Journal

H. S. N. C.
University
Kishinchand Chellaram College
Churchgate, 400 020
Department of Psychology
M. A. Psychology
Academic Year 2021-22
MPSY 10 Practical / Field Work Component Psychometrics Testing Practicals
JOURNAL
Submitted by
Simran Bathija
KCMFPSY002
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the work entered in the file is completed by Simran Bathija as a part of the
MA (Part I) Semester I : MPSY 105 Practical / Field Work Component Experimental Psychology
Practicals
University Seat No. :
Date :
Ms. Veena Kumar Mx. Sujay Bhandary
Head of Department Subject Teacher-In-Charge
Stamp of the College
2
INDEX
Sr. Date Title Page No.
No.
I 4
1 Attitude
2 Emotions 52
3 Intelligence 96
4 Motivation 109
5 Personality 172
II Self Designed Scale 186
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Chapter 1: Attitude
Attitudes towards Cannabis consumers in India
Review of Literature
The Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985, also known as the NDPS
Act of 1985 strictly forbids the use, consumption, selling, or distribution of marijuana, weed,
cannabis, and other related substances extracted from the same plant. However, according to a
study by the German data firm ABCD (whose numbers are based on the percentage of
population that has used the substance in the past year estimated by the UN Office of Drugs and
Crime), New Delhi consumed 38.2 tonnes while Mumbai consumed 32.4 tonnes of cannabis,
respectively in 2018 (Sharma, 2019). The same study listed 120 cities ranked by consumption of
weed, New York ranked first, followed by Karachi and Delhi, Mumbai ranked sixth. Evidently,
despite being illegal, the usage of recreational cannabis is far and wide. However, it is still
frowned upon by a lot of people in society and consumers of cannabis face a lot of judgment and
stigmatization. A study was conducted to assess the extent to which and how cannabis users in
different countries with deferring cannabis policies, experience and respond to stigmatization
(Skliamis et al, 2020). The results showed that the lowest level of stigmatization was in the
Netherlands (liberal cannabis policy) and highest in Greece (punitive cannabis policy). Along
with the country, daily consumption of cannabis was also a significant predictor of stigma, but
other factors like age, household type and employment status were not. Through their survey,
they measured three dimensions- discrimination, perceived devaluation and alienation and the
total of these three were used to project the general level of stigmatization. Each dimension had
only two items. For example, for the perceived devaluation dimension, the two items were-
‘Most people believe that someone who uses cannabis is dangerous’ and ‘Most people think that
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someone who uses cannabis is unreliable’. Devaluation could be defined as the reduction or
underestimation of the worth of someone. An individual may view a cannabis consumer as
useless but not dangerous or unreliable. In this case, since the scale is only asking “dangerous”
and “unreliable” by being too specific it can miss capturing other devaluating qualities the
participant may attribute to cannabis smokers. Similarly, the discrimination scale only asked
questions about discrimination from family and friends and not others like employers,
neighbours etc.
Another study was conducted to understand college students' views and experiences with
regards to marijuana, their voting behaviours and their perceptions of the impact legalization
would have (Moreno et al, 2016). College students from Wisconsin and Washington were
interviewed over the phone. Almost half the participants indicated that they voted for marijuana
legalisation and the results were contrary to the previous study as they believed legalization did
not change their attitudes towards marijuana. However, some participants did report that they
perceived the substance as safer if it was legalised. The study relied on self-reporting measures,
which could be a limitation due to social desirability or recall bias. However, the participants
were informed that the study would be confidential in order to allow them to comfortably
express and report their views and behaviours with regards to marijuana.
In Michigan, a study was conducted via computer-assisted telephone interviewing to
examine patterns in public perceptions and attitudes towards marijuana consumption among
adolescents (Resko, 2014). The study assessed (a)whether adults saw marijuana use among
adolescents as a problem, (b) how they view treatment efficacy, (c) how they view consulting
with mental health professionals, and lastly (d) whether they were pro prevention services.
Within the findings, age and substance use were the main factors that determined whether or not
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people discriminated against marijuana consumers. However, there could be sampling biases in
the study as the survey was conducted by randomly dialling digits and calling people, thereby
under-representing individuals who do not have a telephone and only use mobile phones. The
scope of the survey also seems limited as it just presents two situations. The scope could have
been broadened by using a wider range of situations which could include more details about how
much of the substance the consumer is using, since how long they have been a consumer, more
characteristics of the adolescents like their race, age, etc. The study is also limited as it evaluates
attitudes towards 16 year old adolescents and not younger or older than that.
Although as of today the consumption of cannabis for non-medicinal purposes is illegal,
it has been around since time immemorial in India. Ancient Indian scriptures like the Rigveda,
Atharvaveda, Shiva Purana etc. have documented the use of cannabis (Balhara et al, 2020). In
fact, in the earliest written reference to cannabis in India, in the Atharva Veda it has been
described as “a sacred grass” owing to its anxiety relieving properties. There are a lot of shops in
states of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Odisha where sale of cannabis is very common in
government authorised shops known as Bhang Thekas or Bhang Shops (Balhara et al, 2020).
Bhang is not the only way marijuana is being consumed in an edible form, many
cannabis-infused foods like hash brownies, cannabutter etc. are an alternative to smoking or
vaporising cannabis. Since legalisation of marijuana has been rapidly increasing and alternative
forms of smoking marijuana like edibles have been gaining popularity, a six-month long survey
was conducted among 1858 young adults (Reboussin, 2019). The survey examined trends in use
and perceptions of harm along with comparing demographic and behavioural characteristics of
consumers and non consumers by frequency of cannabis users. The results showed that daily
consumers of cannabis were more likely to use all modes of consumption as compared to
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non-edibles consumers. Further, among the non-daily cannabis users, the ones who were edibles
consumers were less likely to smoke marijuana and they perceived greater harm from smoking
marijuana over consuming edibles. However, the accuracy of the study could be questionable as
it relied on self-reporting marijuana consumption which could be under reported.
An article by Motyka et al, 2021, draws attention to how mass culture and the
representations of drug consumption in mass media may influence the attitudes towards masses
towards drugs leading to more liberal opinions. There is a growing representation and
normalisation of drugs by showing it in films, music, clothing etc. Additionally, a lot of
celebrities have vocalised their liberal attitudes and admitted to drug use, which could influence
their fans, especially if they are young and impressionable and idolise the celebrity and aspire to
be like them. Owing to the multiple lockdowns and quarantines that took place because of
Covid-19, a lot of people increased their media intake a lot more, and were also more likely to be
bored and lonely which could increase the chances of consuming substances. A study carried out
by Odhiambo in 2014, examined the influence of scenes of psychoactive drug use observed in
the media on the use of such specifics found associations between these variables: respondents
admitted that viewing mass media content with drug messages influenced their decision to use
these drugs (Motyka et al, 2021). Through OTT platforms, the Indian population has been
exposed to a lot of international films and TV shows where the usage of cannabis is very
normalised. The display of usage of substances like cannabis has percolated into Indian media as
well. However, there are no existent scales to measure attitudes towards cannabis consumers in
India. Besides mass media, social media also plays a large role in forming attitudes. A study was
carried out to characterise representations of codeine misuse by analysing posts on Instagram to
understand text phrases which related to mis-use (Cherian et al, 2018). Results of the study
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showed that the majority of the images depicted codeine combined with soda. Codeine mis-use
was also depicted with the ingestion of alcohol, cannabis and benzodiazepines. Few of the
pictures also highlighted the link between hip-hop culture and codeine mis-use. By glamorising
codeine ingestion with soda and alcohol and integrating it with the mainstream, there is a large
potential for drug use and codeine mis-use to be normalised.
Individuals with substance dependence face a lot of discrimination and stigmatization
which is a complete violation to their dignity and could have serious health impacts (Wogen,
2020). A lot of people with mental health problems also use certain substances as a coping
mechanism. While it may not be a healthy coping mechanism, they face a lot of prejudice and
discrimination which could make their mental health get worse. Stigma has shown to influence
the entire continuum of care for substance users and their problems, including seeking treatment,
the choice of treatment and treatment adherence which could be reduced by policy initiatives like
decriminalising substance use which would thereby reduce discrimination and the stigma
attached to drug usage and dependance (Wogen, 2020). When we stigmatise someone who is a
consumer of cannabis we automatically make assumptions that they are wrong, weak,
untrustworthy, dangerous, unambitious, lazy, or bad. These assumptions reduce a person's worth
and if they are aware of the stigmatisation towards them, it could lead to a lot of shame, guilt,
self-loathing and insecurities.
