite relationships
● Can give substantive reasons why he/she likes something or not
● Can argue a point/stand logically
● Can complete a simple pattern (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes) without
guidance
● Knows that certain elements remain the same even if their position
change (e.g. 2 + 3 and 3 + 2 equal 5)
● Able to predict what will happen next in a story
● Can predict how was story will end half-way through
Higher-ordered mental abilities (creative thoughts)

Standards 1: The child is able to generate new ideas or concepts, for new
associations between existing ideas or concepts.

● Pretends to be engaged in "grown up" activities (e.g., playing office)
● Pretends to be a character in a familiar story
● Creates new words or names for people or objects
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37 to 48 months: 3 to four years old
● Can make a pun or joke
● Create some dance moves
● Creates lyrics of songs using familiar melody
● Pretends to be a character in his/her own made- up story
● Formulate rules to implement in a game
● Can draw things or scenes from experience but with no actual model or
reference (i.e., from memory)
● can draw or paint things that do not exist in real life (i.e., fantasy or
imagination)
Higher-ordered mental abilities (cognitive flexibility)

Standards 1: the child is able to shift to more adaptive cognitive processing
strategies in order to effectively deal with new and unexpected conditions in
his/her environment including problem situations.

● Modifies action based on new experiences (e.g., change block structure
that falls)
● Explores alternative solution to a problem and selects 1 option
● Is able to ship activities without much fuss
● Is able to know when the topic of conversation has changed and adjust
accordingly
For 3 year-olds
1. Speak with children as often as possible. Use short sentences, ask
questions, and listen.
2. Add new information to children's sentences. "Yes that's a flower - it's a
tall, red flower and it smells so good,"
3. Teach children to memorize first and last names.
4. Provide books for children to read, and read the same books to them.
Read poetry and nursery rhymes. Encourage child to repeat a story and
discuss the ideas and events. Read titles and point to important words
on pages, packages, and street signs.
5. Encourage interest in reading and writing by sharing a grocery list for
note for parents. Provide paper, small notebooks, and markers for use
in dramatic play.
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6. Count objects of interest; for example cookies, cups, napkins, or dolls. it
is better to use objects that you can move one at a time as you and the
children count. Measure, and have children help measure and count as
you follow a recipe.
7. Explain why and how things happen with the help of reference book.
Help them do simple science activities like magnetic attraction, freezing
water, planting seeds, making a terrarium, and flying kites on a windy
day.
8. Provide sets - toys and other objects that go together. Discuss
similarities and differences. For example, point out sequences in
cooking.
9. Sing simple songs. Make simple rhythm instruments: shoebox or milk
can drums, rattles of mango beans in a box, etc. Encourage a variety of
body movements and dance to music of many kinds. Play musical
games such as "London Bridge," "Ring-around-the-Rosie," and "farmer
in the dell."
For four-year olds

1. Read aloud each day and encourage children to look at books on their
own. Provide alternative real reading material with a collection of
outdated coupons, junk mail, newspaper ads, and old cereal boxes.
2. Say nursery rhymes and finger plays together. Encourage 4 year olds to
tell stories to younger children.
3. Encourage interest in writing and words. Provide children with paper and
notebooks for writing. Print letters and numerals on artwork, and label
toy shelves with pictures and words that describe objects.
4. Teach important number and space concepts. Sort and count everything
in sight, like silverware, socks, rocks, leaves, etc. Talk about things being
in, on, under, behind, beside, before and after, larger than, too far, etc.
5. Teach children the correct use of telephone.
6. Encourage 4 year olds to help you in plant and plant a garden. They will
love to water plants daily and will enjoy measuring plant growth.
For Five-year olds

1. add drama to your reading sessions each day by using different voices
for different characters. While reading a familiar story, stop before the
end and ask children to add their own end of the story.
2. Hast 5-year olds to tell you a story. Write it down and post it on the wall
or refrigerator. You can also record the child telling the story and let him
listen to himself later.
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3. Ask "what if" questions. What if there we're five little pigs instead of
three? What if little red riding hood so are rabbit instead of a wolf?
4. Involve children in writing "thank you" notes, holiday greeting cards, and
letters. If a 5-year old enjoys copying letters, let him dictate short
message to you and copy it from your writing.
5. Give 5-year olds opportunities to sort, group, match, count, and
sequence with real life situations such as setting the table, counting the
number of turns, sorting out socks, and matching fabric swatches.
Expose them to games involving matching pairs
6. Take questions seriously. Talk to children about what happens and why.
Give answers they can understand.
7. Five-year olds will show an increasing interest in numbers. Encourage
them to count anything of interest - cups, leave, drums, bells, number of
children absent, etc.
8. Encourage interest in jokes, nonsense, and riddles by reading humorous
stories, riddles, nonsense rhymes. Join them and jokes from school,
books, and TV.
Give opportunities to express dramatic and creative interest. Teach children
how to move their bodies to dramatize the opening of a flower, falling leaves,
or rain; wiggly worms and snakes; and laundry blowing in the wind. (Reading
Resource: Corpuz, Lucas, Borado, Lucido, 2018. The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Teaching Principles, Lorimar Publishing House, Inc. Manila)
APPLICATION
Questions for discussion

1. Describe behaviors to illustrate the preschooler's:
● animism
● Egocentrism
● Centration
● Lack of conservation
● Irreversibility
● Transductive reasoning
2. Read this except from Albert Einstein's biography. Exam in Albert
Einstein's preschool development in the light of cognitive development
in early childhood as discussed. How different was his childhood from
the average childhood? (Language development, Einstein's lifelong
memory that compass, parents' and teachers' under station of his
cognitive ability?)
185
In the public mind, the name Albert Einstein (1879-1955) is synonymous
with genius. Is general theory of relativity ("the greatest revolution in
thought since Newton"), his discovery of the fundamental principle of
quantum physics, and his other contributions to the reshaping of our new
knowledge of the universe caused him to be considered "one of the
greatest physicist of all time" (Whitrow, 1967).
Yet the young Einstein, was born in the German town Ulm, hardly
seemed destined for intellectual stardom. He was slow in learning to
walk and did not begin talking until at least his third year. His parents
feared he might be mentally retarded. Einstein himself always insisted
that he did not try to speak until after the age of 3, skipping babbling and
going directly into sentences. Actually, his sentences may have come a
bit earlier. When his sister, Maja, who was born 4 months before Alberts
3rd birthday, Albert (who had been promised a new baby to play with
and apparently thought it would be a toy) reportedly asked in
disappointment. "Where are the wheels?"
Regardless of the exact timing, "Albert was certainly a late and reluctant
talker" (Brian, 1996). The reasons may have had more to do with
personality than with cognitive development; he was a shy, taciturn child,
home adults thought backward and other children considered dull. You
would not play marbles or soldiers or other games with his peers, but he
would crouch for hours, observing an ant colony.
When he started school, he did poorly in most subjects; the headmaster
predicted that he would never amount to anything. Albert hated the
regimentation and rote learning stressed in German schools: he did not
have a retentive memory and could not give clear answers to his
teachers' questions. He was a daydreamer, his questioning mind
occupied with its own speculations. He would not even try to learn
anything unless he was interested in it-and then his concentration was
intense.
Kiss wonder about the working of the universe was awakened at the age
of 4 or 5, when he was seeking bed and his father gave him a magnetic
pocket compass to keep him amused. The boy was astonished no matter
which way he turned the compass, the needle pointed to N (for 'North').
What controlled its motion? He pestered his uncle Jacob, who had
studied engineering, with questions. His uncle told him about the earth's
north and south poles and about magnetic fields, but Albert still was not
satisfied. He believed there must be some mysterious force in what
appeared to be the empty space around the needle. He carried the
186
compass around for weeks, trying to figure out its secret. Years later, at
the age of 67, he wrote, "... This experience made a deep and lasting
impression upon me. Something deeply hidden had to be behind things"
(Shilpp, 1970, p.9)
That sense of wonder reawakened several years later, when Uncle
Jacob, noticing that Albert showed an interest in arithmetic, introduced
him to algebra and geometry. Albert solved every problem in the books
his uncle brought him and then went searching for more. It was the same
insatiable curiosity and persistence-what Einstein himself called
"Michelmore, 1962, p.24)- that underlay his lifetime quest for scientific
knowledge
3. To enhance those preschoolers' development in his symbolic thinking,
language, attention, memory function, and metacognition, what
developmentally appropriate practices would you recommend? What
developmentally inappropriate practices would you not recommend?
4. Critics argue that too many preschools are academically oriented and
stressful for young children? Do you agree? Explain.
5. Does preschool matter? Doesn't preschool rob the child of his
irretrievable childhood? Defend your stand.
6. Explain the meaning of the quote beneath the title of this module.
Wrap-up
Big ideas about preschoolers cognitive development
1. Preschoolers engage in symbolic and intuitive thinking.
2. Brain connections are made when preschoolers interact with the
environment.
3. Preschoolers' language development occurs in four areas: phonology,
semantics, syntax, and pragmatics.
4. Vygotsky believed that language and social interaction are very
important to cognitive development.
5. Preschoolers improve in their ability in process information.
6. Preschoolers' cognitive development is marked by the emergence of a
theory of mind
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Introduction
Socio-emotional development is crucial in preschool years. We hear a lot of
parents and teachers and b school administrators say that attending preschool
is more for "socialization" than for formal academic learning. There is wisdom
in this. During the preschool years, children learn about the widening
environment. Preschoolers now discover their new rules outside their home.
They become interested to assert themselves as they relate with other people.
A lot of very important social skills they will learn during preschool years will
help them throughout life as adults. These skills can even determine the
individual's later social adjustment and consequent quality of relationship in
their adult life.
Learning Outcomes
● Explain Erikson's "crisis" of early childhood, initiative versus guilt.
● Explain the development of the preschoolers' sense of self and self-
esteem
● Discuss how children develop gender identity
● Describe the stages of play and how it impacts socio-emotional
development.
● Discuss the different caregiving styles and their effect on the
preschoolers.
● Describe how significant relationships with parents, siblings and peers
affect the preschoolers.
Activity
Observe preschoolers playing in the playground or in the classroom. Take a

video or shoot pictures.
1. Is there a conversation going on? Describe the conversation that takes
place among and between the children. What are they talking about?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
188
2. Describe what they are playing/what the play is about
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. Describe the children’s interaction. Indicate if they are on their own,
working together or if there is conflict.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Analysis
Answer the following questions:
1. Were the children plating on their own or alone even when they were
with others?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
2. Were there some children playing together with agreed upon rules and
roles? Describe.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. If you observed conflicts between or among children, how were they
revolved? Did an adult intervene? Or did they manage to resolve it by
themselves
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________
4. Were the children polite? What polite words (Thank you, sorry, etc.) or
gestures did you observe?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
____________________
189
Abstraction
The observation you did provided you a glimpse of the world of preschoolers.
You were once in the world of wonder and fascination. Read through this
module and you surely understand more why they manifested the social
behaviors that you observed.
Big ideas on preschoolers socio-emotional development
1. The development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler

2. A healthy self - concept is needed for preschoolers to interact with
others.
3. Environmental factors influence gender identity in young children.
4. Preschooler social development is shown through the stages of play.
5. The caregiving styles of parents and teachers affect the preschooler
social emotional development.
6. Preschoolers are interested in building friendships.
Preschoolers' initiative
As preschoolers go through the conflict of initiative vs guilt, they show so

much energy in doing imaginative play activities. Every place becomes a
playground to explore, every single thing an interesting piece of tinker with.
Adults sometimes get exasperated over this behavior and begin to see the
preschooler as "naughty". Some parents and teachers then become overly
restrictive, resorting to threats, intimidation and other scary tactics that
disrespect the preschooler just to establish "control". Consequently, the child
may develop excessive guilt. Also a good amount of guilt helps in making
children take responsibility for their behavior, excessive guilt hampers
emotional growth. preschoolers who are always punished and criticized and a
constructing a view of themselves as being "salbahe" (bad) "bobo" (dumb) or
even "walang kwenta" (worthless). This is really sad because childhood years
should be happy years. One poster says, "You don't have to hit to hurt." The
message emphasizes that even the things we see in the way we do with
preschoolers can already hurt them at this vulnerable stage.
The key thing to remember is to apply "judicious permissiveness." This
involves setting realistic boundaries that keep preschoolers safe and respectful
of self and others, well allowing them greater opportunity to explore, take risks
and to engage in creative processes. Preschoolers will develop a healthy sense
of initiative in an affirming, encouraging and stimulating environment.
190
Self-concept of the preschooler
By the end of the toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear sense that
they are a separate and distinct person. With their ability to make
representations, they can now think and reflect about themselves. Self-
concept refers to the way one sees himself, a general view about one's
abilities, strengths and weaknesses. The preschooler's self-concept mainly
focuses on observable characteristics and his/her usual beliefs, emotion and
attitudes. An important aspect of self-concept is self-esteem, which specifically
refers to one's judgment about one's worth. Preschoolers are naturally positive.
Usually they will tend to evaluate their skills high and underestimate the tasks.
They are confident to try again even if they don't succeed with something.
However, they may become negative because of repeated frustration and
disapproval. Preschoolers need a lot of patience and encouragement from
adults.
Environmental factors and gender of preschoolers' socio-emotional

development
As the preschooler's ability to create scam us develop, they become capable of

