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Subject PSYCHOLOGY

Paper No and Title Paper No.8 Cross Cultural Psychology

Module No and Title Module No.29: Overview of Acculturation

Module Tag PSY_P8_29

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Learning Outcomes
2. Meaning and nature of Acculturation
3. Related terms
4. Historical Background
5. Acculturation contexts
6. Nature of Group Contact
7. Models of acculturation
8. Level of acculturation
9. Assessing Acculturation
10. Concluding Comments
11. Summary

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.8 : Cross Cultural Psychology

MODULE No. 29 : Overview of Acculturation
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1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to

 Know the concepts of acculturation

 Learn the historical development of concept
 Identify models of acculturation

2. Meaning and Nature of acculturation

Acculturation is a dual process of psychological and cultural change (Berry, 2006) that occurs
when an ethnic group settles with non- ethnic group for some period of time. At an individual
level, this process highlights psychological change. Since an individual in new contexts, as a
result of contact, exhibit behavioral and attitude change within oneself. It is a form of re-
socialization whereby immigrants are exposed to new ways of thinking and acting- new beliefs,
values; attitude etc. At a group level, it is a cultural change. Since the group is exposed to new
customs, values, associations and institutions, the group acquires and associates oneself with the
culture of another group. Generally speaking, the kind of cultural change will impact both parties-
natives and inhabitants, those who were already settled in context and the second are the migrants
who were motivated to be settled in new context. This form of cultural change is relatively for a
long term. It is a process of change that occurs when individuals with different culture interact
with other and share common geographical space.

Indeed, the process of acculturation had instilled interest in various social scientists including
sociologists, anthropologists and psychologists especially. Thus, various definitions had been
formulated by various theorists from across disciplines to highlight the meaning of this construct.

Few definitions that formulate acculturation in timeline are:-

Acculturation comprehends those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having
different cultures comes into the continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the
original culture patterns of either or both groups. (Redfield, Herskovits, and Linton, 1936).

Social Science Research Council (1957) defined acculturation is culture change initiated by the
conjunction of two or more autonomous cultural systems. Acculturative change may be the
consequence of direct cultural transmission; it may be derived from non-cultural causes, such as
ecological or demographic modification induced by an impinging culture, it may be delayed, as
with internal adjustments following upon the acceptance of alien traits or patterns; or it may be a
reactive adaptation of transitional modes of life.

These two formulations brings out important points into the discussion- a) culture change may be
caused due to direct or indirect contact between two cultures and b) The change may occur in
two intensity- delayed( slowly and steadily over the years) and reactive- means rate of change
and adaptation within other culture is fast.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.8 : Cross Cultural Psychology

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Gordon (1964) defined acculturation as the adoption of the

cultural norms and behavioural patterns of the majority group (core group).

Gans(1999) defined acculturation as” the newcomers adoption of the culture, that is, the
behavior patterns or practices, values, rules, symbols, and so forth, of the host society(or rather
an overly homogenized and reified conception”.

Definitions proposed by Gans (1999) and Gordon (1964) emphasizes the unidirectional model of
cultural change whereby, the immigrants adopt the culture of migrated society may be forcefully
or voluntarily to create uniformity in the society. Indeed, the first two definitions especially the
first one emphasizes that culture change is bidirectional process.

Organista, Marin and Chun (2010) attempted to propose a holistic definition of the term
acculturation. They defined “Acculturation is a dynamic and multidimensional process of
adaption that occurs when distinct cultures come into sustained contact. It involves different
degrees and instances of culture learning and maintenance that are contingent upon individual,
group, and environmental factors.
They further clarified “Acculturation is a dynamic because it is a continuous and fluctuating
process and it is multidimensional because it transpires across numerous indices of psychosocial
functioning and can result in multiple adaptation outcomes.”