An article by the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML)
legal counsel states that job discrimination towards marijuana consumers is a very troubling
aspect of the marijuana laws in the United States of America, and is prevalent even in states that
have legalized consuming marijuana (Stroup, 2015). The article further points out the hypocrisy
that the same employers who opt for a “drug-free-workplace”, allowed workers to get drunk in
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the evening and come to work the next morning, while marijuana use even off the job is
considered a disqualifying factor (even in legalised states) despite the substance being consumed
days or weeks earlier. It is also important to consider that Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) which is
the principal psychoactive component of cannabis, remains in the system for days or weeks post
consumption, however, the consumer is impaired for only about 90 minutes after smoking. If
employers do not object to alcohol consumption off the job, technically they shouldn’t object to
off the job marijuana consumption either unless it is directly affecting the employees work
efficiency or performance.
Rationale
Through this study, the aim is to bridge this existing gap by broadening existing scales
like the one devised by Skliamis et al, 2020 in order to understand wider and more valid
interpretations regarding attitudes towards cannabis users and what are the real-life implications
those attitudes could have. This study could also ascertain attitudes towards cannabis consumers
in the Indian context where all though the law prohibits the sale and use of cannabis resin and
flowers, it permits the use of its seeds, stems and leaves. Thus, in festivals like Holi we see
“Bhaang” being consumed freely and openly. It would be interesting to analyse whether attitudes
towards consuming cannabis under religious and cultural contexts differ from regular contexts. It
could also be analysed whether attitudes towards people who consume cannabis in the edible
form differ from those who smoke it. Using a likert-scale to measure attitudes is beneficial as it
provides detailed insights into people’s attitudes and perceptions. It is a user friendly scale as it
does not ask open ended questions where participants have to put in the effort of justifying their
opinion thereby saving their time and making it a quick and easy process.
The measured attitudes towards cannabis consumption could also be an indicator of
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whether there is prejudice, stigmatization and discrimination towards consumers or whether
cannabis consumption is normalized and accepted. It is important to understand the attitudes of
the masses as it can help define what is considered a problem with regards to cannabis
consumption and what advice can be given to given parents and caregivers of people facing these
problems. There is a large literary gap, especially in the modern Indian context with regards to
how people across different age groups perceive cannabis consumption.
Method
Population:
The sample population will consist of 30 participants. 15 participants will be from the age
group 18-30 years and the remaining 15 participants will be from the age group 31-60 years.
Previous research has shown that age has been a determining factor to a large extent regarding
variations in attitudes towards marijuana consumption. Participants will all be residents of the
state of Maharashtra in order to minimise the differences in the kind of exposure they have to the
availability of the substance, to the amount of consumption of the substance around them, to
various forms of media representation and other similar factors.
Variables-
Independent Variable- Consumers of cannabis.
Theoretical Definition- people who consume cannabis (a tall plant with a stiff upright
stem, divided serrated leaves, and glandular hairs) as a recreational drug.
Operational Definition- survey questions regarding attitudes towards consumers of
cannabis.
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Dependent Variable- participants responses to the survey through a likert scale.
Theoretical Definition- a settled way of thinking or feeling about something.
Operational Definition- a five-point likert scale to measure attitudes towards cannabis
users (Ranging between Strongly disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, Strongly Agree)
Control Variables-
● Since cannabis consumption is a controversial topic in India, the survey will be kept
anonymous so that people can be more forthcoming with their true opinions and won’t
give socially desirable responses.
● When the participants mention their age in the beginning of the study, we will also ask
them to disclose whether or not they are consumers of marijuana. The study will try to
have a mix of both marijuana consumers as well as non- consumers.
● The questions in the survey will have an equal positive and negative connotation towards
cannabis consumption in order to prevent a cognitive bias due to directed questions.
Procedure-
The participants will be sent the survey via email or text message. The beginning of the
survey will contain the instructions and will also have a disclaimer that the inputs by the
participants shall remain anonymous. The participants will not be required to put in any details
regarding their name, contact number or email address in order to be free from answering in a
socially desirable and politically correct way. The order of the survey questions will be shuffled
while presented to different participants to maintain a counterbalance just in case any of the
statements cause an attitude shift. Participants will be asked to express their attitudes towards the
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statements on a five-point likert scale (ranging between Strongly disagree, Disagree, Neutral,
Agree and Strongly Agree). At the end of the survey, the participants will get a debriefing
message that will explain the purpose of the survey and once again reassure them that the survey
is completely anonymous.
Statistical Analysis-
Each individual question on the likert scale can be analyzed separately for deeper
insights, however, descriptive statistics can be used to summarize the data collected in order to
present it in a simple numeric or visual form. The answers to each question can be coded into
numbers and then by adding all the numbers we can get overall attitude scores of participants.
The survey shall be administered via google form.
The criteria for selecting the items was that the cut off for the maximum number of items
was 24 (12 positively framed statements and 12 negatively framed statements), and a minimum
of 60% votes.
The validity test employed for the proposed scale is convergent validity which can be
established if two similar constructs correspond with each other. The short form of the Drug
Attitudes Scale (DAS-S) by Barber et. al, shall be administered along with the 24 retained items.
The DAS-S contains 17 items and respondents will be asked to respond to each item with a
number from 1 (“Strongly disagree”) to 6 (‘Strongly agree”).
Item Pool
(Out of 50 questions the survey will have 25 questions with a positive connotation
towards cannabis consumption while the remaining 25 will have a negative connotation in order
to prevent a cognitive bias due to directed questions.)
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The participants will be asked to rate these statements on a likert scale (ranging between
Strongly disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, Strongly Agree) based on their attitudes.
Statements with a negative connotation-
● I refrain from talking to someone if I know they are a user of cannabis.
● I think consumption of cannabis should remain criminalized.
● I think cannabis consumers tend to become lethargic and unambitious over time.
● I would avoid employing a user of cannabis.
● I think cannabis users are a bad influence.
● I think it is unacceptable to consume bhang on Holi.
● I think it is unacceptable to smoke hash or weed.
● I think consumers of cannabis are untrustworthy.
● I think consumers of cannabis are weak.
● I think consumers of cannabis are irresponsible.
● I think consumers of cannabis are unreliable.
● I think consumers of cannabis are unprofessional.
● I think consumers of cannabis are rebellious.
● I think consumers of cannabis are ignorant.
● I think consumers of cannabis are more likely to try hard drugs like cocaine.
● I think consumers of cannabis are reckless.
● I think consuming cannabis dulls people’s personalities.
● I think consumers of cannabis lack foresight.
● I think smoking cannabis is worse than consuming it in an edible form.
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● I think consuming cannabis is worse than consuming alcohol.
● I would feel uncomfortable if my partner was a consumer of cannabis.
● My family would be extremely angry with me and my worth would fall in their eyes if
they found out I am a cannabis consumer.
● I think people who consume cannabis are not healthy.
● I think people who consume cannabis have poor mental health in comparison to non
consumers.
● I refrain from consuming marijuana because it is against my culture.
Statements with a positive connotation-
● I have friends who consume cannabis.
● I think cannabis consumers are more creative.
● I think cannabis consumers are open minded.
● I think an adult should have the autonomy to choose what substances they want to
consume.
● I get along well with cannabis consumers.
● I think consuming cannabis can help people gain new perspectives.
● Consuming cannabis with people helps me form closer bonds with them.
● I find cannabis consumers to be more agreeable in nature as compared to non consumers.
● I find cannabis consumers to be more peaceful as compared to non consumers.
● I think people who consume cannabis are courageous.
● I think people who consume cannabis are fun.
● I think cannabis consumers have a great outlook towards life.
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● I link cannabis with spirituality.
● I think cannabis consumers are people with a curiously bent mind.
● I think under the influence of cannabis people can generate novel and creative ideas and
thoughts.
● I believe consuming cannabis relieves stress and anxiety.
● I would be accepting of a person regardless of the substances they consume.
● I think cannabis consumers are easy-going.
● I think people become more compassionate when they are under the influence of
cannabis.
● I think cannabis consumers are likely to step out of their comfort zone for new
experiences.
● I think occasional consumption of cannabis is acceptable.
● I think cannabis consumption can give you a break from work, stress, problems etc. like
alcohol does.
● I think consumption of cannabis is very widespread and normalized within the younger
generation.
● A lot of successful people I know have admitted to consuming substances like cannabis.
● I think people gain confidence as their inhibitions are lowered on consuming cannabis.