gender typing, the process of reforming gender roles, gender based
preference and behaviors accepted by society. They come to form gender
stereotypes. Preschoolers begin to associate certain things like toys, tools,
games, clothes, jobs, color even actions or behavior as being "only for boys" or
"only for girls." Consequently, they form their own gender identity, the view of
oneself as being masculine or feminine.
Gender typing and gender identity or influenced by environmental factors such
as family, teachers, peers in the mass media. This is where Bronfenbrenner's
model comes into play. Different spheres of influence determine the
preschooler's development for a gender schema. Differences and parental
expectation and behavior towards daughters and sons affect gender typing and
gender identity. More often, boys are respected to show more emotional control
and be more competitive while girls are expected to be warm and soft and
demure. Parents also expect the children to play with toys that are "right" for
their gender.
Parten's stages of play
Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. Play has a social dimension.
As the preschooler develops, social interaction with playmates increases.
191
Mildred Parten, in the 1930's did a study on children's play behavior which led
to parten stages of play.
Friendships in preschool
As they continue to grow, preschoolers become interested in having friends.
This should be encouraged in the preschool years as friendships benefit the
preschoolers' development by providing stimulation, companionship, social
comparison and affection (Kostelnik, 2010). Through friendships, preschoolers
are able to practice different social roles like being a leader, a follower,
someone who takes risks and someone who helps out and comforts.
Friendships are very important because they provide added sense of
belongingness and security. In the preschool years, parents and teachers must
expose children to experiences that help them learn skills in establishing
friendships, maintaining positive relationships and resolving conflicts. Parents
and teachers, when seeing preschoolers in a "fight", should not just say "tama
na... Ano ba iyan... Isa pa ha…. Tama na, friends na kayo... Say sorry na"
Responses like those do not foster social skills among preschoolers. Parents
and teachers need to take time and process with children how to resolve
conflicts.
Caregiving styles
Caregiving styles affect the socio emotional development of the children.
Caregivers here refer to both parents and teachers and even other adults that
care for the child. Baumrind gave a model that describes the different types of
caregiving styles. This was based on a longitudinal study that looked into the
adult and the development of the children that Baumrind conducted which
began in the 1960s. Decades later she identified varying degrees of
demandingness and responsiveness as determinants of 4 styles of caregiving.
Responsiveness refers to caregiver behaviors that pertain to expression of

affection and communication. It refers to how warm, caring, and respectful the
adult is to the child. it involves openness in communication and the willingness
to explain things in ways that the child will understand. Demandingness refers
to the level of control and expectations. This involves discipline and
confrontation strategies.
192
Caregiving styles Description Effect on the preschooler
The
caregivers/parents/teach
ers with this caregiver
style has the following
descriptions:
Authoritative (high ● Expect behavior ● Makes the

demandingness, high appropriate to the preschooler feel
responsiveness) age of the child safe and secure
● Maintain reasonable ● Teaches the child to
and fair limits take responsibility
● Closely monitored for his/her actions
activities of the child ● Develop good self -
● Warm and nurturing control
● Have realistic ● Develops a realistic
expectations of the view of oneself
child ● Builds the child's
● Communicate capacity for
messages in a kind, empathy
firm and consistent
manner
● Discipline approach
focuses more on
teaching than
punishing
● Set subjective or ● Lead to aggressive

understandable behavior of the child
limits ● Brings about poor
● Communicate self -control
messages ● Results in poor self -
● Strive to have esteem
strong psychological
control punishment,
sarcasm, withdrawal
of love, threats
● Not able to teach
children a better
way to have
193
A quick look at what preschoolers can do
(From the Philippine airline earning standards, ECCD Council, 2010)
Expression of basic emotions
37 to 48 months (3 to 4 years old)

● Expresses what he/she likes
● Expresses what he/she dislikes
● Can talk about difficult feelings (e.g., anger, sadness, worry) he/she
experiences
Self-regulation of feelings/emotion
● willing to try something in order to learn more even if unsure of a
successful outcome
● Persevered when faced with challenging or new tasks
● Except brief delays and gratification
● Accept defeat well; is not a sore loser
● May have some fears but is not overly fearful, anxious or nervous
● May feel sad at times but not to the point where he or she is depressed
Display of self-appraisal emotions (shame, pride, built)
● Plays to learn a game
● Plays to gain mastery of a game
● Shows pleasure and enjoyment over his/ her successful attempts
● Confidently joint small groups especially if situation is competitive
● Seeks assistance from an adult or child to solve a problem
Receptivity to others' emotions

Receptivity two emotions and having empathy
37 to 48 months
● Feels others distress and acts appropriately (e.g., helps, comforts, gives,
suggestions, etc.)
Emerging sense of self
● Knowledge of self in basic rules of people in his environment
Talks about parts of the body and their functions
● Talks about own specific abilities and characteristics (e.g., sings,
dances, is helpful, studious, etc.)
● Describes what primary caregiver can do, what they like and don't like
● Defense positions with determination
● Can give reasons or justify why he /she acted the way he /she did
194
Forming attachments
● Shows preference for company of significant adults and children (other
than primary caregiver) over unfamiliar adults and children
Interaction with other children
● Place with two or three children using same play equipment
● Participates in games with other children that place in his own way
● Chats/converses with other children
● Takes turns and shares toys with others
● Actively participates in classroom and group routines
● Place organized group games fairly
Interaction with adults
36 to 48 months
● verbalize as feelings related to events that arise in classroom, home, and
environment in a positive way
● Speaks respectfully with adults using "po" and "opo" and/or appropriate
titles
● recognizes the importance of adults ideas and experiences by listening
and asking questions when they share this
● Clarifies rules and routines before abiding them
● Shares personal perspective when he/she does not agree with or see
the value of a rule or routine
● Can take on another person's view
Pakiramdam (sensitivity)
● Knows when to stop asking question or when he is being "makulit"
● Operates to maximize conflict or tension
Appreciating diversity
● asks questions that indicate he/she notices difference and socio-
economic status
● ask questions about new/different words (dialects) and practices in the
community
● Talks about gender differences and roles
● regards everyone respectfully, using proper titles/labels and does not
resort to name-calling
● willing to make friends with other children and adults in different
situations and locations (e.g., schools, neighborhood)
195
The role of caregivers in the socio-emotional development of the
preschooler
From the discussion above one can see the very important role that parents
and teachers in the socio-emotional development of the preschooler. The
following tips are given to caregivers (parents and teachers):
1. Greet each child with his or her names each day. Be sincere and
respectful to each child
2. Read story books that deal about friendship and different feelings.
3. Develop proteins in the home or school that encourage working together
and getting along.
4. help children learn to make rules in play simple games by providing
opportunities for them to play and small groups
5. Play games that involve social interaction and teamwork.
6. Observe how a child plays with other children. Teach him to request,
bargain, negotiate, and apologize.
7. Help children understand and cope with strong feelings by giving those
worse that they can use to express how they feel.
8. Use dolls, puppets or pictures to demonstrate to children how to express
feelings appropriately
9. Acknowledge how the child feels. When we do this, we are able to model
to a preschooler that this is important to listen and that having feelings,
even negative ones, are okay.
10. Catch children doing well. Affirm the efforts they make to accomplish
something.
11. Read story books that deals about friendships
12. For teachers, develop proteins that encourage working together and
getting along.
APPLICATION
1. Choose a big idea from this module and expand it through internet
searched and downloads. Prepare 5 – 8 PPT presentation intended for
use of parents of preschoolers.
2. The best caregiving style is the authoritative style. From all that you have
learned from this module, make a list of 10 qualities that an authoritative
preschool teacher should have:
1. _____________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________
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3. _____________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________________
6. _____________________________________________________
7. _____________________________________________________
8. _____________________________________________________
9. _____________________________________________________
10. _____________________________________________________
Manila)
Closure
key features of the socio-emotional development of preschooler. Have
fun to share your life’s experiences. Happy learning!
197
Introduction:
Well done! Pak! You have gone this far, wow! Have more patience
in answering this lesson 4. It made you more capacitated on physical,
cognitive and socio-emotional development of preschoolers. Let’s move
on to this lesson.
Learning Outcomes:
 Identify knowledge of characteristics of pre-schoolers;

 Apply pedagogical principles in planning learning activities for
preschoolers; and
 Choose strategies that are developmentally appropriate for pre-
schoolers.
SYNTHESIS
Fill out the boxes with the characteristics and skills of pre-
schoolers as you studied them in the past three lessons. This will reveal
your basic knowledge of the pre-schooler learner..
KEY FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF TODDLERS
Application Pedagogical Principles

You have to connect this with Learner-Centered Principles. Then, you
chooseone principle each for each of the 4 cluster. Refer to the knowledge of
198
the 14 principles in module 1-Lesson 1. Based on your knowledge and
understanding of pre-schooler learners, elaborate on how this principle can be
applied in all aspects of the teaching-learning process involving pre-schoolers.
ELABORATE OF THE PRINCIPLE
FOR PRESCHOOLERS
Cluster 1 – Cognitive and
Metacognitive Factors
Principle:
Cluster 2 –Motivational and Affective

Factors
Principle
Cluster 3 Developmental and Social

Factors
Principle:
Cluster 4 –Individual Differences

Factors
Principle :
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Name ______________________________ Section ___________ Date ___________
WEEK____
best/ correct answer and write it on the space before the number. Use
_____ 1. Abby is four and a half years ld. In comparison withj

preschoolersnwhoare three, Abby is likely to be able to acquire skill of
_________________ .
A. copying a simple pattern of different basic shapes
B. purposely copying a square
C. purposely copying a square
D. turning a page of a story book
_____ 2. Playing games that teach right and left directions is best for____.
I. Five-year olds
II. Three-years-olds
III. Two –years olds
A. I B. II C. III D. I, II, III
_____ 3. All can be expected to be performed by a three-year-old. EXCEPT __.
A. pouring from pitcher without spillage
B. feeding self without using a spoon
C. taking a bath independently
D. putting on socks
_____ 4. Having activities that involve balancing is good for _________.
A. three-year-old
B. four-year-old
C. five-year-old
D. three to five year-old
_____ 5. The amount of sleep pre-schoolers get, affect all EXCEPT______ .
A. level of brain activity
B. obesity
C. level of regained energy
D. release of growth hormones
_____ 6. Preschoolers lean toward animism. As such, they will be interested in
stories where_________ .
A. lead characters are
B. the plot involves pet animals
C. inanimate objects like the sun or the bus talk
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D. scenes involve a lot of movement
_____ 7. The most
Appropriate activity for three0year-olds to develop counting skills is___ .
A. a well-designed worksheet on counting up to 25
B. Counting objects of interest around the environment
C. Working with counting flashcards
D. Identifying numericals repeatedly until mastered
_____ 8. Teachers and caregivers can best help develop the emotional skills
of pre-schoolers by all EXCEPT___________________ .
A. using dolls, puppets or pictures to demonstrate how to express
feelings
B. calmly telling children to control their feelings
C doing mirror talk of paraphrase reflecton
D.Modelling words that children can use to express strong feelings.
_____ 9. Teachers and cregivers can best help develop emotional skills of pre-
schoolers by all EXCEPT _________.
A. greeting each children by
B. developing routines at home and school that encourage working
together
C. play games that involve social interaction
D. emphasizing strict adherence to routine
_____ 10. An authoritative teacher is one who does all , EXCEPT ______.
A. Expects behaviour appropriate to the age level
B. make new things out of old toys
C. ensures having strong psychological control over the pre-schooler
D. models to the child how to take responsibility for one’s actions
Closure
features of the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of pre-
schoolers. For now, we encourage you to write a personal reflection promoting
your students’ socio-emotional well-being. Have fun in sharing your life’s
Module Summary:
Hep, hep, hep, Hurrayy!!! You made it again. You learned about the
following, physical development of preschoolers, cognitive development of
preschoolers, socio-emotional development of preschoolers and synthesis of
the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of preschoolers
(worksheets)
201
You make an initial compilation of your portfolio for all the learning
evidences you have completed and worksheets you have answered and
checked through hardcopy. Send through email and group chat.
Manila)
202
Module Overview
Welcome my dear students! You are going to explore a very interesting

topic about the pedagogical principles as applied to primary schoolers
learning and development. This will serve as your guide in teaching-
learning process of primary schoolers.
Module Outcomes
 describe the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of
primary schoolers;
 explain the consequences of the adolescents’ physical, cognitive and
socio-emotional development of primary schoolers; and
 draw implications of these physical, cognitive and socio-emotional
developmental concepts to primary schoolers teaching-learning and
parenting.
Lesson 1: Physical development of primary schoolers;
Lesson 2: Cognitive development of primary schoolers;
Lesson 3: Socio-emotional development of primary schoolers; and
development of primary schoolers.
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Introduction:
Physical development involves many different factors: height, weight,
appearance, visual, hearing and motor abilities. Primary school children
undergo many different changes as they go through this stage of development.
This could be caused by different factors, both natural and environmental.
Learning Outcomes
 describe the different physical characteristics of early school-
aged children in your own words;
 enumerate ideas on how you can apply the concepts in this
lesson in the teaching-learning process; and
 discuss several ways on how to encourage an age-appropriate
active physical lifestyle to primary school children.
ACTIVITY
Paste a picture of yourself when you were an early-school age
child (around Grade 1 to 3). Write a description on the given areas.
Height
Weight
Body Shape
Activities you
could do
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ANALYSIS
1. Based on the observations you have made, what can you conclude as the
general physical characteristics of children in their primary school years?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
2. What do you think are the necessary skills that will help them to be physically
ready for primary schooling?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
ABSTRACTION
Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady.
During this stage, physical development involves: (1) having good muscle
control and coordination, (2) developing eye-hand coordination, (3) having
good personal hygiene and (4) being aware of good habits.
In this developmental stage, children will have started their elementary
grades, specifically their primary years – Grades 1 to 3.
These children in extremely traditional schools are sedentary, they often
release their unusual amount of energy in some forms of nervous habits
including fidgeting, nail biting and pencil chewing.
Primary-school age children get fatigued more easily because of
physical and mental exertions both at home and in school. Hence, activities
should be alternated between strenuous one and relaxing or quiet activities
(example: storytelling time after the Math period).
Height and Weight
This period of gradual and steady growth will give children time to get
used to the changes of their bodies. An average increase in height of a little
over two inches a year in both boys and girls will introduce them to many
different activities that they can now do with greater accuracy.
Weight can gain averages about 6.5 pounds a year. Most children will
have slimmer appearance compared to their preschool years because of the
shifts in accumulation and location of their fat body fat, although girls tend to
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develop additional fat cells relative to muscle cells. A child’s legs are longer and
more proportioned to the body than they were before.
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or how much
changes in the body will take place:
 genes
 food
 climate
 exercise
 medical conditions
 diseases / illnesses
Bones and Muscles

Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years – bones grow
longer and broader. This is the best time for parents and teachers to educate
children of good dietary and exercises habits to help them have strong, healthy
bones throughout their lives. Replacement of primary teeth, also known as baby
teeth, with permanent teeth occur around ages 6 to 7 years and up until age
12, most children will have all their primary teeth replaced. Many lifestyle
factors, like nutrition and physical activity, can substantially influence the
increase of bone mass during childhood.
Because children’s bones have proportionately more water and protein-
like materials and fewer minerals than adults, ensuring adequate calcium intake
will greatly help them in strengthening bones and muscles.
Large muscle control is at bigger play over fine motor. Some may still
have difficulty holding a pencil properly or coloring inside the lines. We have to
limit writing time, since children may develop a negative attitude towards
writing.
Bone and muscle growth are still not complete during this stage. Most
activities which use heavy pressure will be very difficult for growing bones,
muscles and ligaments. If students are engaging in too much strenuous
activities to test their strengths, teachers may suggest or provide more
coordinated physical activities or competition or rotate players during sports or
games.
Motor Development
Young school-age children are gaining control over the major muscles
of their have a good sense of balance. They like testing their muscle strength
and skills. They enjoy doing real-life tasks and activities. They enjoy doing real-
life tasks and activities. They pretend and fantasize less often because they are
more in tune with everything that is happening around them.
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Children during this stage love to move a lot – the run, skip, hop, jump,
tumble, roll and dance. Because their gross motor skills are already developed,
they can now perform activities like catching a ball with one hand and tying their
shoelaces. They can manage zippers and buttons.
Performing unimanual (requiring the use of one hand) and bi-manual
(requiring the use of two hands) activities become easier. Children’s graphic
activities, such as writing and drawing, are now more controlled but still
developing. They can print their names and copy simple designs, letters and
shapes. They hold pencils, crayons, utensils correctly with supervision.
Motor development skills includes coordination, balance, speed, agility
and power.
Let us look into the definitions of different motor skills. Coordination is
a series of movements organized and timed to occur in a particular way to bring
about a particular result (Strickland, 2000). The more complex that movement
is, the greater coordination is required. Children develop eye-hand and eye-foot
coordination when they play games and sports. Balance is the child’s ability to
maintain the equilibrium or stability of his/her body in different positions.
Balance is a basic skill needed specially in this stage, when children are very
active. During this time, children have improved balancing skills. Static balance
is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position, like balancing on one
foot. Dynamic Balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium while moving
(Owens, 2006). Speed is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest
possible time while agility is one’s ability to quickly change or shift the direction
of the body. These skills are extremely important in most sports. Power is the
ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period.
All these motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games
and sports. Development of these skills may spell the difference between
success and failure in future endeavours of the child.
Large scale body movements are key in this stage. Most of the time,
boys develop motor skills slightly faster than girls except for skills involving
balance and precise movements.
Here are some motor milestones of primary school-age children: (Bergin
and Bergin, Child and Adolescent Development in Your Classroom, Third
Edition: 2018, Boston, MA, USA)
Fine Motor Skills Gross Motor Skills
 Zip zippers and lace shoes  Hop
 Able to learn piano or violin  Skip on alternating feet
 Control pencil with the finger and  Jump rope
thumb. Movement comes from the  Walk on a balance beam
elbow.  Throwing, catching, and kicking
 Write and draw with more control, become smoother
but writing looks choppy and
207
uneven. Letters are getting  Begin to participate in organized
smaller. Uppercase letters are games (e.g. hopscotch) and sports
somewhat mastered, but (e.g. basketball)
lowercase letters continue to be  Skate, ski, bike and other
challenging through 3rd grade, specialized skills with training
specially letters with slants and
curves.
Some Issues Affecting Physical Development

Obesity
This is becoming a major concern for parents and health care providers,
since it’s becoming a trend. According to the World Health Organization –
Western Pacific Region, “…the Philippines is not spared in this scenario, and
the results of national nutrition surveys are showing slow but increasing
childhood overweight and obesity rates. Prevalence of overweight among
children 5 – 10 years old has risen from 5.8% in 2003 to 9.1% in 2013.”
Childhood obesity may be linked to a number of health-related
consequences. Evidence also shows that overweight and obese children are
likely to stay obese well into their adulthood and are more prone to develop
non-communicable diseases like diabetes and some cardiovascular disease at
a much younger age.
Childhood Nutrition
Malnutrition remains a major health issue in the Philippines. This has
been proven to have serious effect on the physical and mental development of
children. For most Filipino children, poverty is the chief reason why they do not
get the nutrients and energy required for their age.
School-age children’s diet should include a good supply of vitamins,
minerals and protein found in most fruits and vegetables to combat the trend of
eating out and eating too much which puts children at risk of increased
consumption of soft drinks, sugary and salty snacks like crackers and chips.
Study the illustration below presented on the 7 th National Survey, Food
and Nutrition Research Institute in 2008.
208
Figure 1:
(Source: The National Nutrition Survey, Food and Nutrition Research, 2008)
Sleep
Primary school-age children need 9 to 11 hours of sleep every day
(including daytime naps). Sometimes, due to their schedule in school, midday
naps or siesta is not possible anymore. Because of this, children may need to
go to bed earlier rather than nap.
Children’s increased sports affiliation, extra-curricular activities, TV,
internet, computers and sometimes, intake of caffeinated products could result
to difficulty falling asleep, disruptions in their sleep and sometimes even
nightmares.
Poor and inadequate sleep may result to mood swings, behavioral
problems such as hyperactivity and cognitive problems which may impact their
ability to concentrate in school.
Implications to Child Care, Education and Parenting
Two major ways to help primary school-age children to be physically
healthy is to (1) provide them with good nutrition and (2) involve them in
coordinated and age-appropriate physical activities. Specifically, health-care
providers, teachers and parents must do the following:
 Encourage children to join or enrol them in related programs during
summer or their free time, if children show interest in a particular activity
or sport.
209
 Advocate better nutrition in foods provided in the school canteen by
providing healthier options and accessible healthier products.
 Provide a balance between rigorous physical play activity and quiet
activities in designing classroom activities.
 Create an exercise plan for children. Not only does it promote motor
skills but also improves strength and endurance, builds healthy bones
and muscles, and increases positive emotions.
 Maintain a daily sleep schedule and consistent bedtime routine
 Make children’s bedroom conducive for a peaceful sleep. If possible,
keep computers and TV out of the bedroom.
APPLICATION
1. Answer the following questions with a learning partner and write your product
of collaboration on the provided space.
a. What are general physical characteristics of children in the primary
school-age?
Manila)
210
a. What are the factors affecting physical development?
b. Compare the motor skills of a pre-school child with a primary school-age

child.
Preschool Child Primary School-Age Child
Fine motor skills
Gross motor skills
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Research on the advocacy with a #hangryabouthunger. Fill in the matrix

below.
#HANGRYABOUTHUNGER
What is the advocacy What programs are they What are your insights
about? doing to move the about this advocacy?
advocacy forward?
Closure
For now, you will learn more in succeeding lessons. We encourage you
to write a personal journal on promoting your physical well-being. Have fun in
sharing your life’s experiences. Happy learning!
211
Introduction:
Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist on cognitive development.
According to him, intelligence is the basic mechanism of ensuring balance in
the relations between the person and the environment. Everything that a person
experiences is a continuous process of assimilations and accommodations.
Piaget described four main periods in cognitive development. For Piaget,
intellectual ability is not the same as different stages.
Learning Outcomes
 describe the characteristics of children in the concrete
operational stage;
 explain the importance of information-processing skills and how
they affect the child’s cognitive development; and
 state the different cognitive milestone in primary-schoolers.
ACTIVITY
Look at the semantic map below. Write down words which come to your
mind when COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT is mentioned.
212
ANALYSIS
Discussion Questions:
1. What ideas regarding cognitive development were common?

2. Are there new ideas regarding cognitive development which you found
intriguing?
3. With the advent of the computer age, do you think cognitive development
is affected? Explain your answer.
ABSTRACTION
Jean Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage

Concrete operation is the third stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development. It spans from age 7 to approximately 11 years old. During this
time, children have better understanding of their thinking skills. Children begin
to think logically about concrete events, particularly their own experiences, but
have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts, thus most of
them still have a hard time at problem-solving.
 Logic
Concrete operational thinkers, according to Piaget, can already
make use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves thinking from a
specific experience to a general principle. But at this stage, children
have great difficulty in using deductive logic or beginning with
general principle leading to specific event.
 Reversibility
One of the most important developments in this stage is an
understanding of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be
reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order
relationships between mental categories. (For example, in arithmetic,
3 + 4 = 7 and 7 – 4 = 3).
Example:
Teacher: Ben, do have a brother?
Ben: Yes.
Teacher: What’s his name?
Ben: Henry.
Teacher: Does Henry have a brother?
Ben: Yes.
213
Cognitive Milestones
Elementary-aged children encounter developmental milestones. This is
the stage when they leave behind egocentric thinking and start to develop a
more mature way of looking at things, which greatly enhances children’s
problem-solving skills, Piaget calls this process DECENTRATION. They
development certain skills within a particular time frame. The skills they learn
are in a sequential manner, meaning they need to understand numbers before
they can perform a mathematical equation. They can already take on complex,
sequential and symbolic-based tasks. At this stage, reasoning is still immature,
they have ease in identifying the here and now. Each milestone that develops
is dependent upon the previous milestone they achieved. Up until age of 8, a
child learns new skills at a rapid pace. Once they reach the age of 8, the skills
they learn start to level off so there is a steady increase of new skills.
Specifically, young primary school-aged children can tell left from right. Their
ability to speak, and express themselves develops rapidly. In school, they share
about themselves and their families. During play, they practice using the words
and language they learn in school. They start to understand time and days of
the week. They enjoy rhymes, riddles, and jokes. Their attention span is longer.
They can follow more involved stories. They are learning letters and words. By
six, most can read words or combinations of words.
Information-Processing Skills
Several theorists argue that like the computer, the human mind is a
system that can process information through the application of logical rules and
strategies. They also believe that the mind receives information, performs
operations to change its form and content, stores and locates it and generates
responses from it.

Children have varying intelligence profiles. These profiles may be based
on influences of learning and achievement. Parents, child care providers and
teachers should be able to recognize these by:
 helping children draw on their strengths and promote growth in their
weaknesses;
 planning lessons that cater multiple intelligences based on
instructional objectives;
 encouraging children to read more every day to increase their
vocabulary;
 bringing children to museums, art exhibits and historical landmarks
to widen their perspective about the world and people; and
 lessening children’s screen time and increasing their personal and
face-to-face interactions.
214
APPLICATION
and Adolescent Learners and Teaching Principles, Lorimar Publishing
House, Inc. Manila)
1. Observe a primary school classroom and take down notes on the
following areas of cognitive development:
a. Language and speech

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
b. Reasoning
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
c. Creativity
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read the study entitled Associations between Traffic-Related Air

Pollution in Schools and Cognitive Development in Primary School Children: A
Prospective Cohort Study, which you may access in
http://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001792.
Write a short summary of the conclusions and recommendations. In

addition to these, write your own insights.
Closure
You are now done. You will learn more in the succeeding lessons.
We encourage you to write a reflection on promoting your students’ cognitive
well-being. Have fun in sharing your life’s experiences. Happy learning!
215
Introduction
The developmental theorist, Eric Erikson, formulated eight s tages of
man’s psychosocial development. Each stage is regarded as a “psychosocial
crisis” which arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be
achieved.
Preschool children belong to the fourth stage of Erikson’s Psychosocial
Stages. Here, children have to resolve the issue on Industry vs Inferiority.
Learning Outcomes:
 identify the different characteristics of primary school-aged
children in this stage of development; and
 discuss the different factors that affect the socio-emotional
growth of the primary-schoolers.
ACTIVITY
In Eric Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development, primary
schoolers are in the fourth stage. This involves industry versus inferiority.
1. Read on how Erik Erikson defined these two terms. Write them down
below.
a. Industry
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________.
b. Inferiority
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________.
2. Observe primary-schoolers during their play time (recess or lunch

break). Take note of their:
216
a. Behaviour during play
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________.
b. Communicating with their peers

___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________.
c. Facial expressions, gestures and body language

___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________.
3. Paste some pictures of your observations. Discuss important points

and observations with a partner.
217
ANALYSIS
Discussion Questions:
1. What were your common observations among these children when it
comes to:
a. behavior during play?
b. communication with their peers?
c. facial expression, gestures and body language?
2. Were there difficulties that the children encountered while they were at
play?
ABSTRACTION
Erik Erikson’s Fourth Stage of Psychosocial Development

Industry vs. inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will have to
resolve in this stage. Industry refers to a child’s involvement in situations where
long, patient work is demanded of them, while inferiority is the feeling created
when a child gets a feeling of failure when they cannot finish or master their
school work.
In this stage, children, will most likely, have begun going to school.
School experiences become priority, with children so busy doing school work.
The encouragement of parents and caring educators helps to build a child’s
sense of self-esteem, confidence and ability to interact positively in the world.
What does the comic strip depict? How does this relate to Erikson’s
fourth stage?
218
Understanding the Self
One’s self-concept is the knowledge about the self, such as beliefs
regarding personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals and
roles.
It also involves a sense of belonging and acceptance, a sense of good
and a sense of being capable of doing good.
Having a healthy self-concept does not mean that a child thinks he/she
is better than others. It means that he/she likes himself/herself, feels accepted
by his/her family and friends and believes that he/she can do well.
Primary school children’s self-concept is influenced not only by their

parents, but also the by growing number of people they begin to interact with,
including teachers and classmates. Children have a growing understanding of
their place in the world. They already know that they can please their parents
and teachers. They are comfortable and show confidence in doing things they
are good at, but also show frustration in things that they find difficult.
School Years
In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children tend to
become increasingly self-confident and able to cope well with social
interactions. They are not focused on themselves anymore but are also aware
of the needs and desires of others. The issues of fairness and equality
become important to them as they learn to care for people who are not part of
their families. Characteristics like loyalty and reliability are being considered as
well as responsibility and kindness.
Building Friendships
“What is a FRIEND? A single soul dwelling in two bodies.”