Finally few features we derive from the above definitions about the term “acculturation” are:-

a) It is a form of cultural change that come as a result of group contact.

b) It is bidirectional process- whereby both culture, came in contact, affects each other.
c) Change is manifested through espousal of beliefs, values or norms.
c) It seems to be a long- term and continuous process.
d) It is multidimensional process of personal development.
e) Individuals undergoing acculturation process may acquire different strategies to adapt in other
cultures.

3. Related terms
Cultural assimilation, cultural integration and cultural incorporation- These terms
had been synonymously used in place of acculturation by sociologists and anthropologists.
However, “assimilation, Integration and incorporation” are terms that emphasize the” ethnic
group becomes part of formal and non-formal ethnic associations of the host society’s in non-
ethnic group”. Thus, these terms are used for culture change of an ethnic group in new culture. In
contrast, acculturation is observed to be seen as process of culture change at an individual level.
Thus, the major difference between acculturation and “cultural assimilation, cultural integeration,
and cultural incorporation” is the latter terms are used to refer a group process while acculturation
refers to an individual process.

The term “incorporation” highlights the participation of an individual in society- Vis a Vis right
to vote, cultural activities, meetings and being part of association. This incorporation reflects
“civic incorporation” of the individuals.

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The term “assimilation” is often used by sociologists .There are different forms of assimilation
advocated by sociologists. Milton (1964) proposed the term of “structural assimilation” whereby
stress was maintained on integrating the immigrants structurally i.e. physically in primary groups
like associations, clubs, and society etc.

Foner (1999) offered an alternative expression for culture change as “segmented assimilation”.
“Segemented assimilation is the process of assimilation into a particular social segment ranging
from the middle to the lower classes”. He clarified segmented assimilation does not emphasize
complete internalization of values, beliefs and attitude of dominant group. Rather, significantly
there is the blend of two cultures – that creates another form of cultures within the immigrants.
One of the groundbreaking research that throw light on this process of “creation of new culture”
was done by Thomas and Znaniecki (1918) on Polish Americans.

4. Historical Background
In an early development of the work in acculturation, politician and social scientists enshrined the
term “E Pluribus Unum {“out of many” one}. It was emphasized that politicians and social
scientists expected immigrants to subdue their values, beliefs, and lifestyle and become as “one”
–from the host society.

Indeed, one can trace back the research on acculturation during the late eighteen centuries for
instance in writings of (Holmes, 1886; Boaz, 1896; McGee, 1898) however they used different
name to explain this phenomena. For instance – McGee (1998) used “piratical acculturation” and
“amicable acculturation – to explain transfer of customs from lower grade to higher grade.

Later works in nineteenth century- -Margaret Mead (1932) wrote ”The Changing Culture of an
Indian Tribe”; Monica Hunter Wilson (1936) worked on Reaction to Conquest, describing
repercussion of contacts among the Pondo and other natives of South Africa. Lowie’s (1935) did
an intensive study of Crow Indian culture of the buffalo period emphasized the processes of
acculturation. Few other studies includes -Herskovits (1927), Lesser (1933), Redfield (1929),
Schapera (1934), and Spier (1935) showed significance of acculturation.

However, the work done in eighteen and nineteen century was really limited and psychologists
neglected the work on acculturation till twentieth century.

5. Acculturation Context
Studies have been done to find out the factors that facilitate the process of acculturation. Berry,
Poortinga, Segall, and Dasen (2002), highlighted five aspects of acculturational contexts that
facilitate process of acculturation: a) two original cultures (A and B), the two ethno cultural
groups ( A’ and B’), and the nature of their contact and interactions.