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Results
Coming to the analysis part, the CFI was 0.766 which is average. This study did not
prove to be a good fit, however it was valid. A usual CFI of 0.95 is considered to be a good fit,
and this study missed the mark by a couple points. This form was extensive, with 50 items, and it
could be tedious to fill, leading to fatigue.
IRT
Item
-Wis
e
Item BOT Item Item Item Goo Scor
Code 1 2 3.00 4 5.00 AVG NOP AVG H Info Diff Disc ICC d ICC e
ACCI 44.0 35.0 13.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU TRU
1 18 40 0 0 0 2.9 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
ACCI 50.0 46.0 11.0 3.04 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU TRU
2 18 25 0 0 0 67 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
ACCI 26.0 24.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU
3 26 65 0 0 9.00 2.5 SE E SE E SE E 5 E 3 8
4 21 44 0 0 0 33 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
5 26 41 0 0 9.00 33 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
ACCI 45.0 37.0 10.0 2.87 FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU TRU TRU
6 18 40 0 0 0 33 SE E SE SE E E 5 E 3 8
ACCI 59.0 26.0 17.0 2.98 FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU TRU TRU
7 14 34 0 0 0 67 SE E SE SE E E 5 E 3 8
ACCI 29.0 27.0 22.0 2.81 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU FAL
8 27 45 0 0 0 33 SE E SE E E E 5 SE 3 8
ACCI 24.0 25.0 19.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL
9 56 26 0 0 0 2.5 SE E SE E SE E 5 SE 2 7
ACCI 13.0 FAL FAL FAL TRU FAL FAL FAL
10 73 52 0 6.00 6.00 1.8 SE SE SE E SE SE SE 1 1
16
11 34 42 0 0 0 67 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
ACCI 29.0 31.0 16.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU
12 25 49 0 0 0 2.76 SE E SE E SE E 5 E 3 8
ACCI 22.0 40.0 26.0 3.04 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU
13 23 39 0 0 0 67 SE E SE E SE E 5 E 3 8
ACCI 17.0 30.0 31.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU
14 20 52 0 0 0 3 SE E SE E SE SE 5 E 2 7
ACCI 51.0 39.0 24.0 3.27 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU FAL FAL
15 10 26 0 0 0 33 SE E SE E E SE 0 SE 2 2
ACCI 57.0 32.0 20.0 3.10 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL FAL FAL
16 15 26 0 0 0 67 SE E SE E SE SE 0 SE 1 1
ACCI 27.0 16.0 10.0 2.35 FAL FAL FAL TRU FAL FAL FAL
17 36 61 0 0 0 33 SE SE SE E SE SE 0 SE 1 1
18 5 28 0 0 0 67 SE E SE E E SE 0 SE 2 2
ACCI 37.0 44.0 37.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU FAL FAL
19 5 27 0 0 0 3.54 SE E SE E E SE 0 SE 2 2
20 7 19 0 0 0 67 SE E SE E SE SE 1 SE 1 2
21 5 21 0 0 0 3.38 SE E SE E E SE 2 SE 2 4
22 7 25 0 0 0 67 SE E SE E E SE 1 SE 2 3
ACCI 43.0 45.0 41.0 3.66 FAL TRU FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL
23 6 15 0 0 0 67 SE E SE SE SE SE 1 SE 0 1
24 7 18 0 0 0 33 SE E SE E SE SE 1 SE 1 2
25 7 8 0 0 0 33 SE E SE E SE SE 1 SE 1 2
26 8 10 0 0 0 33 SE E SE E SE SE 1 SE 1 2
27 9 38 0 0 0 67 SE E SE E SE SE 2 SE 1 3
17
28 12 33 0 0 0 33 SE E SE E E SE 0 SE 2 2
ACCI 42.0 21.0 18.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU
29 21 48 0 0 0 2.78 SE E SE E SE SE 4 E 2 6
ACCI 32.0 38.0 19.0 2.94 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU
30 23 38 0 0 0 67 SE E SE E SE SE 5 E 2 7
ACCI 57.0 33.0 16.0 3.04 FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU FAL FAL
31 14 30 0 0 0 67 SE E SE SE E SE 1 SE 1 2
32 10 31 0 0 0 3.18 SE E SE E E SE 0 SE 2 2
33 16 58 0 0 0 67 SE E SE E E SE 1 SE 2 3
34 22 41 0 0 0 67 SE E SE E SE SE 5 E 2 7
35 19 53 0 0 0 67 SE E SE E SE SE 5 E 2 7
ACCI 24.0 10.0 2.05 FAL FAL FAL TRU FAL FAL FAL
36 45 68 0 0 3.00 33 SE SE SE E SE SE SE 1 1
37 19 53 0 0 0 67 SE E SE E SE SE 5 E 2 7
38 12 45 0 0 0 2.92 SE E SE E E SE 2 SE 2 4
39 18 13 0 0 0 3.48 SE E SE E SE E 5 E 3 8
ACCI 44.0 21.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU TRU
40 21 29 0 35 0 3.04 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
ACCI 34.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU TRU
41 28 52 0 27 9.00 2.58 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
42 35 40 0 27 0 33 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
43 26 33 0 38 0 2.9 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
44 11 20 0 44 0 3.32 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
18
45 26 41 0 30 0 33 SE E SE E SE E 5 E 3 8
46 17 19 0 51 0 3.24 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
47 19 26 0 44 0 67 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
48 23 30 0 43 0 67 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
49 17 30 0 46 13 33 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
50 18 18 0 55 21 67 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
1) Item-wise difficulty (item mean) and discrimination indices. Include SD also.
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
2) QQ Plots and Histogram of ACCS total scores
QQ Plot of ACCS Total Scores
44
Histogram of ACCS Total Scores
45
3) Reliability index for validity scale
46
4) Validity index with DAS validity scale.
47
5) CFA Fit Indices
48
Discussion
This study was conducted on an online platform, and the participant had to fill a form that
was administered to them. It is imperative that the instructions given to the participant were clear
and precise, as well as easy to understand. This study was interesting as it looked at the various
cultural biases that exist within our society, and the variety of age ranges that could look at the
same construct in different lights.
This test, even though it proved to be valid, could have had a lower CFI due to the urge
of the participants’ to appear a certain way, thus they could have lied on the test if they were
afraid of how they would be perceived if they answered truthfully. Another aspect of this would
be that due to convenience sampling, most of the test takers were in the 31-60 years age range
were the test users’ parents/family. Therefore, to set a good example to their children they could
have answered the form dishonestly.
49
References
Sharma, N. (2019, September 10). Delhi, Mumbai among world’s biggest consumers of weed.
Quartz. https://qz.com/india/1705970/delhi-mumbai-among-worlds-biggest-consumers-of-weed/
Skliamis, K., Benschop, A., & Korf, D. J. (2020). Cannabis users and stigma: A comparison of
users from European countries with different cannabis policies. European Journal of
Criminology, 147737082098356. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370820983560
Moreno, M. A., Whitehill, J. M., Quach, V., Midamba, N., & Manskopf, I. (2015). Marijuana
experiences, voting behaviors, and early perspectives regarding marijuana legalization among
college students from 2 states. Journal of American College Health, 64(1), 9–18.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2015.1062769
Resko, S. M. (2014). Public Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Adolescent Marijuana Use. SAGE
Open, 4(1), 215824401351805. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013518055
Balhara, Y. P. S., Parmar, A., Modak, T., & Vikram, V. (2020). From “Bhang Shops” to
“Cannabis in Coffee Shops”: Time to Debate the Option? Indian Journal of Psychological
Medicine, 025371762095750. https://doi.org/10.1177/0253717620957501
Reboussin, B. A., Wagoner, K. G., Sutfin, E. L., Suerken, C., Ross, J. C., Egan, K. L., Walker, S.,
& Johnson, R. M. (2019). Trends in marijuana edible consumption and perceptions of harm in a
cohort of young adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 205, 107660.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107660
Motyka, M. A., & Al-Imam, A. (2021). Representations of Psychoactive Drugs’ Use in Mass
Culture and Their Impact on Audiences. International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health, 18(11), 6000. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18116000
Cherian, R., Westbrook, M., Ramo, D., & Sarkar, U. (2018). Representations of Codeine Misuse
on Instagram: Content Analysis. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, 4(1), e22.
https://doi.org/10.2196/publichealth.8144
Wogen, J., & Restrepo, M. T. (2020). Human Rights, Stigma, and Substance Use. Health and
human rights, 22(1), 51–60.
Stroup, K. N. L. C. (2015, August 10). Ending Job Discrimination Against Marijuana Smokers.