1. Aristotle
Making friends is a crucial but very important part of children’s social an

emotional growth. As soon as they are able to walk and talk, they will tend to
show natural inclination to be around other children.
Children, during this stage, most likely belong to a peer group. Peer
groups are characterized by children who belong approximately to the same
age group. It is found along the stages of childhood through adolescence. But
for children, until the age seven or eight, they think of themselves more than
others. They may play well with groups but may need some time to play alone.
219
Primary school children prefer to belong to peer groups of the same
gender. Many children will use their surroundings to observe and mingle with
other children. Some will see this as an opportunity to make friends while others
remain a bit of a loner.
Antisocial Behavior
Some adults may perceive that some children’s behavior towards other
children as antisocial. When children poke, pull, hit or kick other children when
they are first introduced, it is fairly normal. Remember that children at this stage
are still forming their own world views and other children may seem like a
curiosity that they need to explore. Parents and teachers can help children
make friends. You can consider the following:
 expose the children to kid-rich environment (e.g. playgrounds, park).
 create a play group in your class and let the mingle with their classmates.
 when your children hit other children, remind them that their behavior
hurts others.
 coordinate with the parents and other teachers so that the children will
have a greater opportunity to interact with other children.
Self Control
Once children reach school age, they begin to take pride in their ability
to do things and their capacity to exert effort. They like receiving positive
feedback from their parents and teachers. This becomes a great opportunity for
parents and teachers to encourage positive emotional responses from children
by acknowledging their mature, compassionate behaviors.

Primary school children’s socio-emotional competency should be viewed
in the context of the child’s developmental age. Health-care providers, teachers
and parents should be able to:
 Gain understanding of their child’s socio-emotional strengths and
weaknesses by observing the child’s behavior at home.
 Work collaboratively with the child’s parents and health-care provider to
expand one’s insights on the child’s development.
 Provide a supportive setting where children have opportunities to
practice emotional regulation and social skills with peers.
 Give children activities when they can practice taking turns, sharing and
playing cooperatively.
 Be a role model of healthy emotions and expressing these emotions
appropriately.
 Demonstrate calmness and staying in control of one’s own feelings.
APPLICATION
Study the situations given below. If you were the teacher, how will
you help these learners cope with their socio-emotional difficulties?
220
Dear Teacher,
I am really heart-broken. My 8-year old daughter is feeling lonely, isolated

and friendless. It seems that she has felt this way for quite a while. She says that she
mostly spends time alone – that she has no friends because no one wants to play with
her.
She tags along, but is usually left out eventually. She can become angry if
things don’t always go her way and also teary. I don’t know where to turn to help her
the thought that she finds school so painful is heart-breaking.
Sincerely,
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Worried Mother
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
Dear Teacher,
I am really proud parent. My little boy is in primary grade and he doing a lot
better than his classmates. He sometimes becomes restless in school – he says he
knows what the teacher is talking about. Some teachers even suspect that he is gifted.
But there seems to be a problem.
Closure
He is bossy. He always orders people around – his classmates and people at
home. How could I help him be comfortable in school and lessen his bossiness?
________________________________________________________
Sincerely,
Worried Mother
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Manila)
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Closure
features of the primary schoolers. For now, we encourage you to write a
reflection on promoting your students’ socio-emotional well-being. Have fun
and happy learning!
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Learning Outcomes
emotional development of primary schoolers; and
primary schoolers.
SYNTHESIS
Give a summary of the key characteristics of primary schoolers’
KEY FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY SCHOOLERS
The Pedagogical Principles as Applied to Primary Schoolers’ Learning

and Development
Refer to the 14 pedagogical principles. Cite and explain at least one
pedagogical principle that applies to the teaching-learning process of
PRIMARY SCHOOLERS by filling out the table below. You may choose only
one principle that is relevant.
Manila)
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IN THE TEACHING-LEARNING
PROCESS OF PRIMARY
SCHOOLERS
(State the relevant learner-centered How is this principle applied in the
principle here). teaching-learning process of the
primary schoolers?
Cluster 1 – Principle referring to
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

Motivational and Affective Factors

Development and Social Factors

Individual Differences Factors
Closure
Praise the Lord! We made it again. We are closer to the end this course
pack. Thank you very much for being so patient in learning and studying this
module. All the best! Let us continue to the next lesson.
Module Summary:
You just studied the following concepts on middle-childhood (the primary
schooler), physical development of primary schooler, cognitive development of
primary schooler, socio-emotional development of primary schooler and
synthesis of physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of primary
schooler.
Module Assessment:
You are now ready to do your library work on biographical case analysis-
RRL on pre-schooler, reflection, preparation to compile your case portfolio and
answered worksheets.
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Module Overview
Welcome my dear students! You are going to explore a very
interesting topic about the pedagogical principles as applied to
intermediate schoolers learning and development. This will serve as
your guide in teaching-learning process of intermediate schoolers.
Module Outcomes
intermediate schoolers;
socio-emotional development of intermediate schoolers; and
developmental concepts to intermediate schoolers teaching-learning
and parenting.

Lesson 1: Physical development of intermediate schoolers;
Lesson 2: Cognitive development of intermediate schoolers;
Lesson 3: Socio-emotional development of intermediate schoolers; and
development of intermediate schoolers.
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Introduction
Late childhood is generally defined as ages 9 through 12. Others, may
call this stage as preteens. Physical changes during this stage is fairly
unpredictable among children in this age group.
The steady and gradual changes happening in children at this stage,
especially with their increasing familiarity with school work and other possible
activities provide them with a greater opportunity to develop their motor skill
functioning.
Learning Outcomes
 identify the different physical characteristics of intermediate
schoolers;
 discuss ways and practices which will aid children in successfully
developing physically; and
 design a simple exercise program appropriate for intermediate
school children.
ACTIVITY
Kindly answer the following statements:
 Weight and height changes in intermediate pupils

- What are your general ideas on how tall and how heavy do
intermediate children stand and weigh?
- What are the factors affecting their height and weight?
 Differences in physical appearance between girls and boys

- What are the differences in their body appearance?
- What are the differences in the activities they do?
 Changes in nutrition, diet and sleep of intermediate pupils

- What are the nutritional needs of intermediate pupils?
- How long do these children need to sleep and rest?
ANALYSIS
1. Based on the insights that you wrote, what do you think are the general
physical characteristics of children aged 9 to 12 years?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_______________.
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2. What are the common physical activities these children do to help them to
develop physically?
____________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________
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_______________
3. In what aspect do girls and boys in the late childhood stage differ?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
________________
ABSTRACTION
Intermediate schoolers have more control over their bodies than they
have when they were in primary school. They become more active and have
greater liberty to choose the hobbies or sports that they want to get involved in.
Children in their late childhood stage always seem to be in a hurry – they

get so busy with their school work, interacting with their friends, exploring other
possible activities, but this period of physical development seems to take on a
leisurely pace.
This may also be the stage when puberty may begin. Puberty is the
period in which the body undergoes physical changes and becomes capable of
sexual reproduction.
Early Puberty
On the average, girls are generally as much as two (2) years ahead of
boys in terms of physical maturity, although these developments may be
determined by how close a child is to puberty. Puberty may begin early.
Budding breasts for girls – which is the initial sign of puberty. Some girls may
also start with their menstrual period as early as 8 and some as late as 13.
Puberty’s changes start when the brain triggers the production of sex
hormones. Here are some changes that may happen to both girls and boys
during early puberty.
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Girls Boys
Breast  Small lumps from behind the  May also have swelling on
nipple may occur, which their chest but tends to go
sometime could be painful away within a year or two
but eventually, the pain goes
away.
 It is normal for one breast to
develop more slowly than
the other.
Genitals  The vulva starts in increase  Subtle increase in testicle
a bit. size.
 The vagina gets longer.  Penis and scrotum start to
 The uterus gets bigger. grow.
 Semen may be released
when he is awake or even
during sleep,
Hair  Hair will start to grow in the  Hair will start to grow and
Growth armpits and pubic areas. become thicker.
 New hair will also grow in the
armpits and pubic area
around the genitals.
 May start developing chest
and facial hair.
Source: www.webmd.com
Height, Weight and Muscle Development

During late childhood, a child’s weight on average, may be 2.3 to 3.2
kilograms per year. Weight increase was mainly due to the increase in size of
skeletal and muscular systems as well as several organs. An average of 2 ½
inches in height and an average of an inch in head circumference each year.
Children during this stage may experience growth spurts – sudden boosts in
height and weight, which usually accompanied by increase in appetite and food
intake.
Many of the bodily structures like the liver, muscles, skeletons, kidneys
and face follow a normal curve of development for both girls and boys. Other
structures like the brain, intestines and other organs and bodily systems mature
at their own time, thus, affecting growth patterns.
Increase in body fats also occurs in preparation for the growth that
occurs during adolescence. The body fat increase occurs earlier in girls and is
greater in quantity.
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Girls appear to be “chubby” while boys tend to have more lean body
mass per inch of height than girls. These are all normal part of development.
these differences in body composition become more significant during
adolescence.
Motor Skills
During this stage, movements or the muscles and bones become more
coordinated. At the age of 10 or 11 years, most children will have to learned to
play sports like swimming, basketball, volleyball and running. This physical skill
become a source of pleasure and great achievement to the children. In activities
that use large muscle, boys tend to be nimbler than girls.
Although a significant increase in physical activity may occur in this stage,
children in their late childhood is far from being physically mature. They become
overwhelmed when sitting or standing long than when they are running, jumping
or playing actively. This is because they need time to refine motor skills so they
prefer active rather than passive movements.
From the age of 8, children show greater coordination in writing. Their

fine motor skills develop gradually which may be evidenced by the size of the
letters and numbers. Font size becomes smaller and are more even. They may
even produce good quality crafts or have greater control in playing instruments
like the piano and guitar. In this skill, girl usually surpass the boys.
Insecurities
At this stage, children become very concerned about their physical
appearance. Girls especially, may become more concerned about their weight
and decide to eat less. Boys may become aware of their stature and muscle
size and strength.
Since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers must
be very conscious about their dealings with these children. Appropriate
activities must be designed so that children will be guided into right direction.
Children must be given opportunities to engage themselves in worthwhile
activities that:
 promote healthy growth
 give then a feeling of accomplishment, and
 reduce the risk of certain diseases.
Implications to child-care, education and parenting

During this stage, children are more physically active however, they still
have a lot of physical maturity to undergo. Here are some points to consider for
health-care providers, teachers and parents.
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 Provide ample opportunities at home and in school for physical
exercises and sports.
 Encourage children to participate in varied worthwhile activities
until they are able to discover the ones, they are interested in.
 Develop a strong emotional attachment with your children so as
to address any insecurities and social concerns.
 Since children in this stage have control over their eating habits,
provide them with healthier food choices.
APPLICATION
1. Being healthy physically greatly helps children in their late adulthood to

become successful in their everyday undertakings.
Design a simple exercise program appropriate for children ages 9 to 12.

Divide your program into three parts:
Part 1: Warm Up Activities:

 May include breathing exercises and stretching routines
Part 2: Exercise Proper:
 May consist of three to four sets of exercises which may focus
on the following areas: (a) body balance and posture, (b)
endurance, (c) muscle strength and/or (d) agility
Part 3: Cooling Down or Quieting Activity:
 Includes another set of breathing and stretching exercises
Title of Exercise
Part I: Warm Up Activities:

_______________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
Title of Exercise
Part II: Exercise Proper:

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
______________
Title of Exercise
Part III: Cooling Down or Quieting Activity:

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
______________
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2. As a teacher, what ideas can you give in order to help intermediate school
children develop physically?
 __________________________________________________
 __________________________________________________
 __________________________________________________
(Reading Resource: Corpuz, Lucas, Borado, Lucido, 2018. The
Child and Adolescent Learners and Teaching Principles,
Lorimar Publishing House, Inc. Manila)
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Children in this stage suffer from many types of insecurities. One thing
they feel most insecure about is their body. Read researches regarding obesity
during late childhood. Summarize one research by stating the following:
 Research Methodology
 Findings
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
 References
Closure
For now, you will learn more in succeeding lessons. We encourage you
to write a personal journal on promoting your students’ physical well-being.
Have fun and happy learning!
232
Introduction
Since children in this stage are already in their late childhood, rapid
development of mental skills is evident. According to Jean Piaget, concrete
operational thinkers can now organize thoughts effectively, although, they can
only logically perceive the immediate situation. They can apply what they have
learned to situations and events that they can manipulate.
Thus, their reasoning and logical thinking are is still very limited. But with
proper guidance and nurturance from parents, teachers and the rest of the
community, these children can easily succeed in their intellectual endeavors.
Learning Outcomes
 examine the cognitive characteristics of intermediate school
children;
 discuss important factors that affect the cognitive development
of intermediate school children and
 enumerate ways on how teachers can promote creativity in the
learning environment, learning activities and instructional
materials.
ACTIVITY
Write your understanding of the following statement.
INTELLIGENCE is…
 the ability to create an effective product or offer a service that is
valued in a culture;
 a set of skills that makes it possible for a person to solve problems
in life; and
 the potential for finding or creating solutions for problem which
involves gathering new knowledge.
- Howard Gardner
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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ANALYSIS
Write your own insights/reactions/reflections to these following

qustions:
1. What kind of intelligences is being referred to by Howard Gardner?