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a) Two culture A and B- in which A refers to the original culture and B refers to the culture
in which one plans to settle.
b) As both come in contact especially the migrant from a culture- lot of transformation,
substitution and reformation of its own culture may happen. Studies indicate that there is
a continuum of change happening. It is rarely seen that there is no change or complete
transformation of culture. Therefore an ethno cultural group is created which the blend of
A- prior culture and B posterior culture. It may refer to an A’ and B’.
c) Finally the nature of their contact and interactions may have following factors that will
affect acculturation:

1. Degree of voluntariness- If the migrants have voluntarily wished to be a part of

the culture- this form of motive is a positive motive. The migrants are “pulled”
towards that culture. In such cases, acculturation may be less stressful and the
positive strategies may be acquired by the migrant. Contrary, if the migrants were
“pushed” towards a particular culture, they have negative motives against the
culture, they may not acculturate themselves to that culture (Berry, Kim, Minde,
& Mok, 1987).

2. The context in which migrants’ plans to settle will also affect the acculturation
process. In plural society, acculturation process happens far better than the
society which believes in unicultural ideology (Berry & Kalin, 1995).

In fact, an individual undergoing acculturation process passes through four stages before
integrating oneself in the new society or culture (Eckes, Mary, Law & Barbara 2000). The first
stages is of the Initial enthusiasm which involves eagerness, anxiety about the future, and feeling
of optimism for being in a new country with new opportunities. Second stages consist of the
culture shock which the newcomers have to face due to a total change in the surroundings. In this
stage the newcomers may experience confusion, misunderstandings, feel depressed or isolated.
All this happens due to a complete shift of situations and conditions for the newcomers.
After surpassing the second stage successfully, then comes the third stages which is recovery that
involves the newcomers to have a better approach towards situations and feel less anxious. The
final stage thereafter comprises of integration whereby the newcomers are able to associate
themselves well with the new found place and culture. They are able to value both old and the
new cultures. The psychological distress and anxiety about adjusting in a new surrounding gets
eliminated and the people settle in their new habitat with their emotional equilibrium and trust
restored.

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1.Initial 2.Culture
Enthusiam Shock

3.Recovery 4.Integration

Figure 33.1 showing stages of acculturation process adapted by (Eckes, Mary, Law & Barbara
2000)

6. Nature of group contact

Berry (2004) had summarized the nature of group contact in a framework; whereby he compared
group contact in ethnic relations and acculturation. According to Berry (2004), the process of
group contact in acculturation and ethnic relations begin with similar political, historical and
economic context. However, there are differences in the nature of group contact in acculturation
as compared to ethnic relations.

Individuals undergoing acculturation formulate their attitude by either shedding or learning the
cultural ethos of the previous or present culture respectively. As a result, changes in behavioral
repertoire are observed and individuals either identify with both or any one culture strongly.
Thus, it depends on the level of identifications with both or either one of the cultures, that the
individual will exhibit stress or harmony.

In contrast, nature of group relations emphasizes the stereotypes, the prejudice and the attitude
change that the groups formulates for the other group. The level of discrimination and security
that individual feels for other culture will guide the outcome.
Interestingly, the outcome of the acculturations and ethnic relations are similar- as the individual
undergoing acculturation or groups encountering ethnic contact either show harmony or exhibit
stress in there relations. Within the acculturation process- the individuals observe

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Figure 33.2. Shows nature of group contact: and the processes ( Berry, 2004)

7. Models of Acculturation
Organista, Marin and Chun (2010) had proposed few models of acculturation. These models
draw attention to the nature of acculturation. These model describes processes that an individual
and a group as a whole may undergo during acculturation.
Models of Assimilation
7.1. Unidirectional model of acculturation-
It proposes that the group of people settled in other culture – move away from their origin
towards the group of community that is dominant at that time. They attempt to mimic the other
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culture. Chun, Ball, Organista and Marin (2003) had relegated

these cultural change at one direction and observed some
retention of original aspect of culture is maintained.