NORML.
https://norml.org/blog/2015/08/10/ending-job-discrimination-against-marijuana-smokers/
51
Chapter 2: Emotions
Fear of Missing Out
Fear of Missing Out (FoMO)has been deﬁned as involving two speciﬁc primary
components: a) apprehension that others are having rewarding experiences from which one is
absent, and b) the persistent desire to stay connected with people in one’s social network. The
first component maps onto the cognitive aspect of anxiety (e.g., worry, rumination, etc.). The
latter component involves a behavioural strategy aimed at relieving such anxiety. Currently, this
behavioural component of FOMO most often involves frequent checking of SNS and messaging
services to maintain social connections and avoid missing out on rewarding experiences.
FOMO was first conceptualised using self-determination theory (SDT), which was
developed by Ryan & Deci. Przybylski et al. used it to understand what drives FOMO. SDT
attempts to explain how personality is formed and the psychological needs that drive personality
formation. SDT proposes that intrinsic motivation for reward is essential in promoting mental
health, and that intrinsic motivation is best promoted when one feels socially connected to others.
Therefore, in SDT, social relatedness can drive intrinsic motivation, which in turn can encourage
positive mental health. Przybylski et al. applied SDT to FOMO, proposing that FOMO is a
negative emotional state resulting from unmet social- relatedness needs. The standardised scale
created by Przybylski et al. is used to measure FoMO. The Fear of Missing Out scale contains 10
items on a 5-point Likert scale.
A number of studies have employed this scale to conduct correlational studies and to
understand its interaction with the variable. An experimental approach to FoMO involved an
52
intervention spanning over a certain period of time which resulted in a positive relationship
between social media use and FoMO and anxiety. Restricting social media usage decreased the
levels of loneliness and depression in participants (Hunt and Young,2018). One of the limitations
highlights the inclusion of other social media platforms other than Facebook. Another
correlational study examines the relationship between active and passive social media use,
loneliness, and FoMO, by controlling the effect of depression. A mild significant positive
correlation between depression and FOMO was also studied (Öztürk,Gençoğlu & Kırkgöz,
2020). In relation to the Big-Five traits, indirect and direct effects of social media addiction and
social usage using path analysis.(Hamutoglu et al., 2020, p.248 ) The agreeableness trait had a
positive effect on FoMO while the others did not. Another variable studied is problematic phone
use.(Coskun & Muslu,2019) Using the scales, significant results were obtained for the mean
scores of the mentioned variables. The mean scores on PU and FoMOS were found to have
signifcant differences depending on frequency of social media and phone use. Self-perception
and age are other correlates of FoMO (Barry & Wong, 2020). Across all ages, low self-esteem,
self-compassion and high loneliness were associated with higher levels of FoMO.
Social media fatigue is another variable that has been studied where FoMO acts as the
stressor and whether it triggers depression and anxiety as the outcome.(Dheer, Yossatorn, Kaur &
Chen; 2018)The theoretical framework was the stressor-strain-outcome (SSO) model. One of the
hypotheses- whether FoMO is positively related to social networking site fatigue over time was
not supported. Phone separation and FoMO effect on anxiety levels has been studied where it
was conceptualised as the anxiety caused by missing out on the phone call received.(Mannion &
Nolan,2020)
When studied with psychological well-being, the correlations were found to be
53
moderately strong. In this study, FoMO was seen as a motivating factor to seek social
connection, unlike the rest of the studies.(O’Connell,2020)
It has been established that experiencing FoMO does not necessarily have a negative
impact, it can be instrumental in experiencing positive feelings. (Roberts & David, 2019) tries to
understand the link amongst FoMO and social connectedness through social media intensity
based on the Belongingness Hypothesis and Information Foraging Theory which states that
humans have an innate drive to be in relationships with others. It was found that FoMO is
positively associated with social media intensity, but negatively associated with social
connection.FoMO impacts subjective well-being both directly (negatively) and indirectly
(positively) through its impact on social media intensity and social connection, indicating the
dual nature of FoMO.
Rationale: The existing scale measures FoMO in a way that reflects the feelings
associated with being left out. However, it does not consist of items of any of these correlated
variables. The purpose of this test development is to integrate items related to anxiety caused by
social media use, narrowing the use of social media usage to one platform i.e Instagram.
Method
FoMO has been studied amongst adolescents and adults both. Most of them have been
undergraduate students. Hence,the test shall be administered to people within the age range of
20-25 years. A 5-point Likert scale shall be created where 1 stands for 'Never'; 2 for 'Rarely'; 3
for 'Sometimes'; 4 for 'Often' and 5 for 'Always'. The test shall be administered through Google
Forms.
54
The validity test employed for the proposed scale is convergent validity. Convergent
validity is carried out to understand how the scales are closely related to each other, belonging to
the same construct. For this variable, the FoMO scale developed by Przybylski et al. shall be
administered with the retained items. The Fear of Missing Out Scale contains 10 items. A 5-point
Likert scale ranges from 1-Not at all true for me to 5- Extremely true of me.
Item Pool
Demographics:
Name (Initials)
Age
Email
Consent
Indicate your answers as per the given key
1-Never
2-Rarely
3- Sometimes
4- Often
5-Always
● Do you have more than one account on Instagram?
● On an average, how much time do you spend on it daily?
● I feel left out when I see people uploading stories/posts of their vacations.
● I feel people have better lives than me.
55
● I feel the need to keep up with others.
● I constantly check people's stories and posts.
● I get anxious when I am unable to be a part of my friend's plans.
● I tend to keep tabs on people even when I am preoccupied with something else.
● I get worried if I don't see any activity over a particular period of time.
● I try to maintain my feed and stories
● I take measures to make sure my profile is updated
● I constantly check notifications.
● I feel lonely when I see people having the time of their lives.
● I like to upload stories
● I feel the need to upload everything that happens in my life.
● I like to comment on people's posts and stories.
● I like to go live and talk to people.
● I prefer scrolling through the feed.
● I do not comment on people's stories or posts.
● I do not like people's stories and posts.
● I pay close attention to social media influencers.
● I try to purchase things endorsed by them.
● It makes me unhappy when I am unable to make purchases endorsed by them.
● I pay close attention to celebrities.
● I try to replicate their lifestyle.
● I like to keep tabs on the happenings of public figures.
● I stalk my friends and family to stay updated.
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● My friends and family feel I am constantly engrossed in my phone.
● If I do not get to check my Instagram, it makes me uneasy.
● I need my phone around me at all times.
● I like to check notifications immediately.
● If I am unable to check notifications, it makes me anxious.
● I cannot concentrate on anything after using Instagram for a long time.
● I lose track of time when I am busy on Instagram.
● I spend a lot of time making reels.
● I take efforts to make reels and ask others to do the same.
● I care about how I am perceived online.
● I am conscious about what I upload on the feed
● I spend considerable time making choices about what should be a part of my feed/stories.
● I get affected by negative comments.
● If I am criticised for my pictures, it makes me upset.
● I check my phone first thing in the morning.
● I scroll through the feed before going to bed.
● I am occupied with my phone during meals.
● I become restless when I don't check my notifications.
● I am aware of the latest social media trends.
● I actively try to seek information on recent trends.
● I try to follow these trends even when it's something I have never tried.
● I constantly share and consume content.
● I understand social media references much better than others.
57
Results
Coming to the analysis part, the CFI was 0.75 which is average. This study did not prove
to be a good fit, however it was valid. A usual CFI of 0.95 is considered to be a good fit, and this
study missed the mark by a couple points.