2. What intelligence do you think is the most evident in this stage of
development?
3. Do these intelligences vary among children in terms of age and gender?
ABSTRACTION
Initial Cognitive Characteristics

Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they
can now utilize more effectively as compared to their thinking skills during the
primary years. Their school work now become more complicated, reading texts
have become longer, problem solving has become an everyday part of their
lives.
Their ability to use logic and reasoning gives them chances to think
about what they want and how to get it. They now become very interested in
talking about the future or even their potential careers. They develop special
interest in collections, hobbies and sports. They are even capable of
understanding concepts without having direct hands-on experiences.
Reading Development
Children in this stage, is marked by a wide application of word attack.
Because of the presence of previous knowledge, they now have a wide
vocabulary which enables them to understand the meanings of unknown words
through context clues – this is the “Reading to Learn” Stage in reading
development. They are no longer into the fairy tales and magic type of stories
but are more interested in longer and more complex reading materials (e.g.
fiction books and series books).
The website www.readingrockets.org listed a few strategies in choosing

age-appropriate books for intermediate schoolers. In choosing books
appropriate to their age, consider the following:
 who the child is – his or her personality traits and personal
preferences when choosing a book.
 make a selection with the child in mild; choose an informational book
or a novel in an area of specific interest.
 choose books that encourage discussion and insight-building.
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Attention
Older children have longer and more flexible attention span compared
to younger children. Their span of attention is dependent on how much is
required by the given task. In terms of school work, older children can
concentrate and focus more for long periods of hour especially if they are highly
interested in what they are doing.
Creativity
“CREATIVITY is not the finding of a thing, but making

something out of it after it is found.”
2. James Russell Lowell
Children at this stage are open to explore new things. Creativity is innate
in children; they just need a little guidance and support from parents, teachers
and people around them. They are usually at their best when the work is done
in small pieces.
Creativity in children is encouraged when the activities:

 encourage different responses from each child;
 celebrate uniqueness;
 break stereotypes;
 value process over product;
 reduce stress and anxiety in children;
 support to share ideas, not only with the teacher / parent but also
with other children; and
 minimize competition and external rewards.
The Impact of Media
“Television viewing is a highly complex, cognitive activity

during which children are actively involved in learning.”
(Anderson and Collins, 1988)
The dream of having a television unit in every classroom started in the

1950’s. It was considered as one of the first technological advancements in
schools. The impact of the use of television and other media like the computer
has gained popularity because students are given opportunity to:
 communicate effectively in speech and in writing;
 work collaboratively;
 use technological tools;
 analyze problems, set goals, and formulate strategies for
achieving those goals; and
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 seek out information or skills on their own, as needed, to meet
their goals.
Media and Aggression

Violence and aggression are often dubbed as one of the results of
media. According to the Public Health Summit in 2000, the following are some
of the negative results of media:
 Children will increase anti-social and aggressive behavior.
 Children may become less sensitive to violence and those who suffer
from violence.
 Children may view the world as violent and mean, becoming more
fearful of being a victim of violence.
 Children will desire to see more violence in entertainment and real
life.
 Children will view violence as an acceptable way to settle conflicts.
The school and the home provide children with unlimited access to
media, not only televisions and computers, but also videos, movies, comic
books and music lyrics. The responsibility now lies with the parents, teachers
and the whole community. It should be a collective effort among the factors
working together to support children in every aspect of development.
Having a role model is extremely important for children at this stage of

transition (from childhood to adolescence). Children need an adult to admire
and emulate. Role models also provide them with motivation to succeed. One
of the most important roles of teachers is to become a very good role model to
children.

Children have varying intelligence profiles. These profiles may be based
on influences on learning and achievement. Parents, child-care providers and
teachers should be able to recognize these through:
 being an eager participant in children’s growth and development;
 understanding how to use the children’s natural curiosity to help
make the appropriate development leaps in their skills and abilities;
and
 creating an atmosphere where risks can be taken and discoveries
made while children remain safe.
Manila)
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APPLICATION
1. Write the definitions of the following words based on how you understood
them.
a. Concrete operational thinkers

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
b. “Reading to Learn” stage (in reading development)

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
c. Attention Span
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
d. Creativity
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
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The Creative
Teachers
The Designing of
The Learning The Planning of
Instructional
Environment Activities
Materials
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Your teacher/business owner plans to put up a progressive school for
children. Your aim is to provide a learning environment that is fun, exciting and
intellectually stimulating for your intermediate school pupils. In doing so, you
need to purchase toys and educational playthings that will encourage creativity,
critical and abstract thinking and logical reasoning. Complete your list by filling
out the matrix.
Name of Toy Picture Cognitive Area How It Helps

Which It Cognitive
Develops Development
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Closure
Congratulation! You are now done with this lesson. We encourage you
to write a reflection on providing opportunities for your students to enrich their
reading skills. Have fun! Happy learning!
239
Lesson 3
Lesson Title: SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS
Introduction
At this period of socio-emotional development, children are spending
less time in the home. The bulk of their time is spent outside the home, either
alone or with other children, rather than with adults. Older children have already
familiarized themselves with other children. They are already used to interacting
with different ages and gender. For many of them, these social networks are
not only sources of social support but also different forms of learning.
Learning Outcomes
 identify the socio-emotional characteristics of children in their late
childhood stage;
 determine the qualities of family life that affect older children’s
development including changes in family interactions; and
 interview a parent regarding their child’s socio-emotional
development.
ACTIVITY
Paste a picture of you when you were in Grade 4, 5 or 6. Recall a

significant event that happened to you. Write a very brief story of what
happened.
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
_______ __________________________
_________________ ___ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
ANALYSIS __________________________
__________________________
__________________________
Discussion Questions: __________________________
__________________________
__________________________
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ANALYSIS
As you share your story with a classmate, try to answer the
questions below:
1. Why was this event so significant?
2. What do you think were the factors that contributed to make you react
or feel that way?
3. How do you think this event has affected you socially and
emotionally?
4. Thinking about it now, do you think you could have acted or felt
differently?
ABSTRACTION
Understanding Self-Competence, Self-Identity and Self-Concept

One of the most widely recognized characteristics of this period of
development is the acquisition of feelings of self-competence. This is what
Erik Erikson referred to when he described the developmental task of middle
childhood – the social crisis industry versus inferiority. Industry refers to the
drive to acquire new skills and do meaningful “work.”
The child should have a growing sense of competence. The child’s

definitions of self and accomplishment vary greatly according to interpretations
in the surrounding environment. Varied opportunities must be provided in order
for children to develop a sense of perseverance. They should be offered
chances to both fail and succeed, along with sincere feedback and support.
During late childhood, children can now describe themselves with

internal and psychological characteristics and traits. They most likely employ
more social comparison – distinguishing themselves from others. In dealing
with other children, they show increase in perspective talking. This ability
increases with age. It enables them to (a) judge others’ intentions, purposes
and actions, (b) give importance to social attitudes and behaviors and (c)
increase scepticism of others’ claims.
Emotional Development
The same with other areas of development, children in this stage, show
improved emotional understanding that more than one emotion can be
experienced in a single experience. They may also show greater ability to show
or conceal emotions, utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity for genuine
empathy.
Another milestone int this stage is the development of children’s

emotional intelligence (EQ), which involves the ability to monitor feelings of
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oneself and others to guide and motivate behavior. Emotional Intelligence has
four main areas:
 Developing emotional self-awareness
 Managing emotions (self-control)
 Reading emotions (perspective taking)
 Handling emotions (resolve problems)
Building Friendships
As children go through their late childhood, the time they spend in peer
interaction increases. For them, good peer relationships are very important. The
approval and belongingness they receive contributes to the stability and
security of their emotional development. Peer size also increases and less
supervision by adults is required. At this stage, children prefer to belong to
same-sex peer groups.
There are five types of peer status:

 Popular – frequently nominated as the best friend and one who
is rarely disliked by peers
 Average – receive an average number of positive and negative
nominations from peers
 Neglected – very seldom nominated as best friend but is not
really disliked
 Rejected – infrequently nominated as a best friend but one who
is also disliked by peers
 Controversial – frequently nominated as a best friend but at the
same time is disliked by peers
Popular children have the following skills which peers find very positive
and as a result they become the most favored in the group:
1. They give out reinforcement.
2. They act naturally.
3. They listen carefully and keep open communication.
4. They are happy and are in control of their negative emotions.
5. They show enthusiasm and concern for others.
On the other hand, here are the characteristics of neglected children and
why the group or majority of the peers develop negative feelings toward them:
1. They participate less in the classroom.
2. They have negative attitudes on school tardiness and attendance.
3. They have more often reported as being lonely.
4. They are aggressive.
a. In boys:
1. They become impulsive, have problems in being attentive and
disruptive.
2. They are emotionally reactive and slow to calm down.
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3. They have fewer social skills to make maintain friends.
Family
Family support at this stage is crucial. If children do not find a supportive
family when they find their interest (e.g. in hobbies like riding a bike or playing
a musical instrument) they can easily get frustrated. If families are a primary
support system, failures and setbacks become temporary and surmountable
rather than something that is attributed to personal flaws or deficits. This time
is a critical time for children to develop a sense of competence. A high-quality
adult relationship, specifically, family relationships enable them to successfully
go through this stage of development.
Big Ideas
This lesson stresses that:
 During late childhood, a wide variety of biological, psychological
and social changes take place across the developmental
domains.
 As children progress through late childhood, the family
environment remains extremely important, while the community
environment – including the school – also becomes a significant
factor in shaping the child’s development.
 During late childhood, peers have an increasing strong impact on
development; peer acceptance becomes very important to well-
being.
Implications to Child Care, Educating and Parenting

Primary school children’s socio-emotional competency should be viewed
in the context of the child’s developmental age. Health-care providers, teachers
and parents should be able to:
 gain understanding of their child’s socio-emotional strengths and
weakness by;
 encouraging children to talk about their feelings without doing it
forcefully;
 provide opportunities for children to build relationships with
teachers and fellow classmates;
 remind children that friendships have their ups and downs and
that occasional conflicts and arguments can be healthy;
 design activities that allow children to work on their own and
discover activities and hobbies that they enjoy; and
 model healthy relationships.
Manila)
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APPLICATION
Study the illustration on the left. It shows some of the factors that
may result in some degree of emotional stress to intermediate school-
age children. What can you say to kids who may be experiencing these
things? Write a letter to them.
My dear child,
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
https://www.virtuallabschool.org/school-age/social-emotional/lesson-2
A. Interview a parent or a teacher of an intermediate school-age child. Use

the questions below as your guide. Write your conclusions and insights.
Name of Parent / Teacher (optional): ______________________

Age and Grade Level of the Child: ______________________
Gender of the Child: ______________________
Questions:
1. What are some marked changes in your child as he/she reached the
intermediate level (Grades 4 to 6)?
2. How can you describe his/her interactions with parents, siblings,
teachers, peers – if any?
3. What can you say about your child’s self-confidence and self-
esteem?
4. What activities in the home do you do to help your children interact
with people around him/her?
My Insights:
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Research on the topics below and find out how intermediate school-aged
children respond to one of the following events in life:
 Death
 Parents’ separation
 Rejection from peers
Closure
features of the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of
intermediate schoolers. For now, we encourage you to write a personal
reflection promoting your students’ socio-emotional well-being. Have fun and
happy learning!
245
Learning Outcomes
emotional development of intermediate schoolers; and
intermediate schoolers.
SYNTHESIS
Give a summary of the key characteristics of intermediate
schoolers’ development by filling out the table below.
KEY FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERMEDIATE

SCHOOLERS
Manila)
246
The Pedagogical Principles as Applied to Intermediate Schoolers’
Learning and Development
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS by filling out the table below. You may choose
only one principle that is relevant.
IN THE TEACHING-LEARNING
PROCESS OF INTERMEDIATE
SCHOOLERS
How is this principle applied in the
teaching-learning process of the
principle here).
primary schoolers?

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

Motivational and Affective Factors

Development and Social Factors

Individual Differences Factors
247
Module Overview
Welcome my dear students! You are going to explore a very interesting
topic about the pedagogical principles as applied to adolescents’
learning and development. This will serve as your guide in teaching-
learning process of adolescents.
Module Outcomes
high school learners;
socio-emotional development of high school learners; and
developmental concepts to high school teaching-learning and parenting.