7.2. Ethnogenesis:
The process of integrating oneself in other culture and forming one’s own subculture by blending
the values, beliefs of original culture (from where they came from) and majority group( in which
they are living presently) is called ethnogenesis. The term “ethnogenesis” means genesis that is
origin of the new, ethos i.e“culture”. This model shares that immigrants often show such
tendencies of integrating the styles of two cultures, so that they can identify with two groups.
Foner (1999) observed that Jamaican immigrants in United States manifested a blend in
perceiving gender role expectations. As Jamaican men perceive that women are responsible for
home duties and in United States- no such expectations are perceived by the men. The blend of
two styles are maintained which shows the genesis of new style in itself. An amalgamation of two
styles gives birth to the third culture in Jamaican immigrants in United States.

7.3. Emphasis on Individual

One of the models emphasizes that the individual’s response towards each culture will impact the
acculturation process of the immigrants. Berry (2003) had proposed a comprehensive framework
to explain the individual’s reaction towards maintaining one‘s own culture and acquiring the
attitude of other culture can lead to four kinds of responses- assimilation, marginalization,
integration and separation. The following strategies will be discussed in detail in next topic of
acculturative stress and behavioural strategies.

Figure: 33.3 shows Berry’s acculturation model

7.4. The role of social Context

Rambaut and Portes (2001) suggested a different model, which emphasized the social context in
which the immigrants are migrating plays a significant role in acculturation process. Especially in
context of second generation- few factors like human capital, level of discrimination, civic
incorporation of their parents plays an important role. Portes (2001) emphasized that there are
two possible outcomes – if context in which immigration happens is rated positively then it result
in Biculturalism. On the contrary, negative effect of the social context in which the first
generation is living might result in downwards assimilation.

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7.5. Biculturalism
It is the positive outcome of the acculturation. This model emphasizes immigrants acquire
knowledge of two cultures and identify, incorporate and attain proficiency in language, customs
and beliefs of both cultures. The process of adapting with two culture is called Biculturalism.
Few studies that paid special attention on the process of biculturalism are by Buriel and Saenz
(1980); Lafromboise, Coleman and Gerton (1999);Szapocznic and Kurtines (1980).

Figure 33.4.: acculturation model

Few characteristics noticeable in bicultural individual are:

Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martinez, (2000) observed bicultural individual gain proficiency in
both the languages. They exhibit flexible cognitive style as they can switch from one cultural
framework to another. Laframboise et. al (1993) observed that bicultural individual show better
psychological well-being than monoculture individual. They attain stable sense of identity and
show positive affect for both the cultures. Bicultural individuals acquire physical and mental
health and outperform academically and vocationally better in comparison to monoculture peers.

7.6. Enculturation
Soldier (1985) observed phenomenon of enculturation, especially with the third generation of the
immigrants. He stated “Individuals who endeavor to learn or affirm their culture of origin are
often described as undergoing a process of enculturation”. Such phenomenon was noticed within
third generations of migrants’ population (Hansen, 1952).In a research study with Irish
Americans and Italian American, the third generation as compared to first generation exhibited
greater sense of belonging towards their own original culture rather than migrated cultures
Goering (1971).
Indeed, the level of change was observed to be at a superficial level (Marin, 1992) – eating,
dressing and life style changes, kind of media they prefer, script they follow and so on. However,
studies indicated that the level of change and resurgence for one’s own original culture is much
deeper than observed. Zimmerman, Ramirez-Valles, Washienko,Walter, and Dyer ( 1996) did a
research study on Americans Indian in which they measured the sense of pride and urge to gain
knowledge about one’s own culture and tradition. The American Indian show high level of
involvement in their traditions (fasting, prayesrs etc.) customs and exhibited greater sense of
pride for their original culture.

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8. Level of acculturation
Berry (2004) shared that there are two processes that is inherent in the process of acculturation.
Cultural shedding is the process of gradual elimination of acquired values and customs. Cultural
learning is the process in which individual undergoes acculturation, acquires new symbols and
signs of “migrated culture”. However, no individual can totally be acculturated or unaccultuterd.
There is a continuum of acculturation- this brings rise to the concept of “level of acculturation”.