ICC
No. If 3 No.
of of of
sepa mor fulfil IRT-
rate e led base
2.4< d peak IRT d
Item AVG BOT Item IDis peak s crite Scor
No. 1 2 3 4.00 5 AVG NOP <4.1 H Info IDiff c s >0.4 ria es
FOM 17.0 FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU TRU FAL
1 30 25 48 0 3.00 2.50 SE E SE SE E E 3 SE 2 5
FOM 22.0 FAL TRU FAL FAL FAL TRU FAL
2 28 29 38 0 6.00 2.59 SE E SE SE SE E 5 SE 1 6
FOM 23.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU TRU
3 23 38 33 0 6.00 2.60 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
4 31 37 28 0 9.00 2.49 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
FOM 15.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU FAL
5 29 34 39 0 6.00 2.47 SE E SE E E E 5 SE 3 8
FOM 12.0 FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL
6 60 27 22 0 2.00 1.93 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
FOM FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL
7 55 42 20 2.00 4.00 1.85 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
FOM 16.0 10.0 FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL
8 49 25 23 0 0 2.29 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
FOM 15.0 10.0 FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL
9 55 24 19 0 0 2.20 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
FOM 26.0 16.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU
10 32 22 27 0 0 2.77 SE E SE E SE E 5 E 3 8
11 40 38 26 0 3.00 2.22 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
58
FOM 36.0 19.0 FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU TRU FAL
12 15 21 32 0 0 3.19 SE E SE SE E E 5 SE 2 7
13 74 25 18 6.00 0.00 1.64 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
FOM 20.0 FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU FAL FAL
14 27 38 35 0 3.00 2.46 SE E SE SE E SE 3 SE 1 4
15 85 18 9 4.00 7.00 1.62 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
FOM 42.0 40.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU FAL
16 4 12 25 0 0 3.83 SE E SE E E E 5 SE 3 8
FOM 23.0 13.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU FAL FAL
17 13 32 42 0 0 2.93 SE E SE E E SE 0 SE 2 2
FOM 12.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL FAL FAL
18 26 40 38 0 7.00 2.46 SE E SE E SE SE 0 SE 1 1
19 43 28 31 0 2.00 2.26 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
20 69 33 13 5.00 3.00 1.70 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
21 97 14 9 2.00 1.00 1.34 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
22 54 34 23 9.00 3.00 1.97 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
23 84 24 11 3.00 1.00 1.48 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
24 57 30 20 0 2.00 1.98 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
25 37 30 26 0 0 2.48 SE E SE E E E 5 SE 3 8
FOM 25.0 19.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU TRU
26 15 31 33 0 0 3.02 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
27 48 31 23 0 6.00 2.19 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
FOM 31.0 26.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU TRU
28 10 24 32 0 0 3.32 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
29 22 20 31 0 0 3.07 SE E SE E E E 5 SE 3 8
30 44 32 27 0 9.00 2.26 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
31 53 21 29 0 9.00 2.20 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
59
32 21 22 35 0 0 3.07 SE E SE E SE E 5 E 3 8
33 102 11 4 4.00 2.00 1.32 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
34 100 15 6 0.00 2.00 1.28 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
35 46 22 32 0 5.00 2.30 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
36 23 16 25 0 0 3.18 SE E SE E SE E 5 E 3 8
FOM 24.0 19.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL
37 37 17 26 0 0 2.76 SE E SE E SE E 5 SE 2 7
38 52 25 26 0 4.00 2.15 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
39 51 24 24 0 6.00 2.22 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
FOM 30.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL
40 17 12 16 0 48 3.65 SE E SE E SE E 3 SE 2 5
FOM 41.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU
41 13 13 24 0 32 3.54 SE E SE E SE E 5 E 3 8
FOM 26.0 FAL TRU FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL
42 38 16 26 0 17 2.74 SE E SE SE SE SE 5 SE 0 5
43 45 43 15 0 8 2.15 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
44 13 25 31 0 20 3.19 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
45 36 37 24 0 8 2.39 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
46 67 31 15 7.00 3 1.76 SE SE SE SE SE SE SE 0 0
FOM 21.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU
47 39 23 33 0 7 2.46 SE E SE E SE E 5 E 3 8
48 14 30 41 0 7 2.89 SE E SE E E E 5 E 4 9
1) Item-wise difficulty (item mean) and discrimination indices.
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
2) QQ Plots and Histogram of ACCS total scores
QQ Plot of ACCS Total Scores
87
Histogram of ACCS Total Scores
88
89
4) Validity index with FoMO validity scale.
90
5) CFA Fit Indices
91
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Discussion
and precise, as well as easy to understand. This study was interesting because it looked at a topic
that we speak of so casually in social settings, and considered it as a research construct. FOMO
is a construct that is relatively unexplored in a scientific sense, so I really liked this study
because it made me look at the construct of FOMO in a different light. This form was extensive,
with 50 items, and it could be tedious to fill, leading to fatigue.
93
References
Barry, C., & Wong, M. (2020, August 7). Fear of missing out (FoMO): A Generational
Phenomenon or an Individual Difference? ResearchGate.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343518664_Fear_of_missing_out_FoMO_A_generatio
nal_phenomenon_or_an_individual_difference
Coskun, S., & Muslu, G. K. (2019, June 17). Investigation of Problematic Mobile Phones Use
and Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) Level in Adolescents. Community Mental Health Journal.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10597-019-00422-8
Dheer, A., Yossatorn, Y., Kaur, P., & Chen, S. (2018, January 26). Online social media fatigue
and psychological wellbeing—A study of compulsive use, fear of missing out, fatigue, anxiety
and depression.
https://e-tarjome.com/storage/panel/fileuploads/2019-04-22/1555928922_E10949-e-tarjome.pdf
Hamutoglu, N. B., Topal, M., & Gezgin, D. M. (2020). Investigating Direct and Indirect Effects
of Social Media Addiction, Social Media Usage and Personality Traits on FOMO. International
Journal of Progressive Education, 16(2), 248. https://doi.org/10.29329/ijpe.2021.366
Hunt, M. G., Marx, R., Lipson, C., & Young, J. (2018, November 10). No More FOMO: Limiting
Social Media Decreases Loneliness And Depression. ResearchGate | Find and share research.
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jordyn-Young/publication/328838624_No_More_FOMO_L
imiting_Social_Media_Decreases_Loneliness_and_Depression/links/5be5a5cb299bf1124fc6327
9/No-More-FOMO-Limiting-Social-Media-Decreases-Loneliness-and-Depression.pdf
Mannion, K. H., & Nolan, S. A. (2020, January 7). The Effect of Smartphones on Anxiety: An
AttachmentIissue or Fear of Missing Out?
.https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/23311908.2020.1869378
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O'Connell, C. (2020, March 1). How FOMO (Fear of missing out), the Smartphone, and Social
Media may be affecting University students in the Middle East. ResearchGate.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339721452_How_FOMO_Fear_of_Missing_Out_the_
Smartphone_and
Roberts, J., & David, M. (2019, July). The Social Media Party: Fear of Missing Out (FoMO),
Social Media Intensity, Connection, and Well-Being. ResearchGate | Find and share research.
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/James-Roberts-21/publication/334717933_The_Social_Med
ia_Party_Fear_of_Missing_Out_FoMO_Social_Media_Intensity_Connection_and_Well-Being/li
nks/5d976092458515c1d3956270/The-Social-Media-Party-Fear-of-Missing-Out-FoMO-Social-
Media-Intensity-Connection-and-Well-Being.pdf
Öztürk, H., Gençoğlu, I., & Kırkgöz, F. (2020, February 4). (PDF) The relationship between type
of social media usage and depression with fear of missing out. ResearchGate.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349027960_The_Relationship_between_Type_of_Soci
al_Media_Usage_and_Depression_with_Fear_of_Missing_Out
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Chapter 3: Intelligence
A Scale to Measure Naturalistic Intelligence in Generation Z
Referring to Howard Gardner, naturalistic intelligence is the skill to identify, classify and
manipulate elements of the environment, objects, animals or plants. Howard Gardner has
developed a theory of multiple intelligence, it at first comprised seven types of intelligences but
after a bunch of years eighth intelligence was added which is known as naturalistic intelligence
(Gardner & Hatch, 1989).
To begin with naturalistic intelligence, a lot of research has invariably been able to show
that citizens with naturalistic intelligence have sensitivity and admiration for nature. They are
refreshed in an ecological environment, they best classify patterns of nature and are better-known
as nature smart. There is a deep relationship between individuals and environmental attitudes;
children who are connected to nature and other habitats in their childhood grew interest in
subjects like biology, zoology, botany, geology, meteorology, paleontology, or
astronomy(Mathew et. al, 2020). There is a shortcoming that a lot of children of today’s
generation have not developed naturalistic intelligence properly, as they barely know a thing
about their adjoining environment, for instance not knowing names of the plants and flowers
they run into almost daily in their lives. One way to make children attach to nature is by
introducing them to nature and indulging them in out-of-door activities; schools should comprise
an environmental element in their course of study to create conscious awareness and
responsiveness towards nature from a young age (Winda et. al 2020). Educational institutions
which inculcate practical learning and take students on field trips take into account that students
96
get in touch with their field of study and acquire greater problem solving skills; it also endorses
the learning experience of the students. To obtain higher observation expertise and master their
subject very well as matched to other students (Adisendjaja et. al, 2019). A lot of teachers who
teach science have started using the Problem Based Learning Model (PBL). PBL model helps
students learn things while interconnecting them to daily life scenarios. It emphasises on issues
of life that have been badly affected; so students learn to solve real world problems more
efficiently. The above research makes us realise that environmental education is very important
as it would perhaps help an individual to be more smart about nature and better understand the
problems which may or may not occur by our present habits which we emit out in our natural
environment. Hence it is important to measure environmental education on a psychometric scale
as it will help us know how much the person possesses knowledge about nature.