Lesson 1: Physical development of high school learners;
Lesson 2: Cognitive development of high school learners;
Lesson 3: Socio-emotional development of high school learners; and
development of high school learners.
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Introduction
This Lesson seeks to facilitate the learning in defining/describing the
adolescent along physical development with focus on the major change factor
of puberty. Early and late physical maturation will be discussed, while
identifying dangers and opportunities for the growing teenage child. The impact
of social media will be highlighted, to invite learners to further research on topics
as body-image, social media and the adolescent, and the roles and
responsibilities of the family, school and government.
Adolescence is a stage of human development that coincides with
puberty, a biological development occurring at the average age of 11 for girls
and 12 for boys. These are factors, however, which contribute to early puberty
and delayed puberty. These factors include heredity, diet, exercise and socio-
environmental influence.
Early and late maturation in adolescence accompany the cognitive and
socio-emotional development of adolescents. In this situation, the teacher must
be an understanding teacher who can provide guidance and support to
adolescent learners in their high school years.
Learning Outcomes
 describe the physical and sexual changes accompanying
puberty;
 identify the psychological consequences of early and late physical
maturation in adolescence;
 identify factors that enhance / impede the socio-emotional
development of adolescents;
 identify the causes of possible habit disorders and ways of coping
with them;
 present an abstract of recent research related to the physical
development of adolescents; and
 draw implications of these physical development concepts to high
school teaching-learning, and parenting.
ACTIVITY
Share your real-life experiences on these aspects of your
adolescent period:
 Physical or biological growth whether this was slow or fast, smooth or by

spurts;
 Any sense of curiosity or concern for incidences of menstruation for girls
and wet dreams for boys;
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 The effect of biological growth on self-image (possibly as one is too thin
or plump, lanky or short, not so good-looking or attractive, etc.)
 Parental relationships (as a teenager you seek privacy, independence,

etc.)
ANALYSIS
Answer the following questions as a group:
1. Was there anything common in the shared experiences?
2. Was there anything unique to individuals in the group?
ABSTRACTION
Defining adolescence
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive and
socio-emotional changes. The period of adolescence begins with the biological
changes of puberty. The specific ages for this period vary from person-to-
person but (i) early adolescence characterized by puberty may come at the
ages 11 and 12 (ii) middle adolescence may meet identity issues within the
ages of 14 and 16, and (iii) late adolescence marks the transition into adulthood
at ages 17 and 20.
This lesson is focused on physical development with puberty marking

the major transition manifested by changes in (i) physical appearance (ii) rapid
rate of growth (next to the speed of growth of fetus in the uterus) known as
growth spurts (iii) resultant feeling of awkwardness and unfamiliarity with body
changes, and (iv) alterations in sleeping habits and parent-adolescent
relationship possibly accompanying puberty.
Puberty changes
Throughout life, growth hormones condition gradual increases in body
size and weight. Hormone flooding during adolescence causes acceleration
known as growth spurts. Growth spurts include a change in body dimensions
(leg length, shoulder width, trunk length). Spurt in height is ascribed to trunk
growth rather than leg growth.
In girls, the growth spurts generally begin at age 10 reaching its peak at
age 11 and-a-half, while slow continual growth occurs for several more years.
For boys, growth spurts begin at age 12 reaching a peak at age 14 and declining
at age 15 and-a-half, while continual growth continues on for several more
years.
Among girls, 98% of adult height is generally reached at age 16, while
boys do so at age 17. Growth height is conditioned by stages in bone
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maturation. The muscles also grow in terms of size and strength. Similar growth
spurts occur for weight, muscle size, head and face maturation, and the
reproductive organs.
All muscular and skeletal dimensions appear to take part in the growth spurts
during adolescence.
Factors affecting development

The series of hormonal changes accompanying puberty is complex.
Hormones are powerful and highly specialized chemical substances that
interact with bodily cells. Hormonal changes in the hypothalamus and pituitary
glands signal the entire process of sexual maturation. The process entails (i)
secretion of gonadotropic hormones by the anterior pituitary at the base of
the brain near the geometric center of the head (ii) Gonads which are the
ovaries for the female and the testis for the male are then stimulated by the
gonadotropic hormones, in turn stimulating their own hormones (iii) this
stimulation causes the secretion of testosterone in the male sex organ and of
estrogen in the female ovary.
 In the male, testosterone stimulates male characteristics comprised

by (i) spermache enlargement of the testis glands that produces
sperm in the scrotum, growth of the penis male organ for copulation
(ii) capacity for ejaculation of male sperms (iii) voice change (iii) facial
hair development or beard growth, and continuing growth of pubic
hair. Occurring in late puberty, the lowering of the voice cause by
enlargement of the larynx and double lengthening of the vocal cords
is viewed to be the most obvious aspect of adolescent development.
 In girls, estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of breast
enlargement, appearance of pubic hair, widening of the hips, and
menarche or first menstruation. The elevation of the female breast
is the first external sign of puberty in girls, accompanied by growth of
the uterus and vagina. Generally, girls achieve menarche beginning
age 11 until age 13. There are ethnic differences such as African
American and European American girls exhibiting secondary sex
activities as early as 8 and 9 years, menarche as early as 11 and 12
years, respectively.
In contrast with menarche, spermache signals the first sign of puberty

and sexual maturity in boys. The need to discharge semen – mixed with a sticky
fluid produced by the prostate gland – occurs periodically. Discharge of semen
occurs during sleep caused by sexual dreams. It may also occur during
conscious manipulation of the male organ known as masturbation. Religion
strictly prohibits masturbation that is coupled with sexual fantasies, but science
liberally regards masturbation as a normal phenomenon unless it becomes a
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habitual aberration that may affect confidence in heterosexual (boy-and-girl)
relationships.
The secular trend

The secular trend is a phenomenon of more rapid physical maturation
during this century. In the 1800s, girls’ industrial societies had their first
menstrual period at age 15-17, and age later repressed societies. Today, boys
reach maximum height at age 18-20 and 13-14 for girls, but adult height 100
years ago was at 23-25 for boys and 19-20 for girls. The secular trend is
ascribed to varied factors, such as: interaction of genetic and environment
influences, improved health care and living conditions, and control of infectious
diseases. Better nutrition is a major factor since this provides more protein and
calories for humans from conception upwards. Observably, the secular trend in
industrial countries to be levelling off while the experience of secular trends is
just starting in peasant economies of the world.
Sexual identity
Adolescence is a time of sexual exploration and experimentation with
sexual fantasies and realities of incorporating sexuality with one’s identity
quoted by Santrock, 2005 from one’s identity (Christopher, 2001).
Adolescence are concerned about their body image sexual

attractiveness how to do sex and the future of their sexual lives. Most
adolescents manage to develop a mature sexual identity but a number go
through it with much confusion.
How do adolescents develop a sexual identity?

An adolescent’s sexual identity involves sexual orientation, activities,
interests, and styles of behavior (Bugwell & Rosenthal, 1996). Some
adolescents are very anxious about sex and sexually active. Others are only a
bit anxious about sex and are sexually inactive.
Sexual orientation is a person’s tendency to be attracted to people of the

same sex (homosexual orientations), of the opposite sex (heterosexual
orientation) or of both sexes (bisexual orientation).
Why an adolescent develops a specific sexual orientation is a matter of

great debate. It may boil down to the same issue of nature vs. nurture.
In terms of sexual identity, adolescence is the period when most

gay/lesbian and transgenders begin to recognize and make sense of their
feelings. Development analyst Froiden proposed a model for the development
of homosexual identity: (i) sensitization marked by the child’s becoming aware
of same sex attractions. (ii) identity confusion when the youth is overwhelmed
with feelings of inner turmoil regarding sexual orientation (iii) identity
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assumption when adolescents come out of the family and assumes a self-
definition as gay, lesbian or bisexual, and (iv) commitment when the young
adult adopts a sexual identity as a lifestyle. Coming of terms with a positive
LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender) identity is usually difficult for
variety of reasons, including family, race and religious cultures. Risks to the
homosexual adolescent are real amid a heteronormative environment and
LGBTs may suffer ostracism, hurtful jokes, and even violence.
Self-esteem
A major aspect of identity formation during the period of adolescence is
self-esteem. Self-esteem is defined as one’s thoughts and feelings about one’s
self-concept and identity. Most theories on self-esteem state that there is a
grand desire across all genders and ages to maintain, protect and enhance self-
esteem. There is no significant drop in self-esteem over the period of
adolescent. Baseline self-esteem is stable across adolescence, but a
barometric (unstable) self-esteem may fluctuate rapidly to cause severe
distress and anxiety. Girls enjoy self-esteem through supportive relationship
with friends or others who can provide social and moral support. In contrast,
boys are more prone to assert independence in defining their relationships,
deriving self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence others.
The lack of romantic competence – failure to meet the affection of the

opposite sex – can be a major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent
boys. In a Meyer study, the end of romantic relationship can affect both boys
and girls, but girls twice as likely to experience depression, while boys are three
to four times more likely to commit suicide.
Implication for child-care, education and parenting

To meet the physical development of adolescent children, parents need
to be aware of manifestations of behavioral patterns that require closer
communication, guidance and support. The teen especially addictive to modern
gadgets for music listening, video games, mobile phone communication, and
social media posting. These activities cause shorter sleeping time that may
contribute to increased levels of daytime drowsiness, sleeping problems and
depression. In school, teachers need to be aware of possible drop in self-
esteem among adolescent learners against severe distress and anxiety over
their school work and social relationships.
Adolescents and nutrition

It is necessary for adolescents to have sufficient amounts of vitamins:
B12, calcium, zinc, iron, riboflavin, and Vitamin D. The vegetarian fad can be
disastrous to adolescent to adolescents who need vitamins, minerals and
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protein which purely vegetable diets cannot provide. Vegetables are good but
these should be balanced with food intake that form highly quality nutrition
including protein sources in milk, dairy products and eggs. Poor eating habits
is manifested by often skipping meals, frequent taking of snack food
(hamburger, fries, pizza, soft drinks, etc.) at fast-food eateries.
Body image and the adolescent

Consciousness about body image is strong during adolescent period. It
is important that adolescents feel confident about how they look, but the
physical features of the human body (facial looks, body size, color of skin, etc.)
depend on genetic heritage which must be respected. However, there is more
to body image than physical looks and these concern good habits in relation to:
 cleanliness and grooming,
 proper wearing of clothes according to current styles,
 erect body posture,
 eye contact while communicating, and
 decorum (good form and confidence) and decency
APPLICATION
1. Cite at least 5 ideas from this lesson. Give a reason why each of these ideas
is important for the positive growth or development of an adolescent.
Reasons why these ideas are

important for the development of
Big Ideas from the Lesson
adolescents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Manila)
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Write brief summaries of published research articles, such as, among
others:
 The adolescent brain
 Puberty plateaus
 Adolescent behavioral inhibitions
Share your findings with the class
Closure
You’re done! We encourage you to write a personal journal on your
experiences as an adolescent and how you were about to overcome issues
related to the period, such as self-esteem, body image, boy-girl romantic
relationships, etc. Have fun and happy learning!
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Introduction
Adolescence is a time for rapid cognitive development. at this stage of
development, there is a decrease in egocentric thoughts, while the individual’s
thinking takes more of an abstract form. This allows the individual to think and
reason in a wider perspective. Behavioral studies also show the development
of executive functions comprised by cognitive functions that enable the control
and coordination of thoughts and behavior. Adolescence is therefore a period
of human development that has great influence on the individual’s future life
through character and personality formation.
Learning Outcomes
 describe the cognitive development of adolescents in the light of
Piaget’s and Siegler’s cognitive development theories;
 explain the consequences of the adolescents’ cognitive
development on their behaviour;
 define overachievement and underachievement, and propose
solutions to underachievement;
 present an abstract of a recent research related to cognitive
development of adolescents; and
 draw implications of these cognitive developmental concepts to
high school teaching-learning and parenting.
ACTIVITY
Share your experiences about the following which relate to
1. The grades you received (and possible awards and recognition) and
their effect at home and school.
2. Any involvement in projects (e.g. IT research, workshops, planning,
discovering, organizing, etc.) and what cognitive processes were
involved in these.
3. Memorable field study and how this helped you develop cognitively.
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ANALYSIS
Based on your understanding, have you progressed from simple
memory of facts to higher types of learning (understanding, applying,
analysing, assessing, etc.)?
How did your school learning relate to actual life at home and in the
community? For example, were mathematical subjects (Algebra,
Trigonometry, etc.) really helpful and applicable in your life?
Do you think you need to develop your cognitive or thinking skills more so
that you can be a planner, an organizer, or a leader?
ABSTRACTION
Similarly, remarkable as the physical changes during adolescence are

changes in thinking patterns. These changes marked by the acquisition of new
cognitive skills due to the brain’s increasing in weight and refining synaptic
connections (technically known as corpus collosum) which join and
coordinate the two hemispheres of the brain. Another brain development is the
process of correlated temporal and parietal areas (technically known as
myelination). This second development covers the brain systems whose
executive functions relate to attention, verbal fluency, language and planning.
Through brain scanning, three peaks in brain maturation have been

identified by neurological scientists and these are at age 12, age 15, and age
18.5 coinciding with operational thinking process for logical reasoning.
Accompanying brain changes in cognitive ability, the adolescent begins to
acquire spatial awareness and formulate abstract or general ideas involving
numbers, order, and cause-effect. All these changes propel the adolescent from
the world of sensible and concrete thoughts to the world of the possible and
universal ideas (e.g. general ideas about the good, true and beautiful).
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Piaget’s Formal Operational Thinker
Piaget formulated the theory of Formal Operational Thinking which

demonstrates how the cognitive capacity of the adolescent allows him/her to go
beyond the sensible and concrete in order to dwell on what is abstract,
hypothetical and possible. In this realm of thought, the adolescent begins to
attain subtlety in thinking, entering the sphere of possible and futuribles. More
specifically, formal operational thinking consists in:
(a) Propositional thinking – making assertions outside visual evidence,
and stating what may be possible in things not seen by the eyes (for
example, whether an unseen object is red or green, big or small, flat
or round).
(b) Relativistic thinking – subjectively making an opinion on facts –
involving one’s own bias, prejudice of distortion of facts – which may
be either right or wrong (for example, arguing for or against the
superiority of the races, whether white, brown, yellow or black).
(c) Real versus possible – examining a situation and exploring the
possible in terms of situation or solutions (e.g. possible success in
implementing a student project or a school policy).
For Piaget one indication of the presence of formal operational thinking

is the ability of the adolescent thinker for combinational analysis, which in his
taking stock of the effects of several variables in a situation, testing one variable
at a time, and not randomly. An application of a situation which requires
combinational analysis is the school laboratory experiment where high school
students test chemical elements singly and in combination, resulting in an
understanding of chemical changes.
A new capacity known as Hypothetic-Deductive Reasoning emerges in

the adolescent reasoning from general facts / situations to a particular
conclusion. The school pendulum experiment is an example of deducing from
variables and generating and recognizing a truth, expressed by the transitional
process of deriving a conclusion from a hypothesis.
Scientific evidence shows that while adolescents may obtain the

capacity for formal operational thinking, only experience and education will
allow them to practice it. School math and science activities such as performing
Physics-type problems (balance scales, pendulums, projections of images and
shadows, etc.) certainly help in actualizing formal operational thinking.
Outside formal operational thinking through mathematical and science

studies, the adolescent enters into a new capacity which makes him a problem-
solving thinker. This involves identifying problems and seeking new and
creative solutions for them. The problem-finding thinker is one who is able to
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rethink and recognize ideas and ask questions, even defining totally new
problems not previously seen.
The adolescent may further experience an increase in depth of thought.