Marin (1992) proposed three different levels of acculturation. As per Figure 33.4 illustrates three
level of acculturation includes – superficial level, intermediate level and basic level in hierarchy
in a descending order. These levels are differentiated on the basis of the range of the level of
significance that an individual owes to symbols of the culture. The lowest level of personal
significant symbols will be easily shed while the strongest symbols will be difficult to remove in
the mindset and behavior of the individuals undergoing acculturation.
These three different levels of acculturation are seen as a result of interaction of various factors
like length of exposure and the personal significance of the behaviors or values.

Superficial level
Low personal significance
learning and forgetting facts and behaviour

Intermediate level
moderate personal significance
language preference ,
ethnicity of friends

Basic level
Individual's core Values
Beliefs in Jusitice , Values of Family

Figure 33.5 showing the Level of acculturation: adapted from Marin (1992)

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9. Assessing acculturation
Researchers have developed various tools, instruments and designs to assess the level of
acculturation. Organista, Marin and Chun (2010) reported that most studies rely on self –
report paper pencil instruments on assessing the levels of acculturation .To name the few, Bi-
dimensional Acculturation Scale for Hispanics (Marín & Gamba, 1996), African American
Acculturation Scale (Landrine & Klonoff, 1996).The questions in the instrument largely include
the report on their preference, values, ethnicity, languages, beliefs and values system. However,
the outcomes of the studies using different measuring instruments in the same cultures, show
variations in their results (Zane & Mak, 2003; Marin & Gaba (1996). These researchers suggested
the variations in outcome were due to the kinds of tools used to measure the levels of
acculturation.
Few limitations observed within the psychological research while studying acculturation. Within
last decades of studies on acculturation- psychologists had followed a static approach to
understand intergroup relations. There had been limited studies that enquire the motivations of an
individual who plans to acculturate. According to Padilla and Perez (2003), this is imperative to
understand the cause and motivation behind acculturation as this will impact the social cognition
of the individuals undergoing acculturation.
Secondly, the theories of acculturation had been generalized across the individuals without
analyzing even the nature of group- race, status and culture they had come from. In thrust, there
had been wrong notion carried across the mindset of the researchers about the process of
acculturation as being uniform in nature.
The scales developed one cover specific domain of behavior.

10. Concluding comments

There is limited research done in the area of acculturation. Since this is an era of globalization,
cultural contact is a natural part of our life style. Largely, all societies had become a melting point
(Park, 1914) and many cultures co-exist, live together and form the development niche for the
generations to come. With times, the concept of acculturation had broadened to those people who
are sojourns (like education, tourism, jobs, business etc. ) to other countries and migrate for a
small period of time. Nevertheless, the research done in this field is not enough and the
methodologies to enquire such a sensitive issue need to be developed by social scientists.

11. Summary
• The process of acculturation has instilled interest in sociologists, anthropologists and
psychologists especially.
• There are four stages of Acculturation: Initial Enthusiasm, Culture Shock, Recovery &
Integration.
• No individual can totally be accultured or unaccultured. There is a continuum of
acculturation which brings rise to the concept of “level of acculturation
• The models of acculturation draw attention to its nature. These model describes processes
that an individual and a group as a whole may undergo during acculturation
• Marin (1992) proposed three different levels of acculturation which include – superficial
level, intermediate level and basic level in hierarchy in a descending order.

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• Researchers have developed various tools, instruments

and designs to assess the level of acculturation
• The theoretical and methodological issues around acculturation includes atleast three
points: a) Motivation of individual who decide to acculturate is not given due
consideration while doing research; b) acculturation is assumed to be a uniform process;
c) finally, assessment procedures used self-inventory that were unidimentsional in nature.
The inventories were not using each aspect of culture change, therefore the researchers
found variations in the outcome of the research within the same cultures.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.8 : Cross Cultural Psychology

MODULE No. 29 : Overview of Acculturation