Most parents and teachers are still stuck in thinking that the knowledge a student
possesses will be decided by their test scores but on the contrary the only thing which will
determine an individual’s success will be the ability to which they can solve real word problems
in their respective domains. This happens when an individual is in touch with their surroundings
which is in other terms that they possess a satisfactory amount of naturalistic intelligence
(Karisma et. al, 2020). Perhaps with this research we can assume that naturalistic intelligence is
not just about being nature smart but rather it is also about how much we are in touch with our
reality.
Studies have confirmed that environmental citizenship behaviour positively impacts the
environment, as it shows the citizens of the country strongly value and care about the
environment. A study was conducted to see the effects of green intelligence in academic courses
of study. The results were grand as it said that individuals who were educated about green
97
intelligence were very much caring and cautious about the environment. They were into soundly
environmental habits such as producing zero waste and minimising pollution (Mahboube &
Afsame, 2021). Environmental concern is a far more important variable to be kept in mind
especially in our era where our earth is slowly getting converted into a concrete jungle.
Understanding environmental conservation will result in a positive attitude of people towards the
environment (Suhirman & Yusuf, 2019). The 21st century’s environmental problems are way
more complex than anybody can imagine. The economy continues to grow, mankind keeps on
developing but it utilises all the natural resources. It generates a negative impact on the
environment as we are not substituting things which we utilise from our nature. People can
indulge in activities like gardening. It will help them become creative at the same time (Hasanah
et al, 2019). The causes of having low naturalistic intelligence is adequately understood via
various such researches, this factor highlights an important dimension for us to study that is
environmental sensitivity. Environmental sensitivity refers to the cognitive component which
highlights the areas of perception, conception, beliefs, ideas, knowledge, emotions and feelings
which we hold for the environment (Ningrum et. al, 2008). Environmental sensitivity is an
important dimension to touch upon because it will help us better understand where we stand
when it comes to playing an active role to save our environment from deteriorating. At the same
time it will help us understand how much we are in touch with nature.
It is crucial for people who belong to Generation Z (born between 1997-2012) to develop
a good naturalistic intelligence as they are the future generation. They will have to preserve and
use environmental resources optimally. Young people are the dynamical force for a sustainable
future. People with naturalistic intelligence are focused on sustainability and they educate
themselves on how they can use their food scraps and other waste products efficiently. (Zarah et.
98
al, 2020). There has not been enough research on this topic focusing on young adults and
generation Z. Naturalistic intelligence also remains as a new research in the Indian Population.
Naturalistic intelligence is one of most important intelligence an individual should possess. It
makes people aware of their surroundings and helps them be in touch with their existence and at
the same time it is good for our planet.
Rationale
This scale aims to measure naturalistic intelligence with the help of a 5 point likert scale
in young adults. The following topic has been chosen because we live in a world which has
suddenly become environmentally conscious and has adopted major lifestyle changes such as
veganism and sustainability. So it is a big opportunity for us to focus on this topic which has not
been researched much especially on Gen Z and develop a scale on it to inculcate and enhance
naturalistic intelligence from very early on in people and educate them about the same. Young
people are the driving force of the future and they could actually help us curb environmental
issues. People are getting distanced from nature and are losing touch with their surroundings.
The world is making tremendous progress in terms of technology but at the same time we have
environmental problems like global warming, water scarcity, pollution, heatwave, ozone
depletion etc. This scale will measure naturalistic intelligence in Generation Z and help them
know how much they are in touch with the environment and how educated they are about nature.
Method
Target population
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People who belong to Gen Z i.e. the ones who are born between 1997 - 2012 or aged
between 10 to 25, and are able to read and understand english.
Procedure
This psychometric scale will be produced on google forms, participants will be asked to
give their consent first then they’ll be asked to put in their personal information such as their
nationality, age and birthdate. Then they’ll be directed towards the scale where they’ll have to
rate their responses on a 5 point likert scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The
items in the scale will be based on two dimensions. They are as follows
● Environmental Education
● Environmental Sensitivity
Validity
Construct validity will be established in order to check whether the test measures the construct
that is meant to measure and the extent to which the test correlates with its theoretical
foundations. This scale will be compared to the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) scale given by
R.E. Dunlap and K.D. Van Liere (1978). By comparing both the scales convergent validities will
be established to understand how both the scales are closely related to each other. If the scale
turns out to be invalid we will retain items by vote retention based on theoretical significance of
the given items. Out of 20 items per dimension 10 items per dimension will be retained, the
minimum % to retain the items will be 35% because we will be deciding on theoretical
understanding so there will be individual differences when it comes to choosing items which
seems to make sense.
100
Item Pool
Dimension 1 : Environmental Education
● I am always well aware of our environment and its changes.
● I can easily distinguish between various flora and fauna.
● I love reading books on nature / astronomy / geology / flora and fauna.
● When I was a child I was indulged in activities like gardening, stargazing, fishing etc.
● I never litter on roads.
● I can easily remember names of different plants and animals and their categories.
● When I was in school / college we were taken on field trips.
● I enjoy watching TV shows on biology / geology / nature / astronomy.
● I love learning about things in its practical setting.
● I always want to know how things around me actually work.
● I want to get into fields which bring me closer to the nature and things around me.
● My interest lies in subjects like botany / zoology / ecology.
● I love using tools such as binoculars / telescopes / microscopes to observe and learn about
things around me.
● I follow various social media channels to educate myself on topics of nature and
environment.
● I educate myself on how I can make our surroundings better as well as curb pollution and
global warming.
● I know how to live a sustainable life.
● I know the importance of sustainable living.
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● I want to make people aware about environmental concerns and how to control it.
● I get endless questions on things which I observe.
● I enjoy learning things by getting in touch with them practically rather than learning
about them theoretically.
Dimension 2 : Environmental Sensitivity
● I have a hobby that involves nature.
● I am bothered by the rising pollution levels.
● I love living in between nature.
● Nature makes me feel alive.
● I love having pets.
● I use sustainable things only.
● I am moving towards veganism as I am very much attached with animals around me.
● I love visiting zoos / gardens / beaches / mountains.
● I collect things from nature such as leaves / feathers / flowers.
● I love observing behavioural patterns in humans and members of other species around
me.
● I notice patterns of nature on my commute to college / work.
● I think we should live sustainable lives to protect our planet.
● I often end up noticing things in nature which go unnoticed by others.
● I make use of scrapes and try to produce as much less waste as I can.
● I do not waste water and electricity.
● I indulge in environmental activities like beach cleanup and tree plantations.
● I believe in reusing and recycling things.
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● I am well aware about the environmental problems happening currently.
● I am well aware about the environmental problems happening currently.
● In my free time, I make doodle on nature.
All items will be reverse scored as the scale ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Higher the score, higher the naturalistic intelligence.
Post Task Questions
● What do you think the test was about ?
● Did you face any difficulty while understanding the statements ?
● What do you know about naturalistic intelligence ?