Thus he/she is able to bring what is logically “best” for everyday life, whether or
not this may be objectively correct solution or response to a situation or
problem.
Siegler’s Information Processing Skills

As in information -processing theories, Robert Siegler views the
influence of the environment on thinking. He sees cognitive growth, not as
stages of development, but more of a sequential acquisition of specific
knowledge and strategies for problem-solving. He observes the quality of
information that adolescent processes that influences him/her in facing tasks at
hand through strategies or rules.
In his experiments, Siegler used rule models in relation to balance,

weight, distance, conflict-weight, conflict-distance, and other conflict balance
problems. He examined the correct and wrong answers to each of the problems
drawing out rule models in thinking and knowing.
Thereupon, adolescents may show: (a) speed in information processing,
coupled with greater awareness and control and acquired knowledge base – a
more efficient kind of thinking compared with that of the child (b) complexity by
way of considering longer-term implications and possibilities beyond the here-
and-now, and (c) increased volume of information processing coupled with
longer memory span.
Metacognition
Among the cognitive advances in adolescence is metacognition which is
the ability to identify one’s own thinking process and strategies inclusive of
perception, memory, understanding, application, analysis, assessment and
innovation. The adolescent is able to state “I know that” among the memory
data stored in his mind; also, able to state “I know how” referring to procedural
processes that improves memory recall through the use of mnemonic device.
The adolescent may also spend time reflecting about a material to be learned
by answering mentally such questions as what, why, where and how. All these
are demonstrations of higher order thinking skills during adolescence.
Another important development is the ability of the adolescent for

information processing. Information theorist Robert Siegler sees a sequential
acquisition of specific knowledge and strategies for problem solving. He
observes the quality of information processes that faces tasks at hand through
strategies and rules. Rules relate to balance, weight, distance, conflict weight,
conflict distance and conflict balance problems. Thereupon the adolescent
shows (i) speed in information processing coupled with awareness and control
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(ii) complexity by way of considering longer-term implications and possibilities,
coupled with longer memory span along many areas or domains of knowledge.
The adolescent thus transforms from being a novice to becoming a near-expert.
Overachievement
During adolescence, he/she can achieve very high academic grades, in
spite of not getting IQ grades that are at the top 3 or 5 percent of the bell curve.
The case of overachievers is a reminder that the Intelligence Quotient test is
not the only determinant in school achievement. There are other factors such
as motivation interest, work habits, and personality development. Beyond
statistical achievement in curricular subjects (English, Math, Science, Araling
Panlipunan, etc.) the overachieving adolescent may demonstrate superior work
habits, greater interest in school work, more consistency in doing assignments,
and more grade/performance consciousness. Overall, they show more
responsibility, consciousness and planning compared with “normal” achievers.
Characteristics of overachievers are:
1. Positive self-value (self-esteem, confidence, optimism);
2. Openness to authority (responsive to expectations of parents and
teachers);
3. Positive interpersonal relations (responsive and sensitive to feelings
of others);
4. Less conflict on the issue of self-autonomy (feels freedom to make
right choices, initiates and lead activities);
5. Academic orientation (disciplined work habits, high motivation to
discover and learn, interest in study values and varied fields of study);
6. Goal orientation (efficiency and energy in organizing, planning,
setting target, prioritizing long-term goals over short-term rewards);
and
7. Control over anxiety (well composed and relaxed performance of
organized tasks).
Underachievement
The adolescent may perform below the standards set. Possible
potentials do not cope with the opportunity to learn and score in the top quarter
of measured academic ability. Grades are below measured aptitudes for
academic achievement. Underachievement may become more pronounced
when high school class work becomes more demanding.
Withdrawn underachievers refer to those who have a more

pronounced tendency to be passive resulting in being submissive and docile.
They follow the path of no resistance, not reacting to given assignments and
school regulations. Generally quiet, they do not participate in class activities.
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Aggressive underachievers are those who tend to be talkative,
disruptive and rebellious.
Behavior and adolescent cognitive growth

There are behavioral tendencies which may accompany cognitive
growth during adolescence. These are:
1. Egocentrism. This is the adolescents’ tendency to think too much of

themselves, while being too sensitive to social acceptance of their
appearance, actions, feelings, ideas, etc. Egocentrist teens feel they
are being watched like an actor on stage; keep an imaginary
audience who are strict critics of dress, behavior or performance.
One egocentric strain is exaggerated feeling of self-importance which
may lead to murky early boy-girl relationships, dangerous escapades
and adventures.
2. Idealism. This refers to imagining the far-fetched and less ideal

situations at home, in school, and in society. The teen may imagine
a utopia or heaven on earth leading to discouragement when social
realities become harsh (e.g. unexpected low grades, family discord,
etc.)
3. Increase argumentativeness. Teens enjoy learning through the use

of group dynamics including role play, discussion, debate, and
drama. Strict imposition of the use of English in the campus has been
the strategy by premier schools to develop argumentative students
who later on transform into leaders in politics, business and other top
professional fields.
Implications to adolescent care, education and parenting
Parents and teachers must be able to recognize the cognitive
development paths among adolescents and create situations that will foster
higher thinking skills through:
a. activities at home e.g. asking teenage children for suggestions on
family matters – house physical arrangements, things to buy, places
to go for family outing, etc.
b. allowing more independence e.g. use of school allowances, choice
on what to wear, etc.
c. activities in school that allow participation, such as projects, field
trips, joint internet research, etc., and
d. develop reading skills through magazine articles, Internet blogs.
Developing occupational skills

Senior High School Grades 11 and 12 were designed to provide
attention to provide attention to occupational skills that are absent even among
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college graduates. The Department of Labor and Employment reports that there
is mismatch between academic preparation and job skills thus worsening the
gap between employable school graduates and potential jobs or employment.
Theorist John Holland has identified basic personality factors that match with
attitude and work preferences:
 Realistic – This personality types prefers practical tasks, including
those requiring physical labor and motor coordination, and less of
interpersonal skills (e.g. carpentry, driving, etc.).
 Investigation – This prefers tasks that are conceptual such as in the
fields of science and technology as chemist, scientists, technologists,
etc.
 Conventional – This prefers structured tasks that cater to the needs
of others, such as in office jobs and manual labor.
 Enterprising – This prefers independence and innovation in business
and other enterprises that reflect autonomy and personal initiative.
 Artistic – This prefers unstructured tasks that show ability for self-
expression such as from artists, musicians, and performers.
Adolescents may also show capability for multitasking, later on

becoming professionals such as doctors who are at the same time business
entrepreneurs. Early on adolescents may show abilities for gainful work, later
on becoming self-supporting in college, by entering the service sector as fast-
food employees, sales clerks, office messengers, and utility personnel.
These adolescent attitudes and abilities demonstrate:
 Self-Reliance – working independently without stress;
 Money Management – not spending money on luxuries, much less
on alcohol and drugs;
 Social Responsibility – cooperation and respect for others including
superiors;
 Mature Work Orientation – pride in work and quality of work;
 Personal Responsibility – assuming tasks independently and
competitively; and
 Positive Attitude to Work – work is seen as a gainful and
wholesome activity and not a burden.
Manila)
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APPLICATION
1. Comment on Piaget’s and Siegler’s theories by identifying situations where

their insights were applicable to you.
Applications which proved the

Theories
theories to be applicable
Piaget’s operational thinker:

 Thinking the possible but
unseen
 Thinking out our bias
 Exploring solutions
Siegler’s information processing skills
 Increased thinking speed
 Increased complexity
 Increased volume
2. Share your thoughts on the following……

a. What were the improvements of your thought patterns during
adolescence comparing these with those of your elementary school
days?
b. How does cognitive development among teens relate to how they think
about (i) relationship with parents (ii) school authority figures such as
teachers and administrators (iii) social relationship with the opposite
sex?
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read other articles from Web sites related to theories of cognitive
development during adolescence. Do these theories add to Piaget’s and
Siegler’s theories? What do you think of the quantitative theory approach that
states that the adolescents’ cognitive improvement is relatively sudden and
drastic? By the time individuals have reached age 15 or so, their basic thinking
abilities are comparable to those of adults. Improvements occur in 5 areas
during adolescence:
1. Attention. Improvements are in selective attention, the process by
which one focuses on one stimulus while tuning out another. Divided
attention, the ability to pay attention to two or more stimuli at the
same time, also improves.
2. Memory improvements are seen in both working and long-term
memory.
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3. Processing speed. Adolescent think more quickly than children.
Processing speed improves sharply between age five and middle
adolescence. It begins to level off at age 15 and does not appear to
change between late adolescence and adulthood.
4. Organization. Adolescents are more aware of their thought
processes and can use mnemonic devices and other strategies to
think more efficiently.
5. Metacognition. Adolescent psychology studies show that
adolescents reach a stage of social perspective-taking in which they
can understand their own thoughts and behavior, as well as those of
other persons they influence.
Studies since 2005 indicate that the brain is not fully formed until the late
twenties.
Directions: Make a reflection paper (Arial, 11; 1.5 spacing; one long bond
paper only). Kindly follow this format (supported with
references/theory/journals).
REFLECTION NO.
(Title)
Submitted by : JUAN DELA CRUZ Date: ________
a…………;
b……….; and
c………….
Closure
Great job! You are now ready to learn more in the succeeding lessons.
We encourage you to write a reflection about this lesson. Have fun and happy
learning!
264
Introduction
During adolescence, the teen develops social cognition in the context of
family structure, the school, the community, and media. He/She also manifests
emotions which need to be regulated for success in school as well as for his/her
own emotional well-being.
In the classroom, the teacher has the mandate for creating a positive
learning environment, while facilitating the students’ sound moral judgment.
This lesson will describe the adolescent age trend in social behavior as
the student interacts with the school, the community and the larger social
environment.
Learning Outcomes
 describe the socio-emotional changes in adolescents;
 describe how self-image develops among teens;
 discuss causes and solutions to socio-emotional problems of
teenagers such as gender and identity, autonomy and
attachment, peer group, friendships, dating, juvenile delinquency,
depression and suicide;
 present an abstract of a recent research related to socio-
emotional development of adolescents; and
 draw implications of these socio-emotional developmental
concepts to high school teaching-learning and parenting.
ACTIVITY
You may share your experiences in high school and recall activities
which showed socio-emotional change: e.g. partying, intimate friendship
with same sex or opposite sex, etc. and how these provided learning in your
socio-emotional growth: Write briefly the experience and learning:
Experiences during Teen Years SOCIO-EMOTIONAL GROWTH

Learnings along self-knowledge,
self-identity, social relationship
etc.
1. Partying
2. Keeping intimate friends, same or

opposite sex
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3. Others….
ANALYSIS
Kindly write your own insights on the following statements:
1. What do you think makes adolescent differ from those who have not yet
reached the age of puberty?
2. What social activities do you think are (i) good for teens (ii) not good or
that prevents socio-emotional growth?
3. As a future teacher, what would be your attitude to teens in your class?
ABSTRACTION
Human emotions
Generally, emotions are commonly known as human feelings that are
manifested by varied conscious or unconscious moods. A more accurate
description is that it is a subjective reaction to internal and external stimulus that
involves physical change, action or appraisal. Thus, the child reacts inner
hunger for food or comfort from surrounding environment. The unique patterns
of emotions are (i) event that is strong or important (ii) physiological changes in
heart pulse rate, brain activity, hormone levels and body temperature (iii)
readiness for action often described as “fight or flight” (iv) dependence of the
emotion on how the stimulus is appraised or interpreted.
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Biologists view that the part of the body which controls emotional
reactions is the automatic nervous system connected most of the glands and
muscles in the body. The system has two parts: the sympathetic part which
excites or arouses and the parasympathetic part which depresses body
functions. These parts coordinate for arousal or slowing down amid the
challenges of life.
Positive and negative emotions