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Results
ICC-
No. ICC-
Item of peak
Cod BOT IDis peak s >
e 1 2 3 4 5.00 AVG NOP AVG H IInfo IDiff c s 0.4
36.0 FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU TRU
ES1 0 0 37 60 0 3.99 SE E SE SE E E 3 3 3 9
ES2 0 0 47 48 0 3.93 SE E SE SE E E 3 3 3 9
52.0 FAL FAL FAL FAL TRU TRU
ES3 0 0 32 49 0 4.15 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
49.0 FAL FAL FAL TRU TRU TRU
ES4 0 0 25 59 0 4.18 SE SE SE E E E 3 3 3 9
87.0 FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL
ES5 0 0 18 28 0 4.52 SE SE SE SE SE SE 1 2 0 3
ES6 0 0 49 50 0 3.89 SE E SE SE E E 3 3 3 9
ES7 0 0 12 44 0 4.49 SE SE SE SE E E 1 2 2 5
56.0 FAL FAL FAL TRU TRU TRU
ES8 0 0 27 50 0 4.22 SE SE SE E E E 3 3 3 9
ES9 0 0 11 52 0 4.44 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
ES1 63.0 FAL FAL FAL TRU TRU TRU
0 0 0 16 54 0 4.35 SE SE SE E E E 3 3 3 9
ES1 42.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU
1 0 0 31 60 0 4.08 SE E SE E E E 3 3 4 10
ES1 50.0 FAL FAL FAL FAL TRU TRU
2 0 0 32 51 0 4.14 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
3 0 0 27 54 0 4.19 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
ES1 40.0 FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU TRU
4 0 0 30 63 0 4.08 SE E SE SE E E 3 3 3 9
5 0 0 25 67 0 4.12 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
ES1 23.0 FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU FAL
6 0 0 47 63 0 3.82 SE E SE SE E SE 3 3 2 8
7 0 0 21 60 0 4.23 SE SE SE E E E 3 3 3 9
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8 0 0 27 58 0 4.16 SE SE SE E E E 3 3 3 9
ES1 41.0 FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU FAL
9 0 0 32 60 0 4.07 SE E SE SE E SE 1 2 2 5
EE1 0 0 16 45 0 4.42 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
36.0 FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU FAL
EE2 0 0 34 63 0 4.02 SE E SE SE E SE 3 3 2 8
EE3 0 0 17 55 0 4.33 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
61.0 FAL FAL FAL FAL TRU FAL
EE4 0 0 20 52 0 4.31 SE SE SE SE E SE 3 3 1 7
67.0 FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL FAL
EE5 0 0 12 54 0 4.41 SE SE SE SE SE SE 3 1 0 4
72.0 FAL FAL FAL FAL TRU FAL
EE6 0 0 25 36 0 4.35 SE SE SE SE E SE 3 3 1 7
22.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU
EE7 0 0 60 51 0 3.71 SE E SE E E E 3 3 4 10
EE8 0 0 26 46 0 4.26 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
EE9 0 0 16 34 0 4.50 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
EE1 54.0 FAL FAL FAL FAL TRU TRU
0 0 0 25 54 0 4.22 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
EE1 52.0 FAL FAL FAL TRU TRU TRU
1 0 0 29 52 0 4.17 SE SE SE E E E 3 3 3 9
2 0 0 24 68 0 4.13 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
3 0 0 15 53 0 4.38 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
EE1 27.0 FAL TRU FAL FAL TRU TRU
4 0 0 41 65 0 3.89 SE E SE SE E E 3 3 3 9
EE1 34.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU
5 0 0 33 66 0 4.01 SE E SE E E E 3 3 4 10
6 0 0 25 60 0 4.17 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
EE1 33.0 FAL TRU FAL TRU TRU TRU
7 0 0 39 61 0 3.95 SE E SE E E E 3 3 4 10
EE1 49.0 FAL FAL FAL TRU TRU TRU
8 0 0 27 57 0 4.17 SE SE SE E E E 3 3 3 9
105
9 0 0 29 58 0 4.13 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
0 0 0 27 47 0 4.24 SE SE SE SE E E 3 3 2 8
Discussion
and precise, as well as easy to understand. This study aimed to measure naturalistic intelligence
with the help of a 5 point likert scale in young adults. In the process of checking for reliability,
multiple items seemed to prove invalid as none of the participants selected the scores which
related to naturalistic intelligence and failed to give the discarded results. Due to this the validity
of the test was questioned and so the entire test would need to be discarded and no scores or
statistical analysis would be recorded.
This could be due to reasons linked to the review of literature in the contextual
surroundings. To discuss naturalistic intelligence, a lot of research has invariably been able to
show that citizens with naturalistic intelligence have sensitivity and admiration for nature. They
are refreshed in an ecological environment, they best classify patterns of nature and are
better-known as nature smart. These patterns seemed to be less prevalent in an Indian cultural
context as perhaps a western culture through which such patterns of intelligence are more
commonly spotted.
106
References
Sadiku, M., Ashaolu, T., & Musa, S. (2020) Naturalistic Intelligence International Journal of
Scientific Advances https://doi.org/10.51542/ijscia.v1i1.1
Utami, W., Rohman, A, & Islamiyah, R. (2020) Introduction of the Surrounding Environment to
Stimulate Naturalist Intelligence of Early Childhood Journal of Physics: Conference Series
https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1511/1/012070
Hasanah, N., Harmawati, D., Riyana, M., & Usman, A., (2019) Improve naturalist intelligence of
early childhood through gardening activities in group children at Merauke State Pembina
Kindergarten IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science
https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/343/1/012186
Adisendjaja, Y., Abdi, M., & Fardhani. I., (2019) The Influence of Field Trip on Junior High
School Students’ Naturalistic Intelligence and Problem-Solving Skills in Ecosystem Subject
Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia https://doi.org/10.15294/jpii.v8i3.19532
Soleimanpouromran, M., & Ahmadimoghadam, A., (2021) The study of green intelligence on
environmental experiences and environmental citizenship behaviour Central Asian Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology Innovation
Wirdianti, N., Komala, R., & Miarsyah, M. (2019) Naturalist intelligence and personality: An
107
understanding students’ responsible environmental behaviour JPBI (Jurnal Pendidikan Biologi
Indonesia)
Karisma, M., Yulianti, A., Negara, O., & Sujana, J. (2020) Contribution of Naturalist Intelligence
and Learning Participation toward Students’ Knowledge Competence in Science International
Journal of Elementary Education
Ilela, M., Wihardjo, S., & Purwanto, A. (2021) The Relationship of Ecological Intelligence with
Students' Environment Care Behavior on Mangrove Ecosystem Materials International Journal
of Multicultural and Multireligious Understanding http://dx.doi.org/10.18415/ijmmu.v8i10.3131
Lismaya, L. (2018). Improving student's naturalist intelligence through outdoor activities on
plant morphology learning. Indonesian Journal of Learning and Instruction
https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/IJLI
Yusuf, Y., & Suhirman, S. ( 2019) The effect of problem-based learning and naturalist
intelligence on students' understanding of environmental conservation JPBI (Jurnal Pendidikan
Biologi Indonesia) https://doi.org/10.22219/jpbi.v5i3.9817
108
Chapter 4: Motivation
Motivation to Dance Scale (MTDS)
Dance is known as the "hidden language of the soul" because it allows us to express
ourselves when words fail (Svoboda, 1985). Dancing is one of the ways in which one’s body
breathes. It aids in striking a balance between one's emotions and bodily functions. The joy that
comes with dancing can sometimes help us overcome our sadness and suffering. When one is
having a bad day, it might assist to inspire positivity and enthusiasm in one's life. It offers both
physical as well as affective benefits. One of the most appealing aspects about dancing is that
anyone can do it. One does not need to have a special skill for it. There is no such thing as a
correct or incorrect method to dance; there is just a dance. You may just put on your favourite
music and sway your body to the beats. The only difficult aspect is taking the first step;
everything else becomes simpler after that (Eckelkamp, 2020).
Our muscular tone, strength, endurance, and fitness may all be improved by dancing.
Furthermore, it is a fantastic method to make new acquaintances. Most importantly, it provides
us joy and allows us to relax and unwind from the humdrum of daily life (Eckelkamp, 2020).
Having seen so many benefits of dancing, why is it that people still hesitate so much to dance?
There could be many reasons as to why people abstain themselves from dancing despite their
desire to do so. Dancing as an art needs higher encouragement because unlike other methods of
fitness, such as doing yoga or going to the gym, it can be done anywhere (Lindberg, 2019).
Many scholars have looked at the many motivations for dancing. However, there is still a lot of
stigmas attached to the concept of dancing. Because of the new tik tok and reel dominated social
109
media impact, as well as the increased focus on perfection, The beauty of dancing freely is
overshadowed by the unattainable goal of perfection.
A study conducted by Aniko Maraz and his colleagues (2015), involving 447 salsa and/or
ballroom dancers, aimed at investigating the motivational underpinnings of recreational social
dancing and to create a novel psychometric instrument to measure dancing motivation. Fitness,
Mood Enhancement, Intimacy, Socializing, Trance, Mastery, Self-confidence, and Escapism
were the eight motivating components uncovered using exploratory factor analysis that formed a
new Dance Motivation Inventory. Similarly, the goal of a study conducted by Stavridis and his
colleagues (2015) was to find out what encourages people who participate in dance activities,
particularly performance dancing. The sample consisted of 220 dancers of groups of Greek folk
dance, and of private dance schools where ballet, Latin, contemporary dance and other kinds are
taught. The results concluded that the factors “Intrinsic Motivation – General”, “Intrinsic
Motivation to Experience Stimulation” and “Intrinsic Motivation to Know” have contributed to
the participants’ motivation to dance. Along with this, it was observed that although there was no
significant difference in gender, Dancers who are younger are more likely to dance than dancers
who are not.