Emotions function by focusing attention, motivating and enabling the
individual to face a situation in life or withdraw and run away from it. Positive
emotions like interest and joy motivate the individual to continue his/her
behavior. On the other hand, negative emotions may cause withdrawal from
what may be perceived as bad or dangerous. For Charles Darwin there are six
basic emotions, namely interest, joy/happiness, sadness, anger, disgust and
fear. Other scientists expanded the list to include love, pride, hope, gratitude,
compassion, jealousy and anxiety.
Social emotions
Social emotions start to emerge as early as the toddler years (15-24
months) comprised by such feelings as envy, embarrassment, shame, guilt and
pride. Observable emotions during these years may not be accurate, but they
can be a problem if not controlled. Even among early learners, emotions affect
learning, since learners pay more attention to things with emotional
significance. Emotions can also recognize recall, such that learners tend to
remember details of emotionally strong experiences. In time, emotional
competence can be developed by the child and this means he/she gains the
ability to regulate emotions and understand the emotions of other people.
Girls are more skilled in regulating emotions, but they are more likely
than boys to be anxious, and twice as likely to be depressed. Adolescent girls
are more likely than boys to have both negative and positive interactions with
family and friends.
Adolescents especially feel stress, usually from relationships with
parents, friends, sweethearts, also from pressure of school work. Thus,
adolescents are stereotyped as moody and negative, poor emotion control.
Some studies argue against stereotyping adolescent pointing at other emotions
among teen such as feeling bored, tired, sleepy, social discomfort like
awkwardness and loneliness. Generally, adolescents are seen to tend to
emotions from social evaluation such as feeling embarrassed when being
looked at, also only fairly happy most of the time. Other observations are that
most adolescents are not moody, while some are frequently angry, anxious or
sad. An important lesson for school teachers: you should not simply dismiss
emotional negativity as a normal phase, but should address the needs of
teenagers who are chronically unhappy or moody.
267
The adolescent and social media
On the present-day profusion of media, the adolescent has easy access

to the culture of various media and social media, inclusive of computers, cell
phones, video games, music iPods, FM radio and cable television. Almost all
household have television sets and about three-quarters of adolescents’ homes
have access to the Internet. The total media exposure of the whole populace
has greatly increased, even as adolescents have the highest rates of use of
video games, texting, social networking through Facebook, and portable
gadgets for music, mobile communication and virtual reality games.
Findings indicate that electronic communication negatively affects
adolescents’ social development. As face-to-face communication is replaced,
social skills are impaired sometimes leading to unsafe interaction with those
who use social media to exploit others financially or sexually. Girls are
particularly vulnerable to online socializing, while boys socializing in Internet
cafes lower their academic work and achievement. Socially insecure teens
become victims rather than beneficiaries of the modern gadgets’ innovation of
the digital age.
Implication to adolescent care education and parenting

The overall implication is that emotional skills influence the adolescent
learner’s success in class work. Learners who are able to regulate their
emotions tend to be happier, better liked and better able to pay attention and
learn. Interventions by the teacher and the school can reduce learner’s
emotional distress, while raising test scores and grades. The teacher plays a
most important role in promoting positive changes for the adolescent. As the
teen is susceptible to peer pressure, the negative influence in social media,
drug use and addiction, early romantic sexual adventurism, the teacher and the
school can conduct interventions to assist the youths with focus on risky and
inappropriate behavior while promoting positive development among
adolescents. (Reading Resource: Corpuz, Lucas, Borado, Lucido, 2018. The
Child and Adolescent Learners and Teaching Principles, Lorimar Publishing
House, Inc. Manila)
APPLICATION
1. You may search/watch demonstration/performance in YouTube that display

varied emotions through:
a. dance
b. pantomime (dramatic movement without words)
c. short skit
d. song
268
2. Choose which activity was:
a. most artistic,
b. most effective, and
c. most inspiring.
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Research on a topic related to socio-emotional development of
adolescents. Then write the problem, findings, conclusions and
recommendations.
Closure
features of the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of high
school learners. For now, we encourage you to write a reflection journal to
relate the concept of maturation of feelings and growth of self-image to what
you see as the best theory on human emotions. Have fun to share your life’s
269
Learning Outcomes
emotional development of adolescents; and
adolescents.
SYNTHESIS
Give a summary of the key characteristics of adolescents’
KEY FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENTS
The Pedagogical Principles as Applied to Adolescents’ Learning and

Development
ADOLESCENTS by filling out the table below. You may choose only one
principle that is relevant.
Manila)
270
LEARNER-CENTERED PRINCIPLE IN THE TEACHING-LEARNING
PROCESS OF ADOLESCENTS
Cluster 1 – Principle referring to What is an application of this principle
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors in the teaching-learning process of
adolescents?

principle here).
What is an application of this principle

Cluster 2 – Principle referring to in the teaching-learning process of
Motivational and Affective Factors adolescents?

principle here).

Development and Social Factors adolescents?

principle here).

Individual Differences Factors adolescents?

principle here).
271
Closure
Hurray!! You made it successfully! We are really happy and we
appreciate all your efforts and hard work in this course pack. May it become an
instrumental tool in passing all your undertakings as a future teacher. Thank
you very much for studying. God Bless you!
Module Summary
You really accomplished these following adolescence (the high school
learner), physical development of high school learners, cognitive development
of high school learners. socio-emotional development of high school learners
and synthesis of the physical, cognitive and socio- emotional development of
high school learners.
You may answer your worksheets and prepare to compile your case
portfolio including your final simple action research.
Course Summary
We are excited to see your case portfolio in this course. May you be
empowered and capacitated in all learnings you gained. It will help you ready
to take your licensure examinations for teacher. The trust and confidence you
have now is enough that we can make it in the BLEPT, but please remain
humble in all your undertakings. Congratulations!!!
272
Module 1 – Human Development: Meaning and Concepts and Approaches
1. DO the following to ensure mastery of the big ideas presented in this Module.
a. Give the meaning of human development
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
2. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.
Patterns of development.
a. The direction of growth following the cephalocaudal pattern is from the
___________________ to the _________________________.
b. The direction of growth following the proximodistal pattern is from
_______________________ to the _________________________.
3. Differences between the traditional and life-span approaches to human development.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4. Characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective.
Characteristics
of human
development
273
5. In one sentence, write the characteristic of human development expressed in this Venn
diagram.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________
6. Discuss the meaning of the quotations written beneath the title of these Unit and
Module. Relate the quotation to your life. Child care, education and parenting.
Socioemotional
processes
Cognitive Biological
processes processes
7. Put a check before a correct statement and an X before a wrong one. If you put X,
explain why.
_____ 1. Development is a pattern of change
_____ 2. Development is either growth or decline.
_____ 3. From both traditional and life-span perspectives development is lifelong.
_____ 4. In the development process, there are things that hold true to all people.
_____ 5. Individuals develop uniformly.
_____ 6. Development id predictable because it follows an orderly process.
_____ 7. Development is unidimensional.
_____ 8. Development takes place in a vacuum.
_____ 9. The effect of biological process development is isolated from the effect of
cognitive and socioemotional processes.
274
Module 1 – The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
Put a Check (/) beside those statements that are correct and an (x) beside those that
are wrong. If your answer is an x, explain why.
______ 1. Developmental tasks are only for the first stages of human development.
______ 2. Failure of achieving developmental tasks in an earlier stage also means
failure for the learner to master the developmental task in the next stage.
______ 3. Preschool age corresponds to early childhood stage.
______ 4. Adolescence is middle and late childhood stage.
______ 5. Teenage is middle childhood.
______ 6. Mastery of fundamental skills is a major concern during early childhood.
______ 7. Play is a great need of children in middle childhood.
______ 8. Preparing children for school readiness is the major concern of middle
childhood.
Module 1 – Issues on Human Development

Complete the sentence.
1. With regard to the nurture-nature, continuity-discontinuity and change-stability
controversies, the wiser stand is
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
As far as our discussions are concerned, which statement is correct and which one is wrong?
Put a check ( / ) before the correct statement and mark (x) the wrong one. If you mark a
statement (x), explain why.
_______ 1. Heredity exerts a greater influence on human development than environment
_______ 2. What has been experienced in the earlier stages of development can no longer
be changed.
_______ 3. From the perspective of life-span developmentalist, laterexperiences are the key
determinants.
275
Module 1 – Research in Child and Adolescent Development
Write T if the statement is CORRECT and F if the statement is WRONG.
______ 1. Quality research adheres to the scientific method.
______ 2. For research on child and adolescent development to serve its ultimate purpose,
researchers must be governed by ethical principles.
______ 3. Which research design and date-gathering technique to use has nothing to do
with the nature of the research problem and objective/s of the research.
______ 4. Teachers are both producers of knowledge when they conduct research and are
consumers or end users of knowledge when they utilize research findings to improve
instruction.
______ 5. Research has a transformative effect on teachers’ self-understanding and on their
classroom practice. It enables teachers to develop a better understanding of themselves,
their classrooms, and their practice through the act of reflective inquiry.
Module 3 – Pre-Natal development

1. Here are 3 boxes for you to write the stages of pre-natal development.
276
2. Give some hazards of pre-natal development. Use the given graphic organizer.
Prenatal
Development
– Zygote,
Embryo, Fetus
Module 4 – Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers

1. Which statement on physical development of infants and toddlers is TRUE? – Analysis
The cephalocaudal growth patterns shows ______________________________.
A. development of the upper limbs before the lower limbs
B. development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs
C. simultaneous development of the upper and lowers limbs
D. development of muscular control of trunk and arms before the fingers
2. As a normal infant and toddler, which physical development did you go through? –
Application
A. Development of motor skills from the body outward to the center
B. Development of motor skills from the center of the body outward
C. Development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs
D. Simultaneous development of the limbs and trunk body
277
3. Which factor according to research can impede the physical development of infants
and toddlers? – Understanding
A. Depressed environment
B. Early brain stimulation
C. Being the only child
D. Being a member of a big family
4. For healthy physical development of a toddler which should parents do? – Application
I. Encourage your child to sit when eating
II. Encourage free play as much as possible to develop motor skills
III. Check toys for loose or broken parts.
A. II and III
B. I and III
C. I, II
D. I, II, and III
278
References:
Borado, Corpuz, Lucas, Lucido.(2018). The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principle. Lorimar Publishing Co. Inc. Manila.
Bilbao, Corpuz, Llagas, Salandanan.(2015). . Child and Adolescent
Development .Lorimar Publishing Co. Inc. . Manila.
Bilbao, Corpuz, Llagas, Salandanan.(2010). Child and Adolescent
Development. Lorimar Publishing Co. Inc. Manila.
USeP Student Handbook
Additional References:
Module in Educ. 111

Paul, Anie Murphy. “ How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of your Life”
Time Magazine. 4 October 2010, Vol. 176. No.4
Sanler, Layren. “ Te Only Child Myth”, Time Magazine. 19 July 2010, Vol. 176
No. 3
On- line Sources:
http:// www.cdipage.com/development.htm
http:/www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1980/5/80.05.03.xhtml#f
http:www.squidoo.com/folicacidpregnant
http:// www.cdipage.com/development.htm
http:// en.wikipedia.org.wiki/Maternal_age_effect
http:// www. Mamashealth.com/child/inreflex.asp
http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development#
Sensorimotor_stage
http:// psychology/jrank.org
279

COURSEPACK IN EDUC. 111 - THE CHILD and ADOLESCENT LEARNERS and LEARNING PRINCIPLES

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COURSEPACK IN EDUC. 111 - THE CHILD and ADOLESCENT LEARNERS and LEARNING PRINCIPLES

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1

Hello everyone! Welcome to this module for EDUC.111(The Child and

Name : ALEX LEONORA

Name :MARICEL A. PALOMATA

For academic concerns : (College/Adviser - Contact details)

For administrative concerns : (College Dean - Contact details)

For UVE concerns : (KMD - Contact details)

Cover page ………………………………… 1

Welcome Message ………………………………… 2

Table of Contents ………………………………… 3-4

USeP Vision, Mission and Goals …………………. 5

USeP Graduate Attributes ………………………… 6

USeP Core Values ……………………………….... 6

Course Overview ………………………………… 7

Course Assessment ………………………………. 8-17

Course Map ………………………………… 18

Module 1 Overview ………………………………… 19

The Lessons ………………………………… 20-49

Module 2 Overview ………………………………. 50

Lessons in Module 2………………………………. 51-104

Module 3 Overview ………………………………. 105

Lessons in Module 3………………………………. 106-119

Module 4 Overview ………………………………. 120

Lessons in Module 4………………………………. 121-165

Module 5 Overview ………………………………. 166

Lessons in Module 5………………………………. 167-202

Module 6 Overview ………………………………. 203

Lessons in Module 6………………………………. 204-224

Module 7 Overview ………………………………. 225

Lessons in Module 7………………………………. 226-247

Lessons in Module 8………………………………. 249-272

Worksheets ………………………………………… 273-278

References ……………………………… 279

Premier Research University in the ASEAN.

USeP shall produce world-class graduates and relevant research and

At the end of the plan period, the University of Southeastern Philippines

1. Recognized ASEAN Research University

Creates and inspires positive changes in the organization; exercises

CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL THINKING SKILLS

Demonstrates creativity, innovativeness, and intellectual curiosity in optimizing

Demonstrates concern for others, practices professional ethics, honesty, and

Demonstrates enthusiasm and passion for continuous personal and

Demonstrates proficiency and flexibility in the area of specialization and in

CORE VALUES OF THE UNIVERSITY

COURSE TITLE : EDUC. 111-The Child and Adolescent

 Demonstrate understanding of supportive learning environments that

 Demonstrate understanding of research-based knowledge in child and

Learning Evidence and Measurement Rubrics

Biographical Case  . You are required to write a Biographical

Area to Assess Performance Standards

Relevance 26-30 21-25 16-20 11-15

Analysis 21-25 16-20 11-15 6-10

Self-Criticism 16-20 11-15 6-10 1-5

Final Score 100

Areas to Assess Performance Standards

Clear Organization 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30

Visually Appealing 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30

Mechanics Case presentation has Student's case presentation has

Welcome my dear students! We are going to explore a very interesting

 identify basic concepts, approaches and meaning of human

 discuss the differences between the traditional and life-span approach

 describe the developmental tasks in each developmental stage; and

 come up with a short/initial biographical case analysis.