The goal of the research conducted by Aujla (2015) was to learn more about dancers'
motivations for working independently, as well as the psychological features and mental skills
that helped them navigate this difficult industry. The dancers were found to be intrinsically
driven and extremely dedicated to their craft, according to the findings. Working in the
independent sector provided dancers with chances for personal growth and fulfilment; they
110
valued the autonomy, flexibility, and independence that an independent career provided, as well
as the opportunity to collaborate with new individuals from all positions and disciplines.
Optimism, self-confidence, social support, and career management skills were essential in
overcoming the different hurdles connected with the independent role. It is also worth noting that
all the above-mentioned research studies have been conducted on professional dancers. There is
not much data available having nonprofessional dancers as their sample.
The impact of social media has been widely researched. Dancers, specifically, engage a
lot in these social media platforms in order to increase their reach. While social media may be
beneficial, it can also be detrimental to dancers and how they see their careers. When it comes to
social media, a rise in sentiments of pointlessness among dancers has been noticed, as well as a
proclivity to give up too quickly (Neto, 2021).
Moreover, in a study conducted by Baligad & Martin (2017) aimed to find the difference
in motivational factors among genders, it was found that females are more driven physically,
emotionally, and aesthetically. In comparison to male responders, they are also more intrinsically
and extrinsically motivated to dance. Except for the emotional element, data revealed no
significant differences in the majority of motivating variables.
There have not been many studies wherein the motivations of a layperson have been
considered in terms of dancing. Most of the studies have majorly focussed on professional
dancers. However, dancing being one of the crucial to our lives, the motivation and reasons for
reluctance of nonprofessional dancers have to be taken into considerations. The scale that is
going to be developed will consist of 4 dimensions, i.e., Perceived ability to dance, Social media
influence, Perceived Body image and Perceived social support. The rationale for incorporating
these four dimensions is that, in today's social media-savvy society, many individuals are
111
observed engaged in dance activities on various social media sites. However, by observing many
influencers with their ideal body figure, many individuals become demotivated to dance as well.
Similarly, in my opinion, in order to dance, an individual must have self-confidence in their
ability to dance. Even though some people lack the necessary self-confidence, a healthy amount
of social support can boost one’s confidence, which can in turn motivate people to let go of all
the self-doubts and feel the beat. This research will take a more modern approach to this topic.
Method
Participants
The test would be administered to the non-professional dancers from the age group 18 to 55;
young adulthood (18 to 35 years), middle age (36 to 55 years).
Procedure
The scale will be administered to the participants. The instructions would be, “There are a
number of reasons why people get motivated to dance. Some reasons are listed below. What
motivates you to dance? Please answer from 1 to 5 where 1 = I strongly disagree, 2 = I disagree,
3 = I neither agree nor disagree, 4 = I agree, 5 = I strongly agree. There is no right or wrong
answer.” The participant will be asked to rate how much they agree or disagree with the
statement using a Likert scale. After receiving the scores, reliability will be established and the
necessary items will be retained with the help of R software. The newly established scale will
then be re-administered along with another already established scale, i.e, the Dance Motivation
Inventory (DMI) in order to validate it.
112
Validity
To validate this test, Dance Motivation Inventory (DMI), developed by Maraz and her colleagues
(2015), will be employed. Construct validity will be used in order to check whether the test
measures the (theoretical) construct that it is supposed to measure. Under this, divergent validity
will be established wherein discrepancy between the MTDS and DMI will be calculated which
will help in understanding whether both the tests correlate with each other or not. If the tests are
highly correlated, it is assumed that they are assessing the same thing and are too similar to be
deemed distinct (The Institute for Statistics Education at Statistics.com, n.d.).
Item Pool
Perceived ability to dance
● I think I dance well.
● I think my dancing ability motivates me to dance.
● I feel I have a lot of confidence in my dancing ability.
● I love dancing. Therefore, it does not matter to me if I dance well or not. I will dance
anyway.
● I feel I would be uncomfortable if there were more people dancing along with me. (R)
● I do not think there is a perfect way to dance. Therefore, one should dance freely
● I compare my dancing skills with other dancers (R)
● I am not good enough compared to other dancers (R)
● I get insecure when someone dances better than me (R)
● I maintain good posture while dancing
113
● when I see other dance so well, I become anxious and doubt my own skills (R)
● I feel like people will judge me based on my expressions (R)
● I feel like people will judge me based on my posture (R)
● I love to dance solo.
● Challenging myself to try new dance forms keep me motivated.
● I feel having appropriate costume/clothes for dance motivates me. (R)
● Wearing loose clothes help me to dance well. (R)
● I feel wearing skin-fit clothes make my movements look better when I dance. (R)
● I feel I dance well when no one is looking. (R)
● When I made a mistake while dancing, I often criticise my dancing skills. (R)
● I take a lot of time to learn a particular dance step which lowers my self-esteem. (R)
Social media influence
● I feel motivated when I see other people dance on social media.
● I feel insecure about my dancing abilities when I see influencers dancing on social media.
(R)
● I feel demotivated to dance because when I see how perfectly other people post dance
videos on social media. (R)
● I feel watching dancers perform live motivates me to dance. (R)
● I follow a lot of dance pages on Instagram
● I feel shy to record my video in front of camera (R)
● I attend dance workshops by getting inspired by dancers on social media
114
● I find it very difficult to dance in public like the dancers do on social media (R)
● I feel I can never post my dance videos on social media even if I want to (R)
● Dancing on social media is easier than performing live.
● Dance trends on social media has inspired me to try my hands on dancing
● I can't keep up with social media dance trends like others. (R)
● I get FOMO (fear of missing out) when I don't post trending dance videos (R)
● Social media platforms have brought dancers from over the world together
● I want to express real-life issues through dance on social media
● Older people are inspired to pick up dancing as their hobby back again because of social
media
● I feel the economic boost given by social media has motivated many people to pursue
dancing and make it their source of income.
● I feel being able to earn money while dancing at home irrespective of their age, gender or
socio-economic status, has motivated people to pursue dancing.
● I feel demotivated when my dance does not get certain amount of likes on social media
platforms (R)
● In this fast-pacing world, social media acts as a rescue by increasing my engagement with
dance
Perceived body image
● I feel my body is not fit for dancing. (R)
● I often feel demotivated to dance because of my body. (R)
● I feel having certain type of body structure is important in order to dance. (R)
● I feel insecure because of my weight while dancing. (R)
115
● Seeing people from all age and sizes has inspired me to dance
● I feel people will mock me if I dance (R)
● I feel I am too fat to dance (R)
● I feel I am too thin to dance (R)
● People have looked down on me when I have danced because of my body (R)
● I love the way my body has inspired me to dance
● I am always scared about whether I will get the perfect outfit for my dance performance
(R)
● I think I need to eat less to maintain my figure for dancing. (R)
● I think I need to eat more to maintain my figure for dancing. (R)
● I feel certain dance styles are only for skinny people. Eg. Ballet. (R)
● I think my body is not flexible enough to be graceful (R)
● I feel confident about my body if I dance in public spaces
● I keep thinking if my body looks weird when I dance (R)
● I think my body is just not meant for dancing (R)
● I think all the insecurities I have about my body get highlighted to the world when I
dance (R)
● I feel like flaunting my body while dancing
● Reels encourage me to dance more often
Perceived social support
● I feel motivated to dance because of the support I get from my parents/ loved ones.
● I feel support from loved ones is important in order to dance.
● I think I would be able to dance more energetically if someone is watching me.
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● It does not matter to me if someone is dancing with me or not, I will start dancing
nonetheless. (R)
● I am only able to dance at a social gathering if I am asked by other people
● I believe that seeing me dance makes others happy. Therefore, I do it.
● I believe being the centre of attention when I dance motivates me
● I feel like dancing when I have company.
● I have always got appraisal for my dancing passion
● My friends are my biggest cheerleaders when I participate in dancing
● I am inspired by the way people have appreciated my skills
● Being a background dancer has made me feel low (R)
● Social support has given me rise in the confidence to dance
● My parents don't encourage me to dance in public (R)
● My cousins make fun of me when I dance for a function (R)
● I feel people make fun of me behind my back when I dance (R)
● I have grown up amongst dancers and it has helped me gain the confidence
● I want to encourage people to dance because I had no one to motivate me (R)
● People can feel my emotions while I dance
● I coordinate well with steps in a group dance
● I feel comfortable to dance in a group
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Results
For the analysis part, the CFI came out to be 0.676 which tells us that the test was not a good fit
as it's lower than 0.95 which is considered a good fit measurement, however it is valid. Due to a
lot of dimensions being present, there was a lot of overlapping within the items.
IRT-I IRT
tem Base
Item Item Goo wise d
Cod Item Diffi Item d scor Scor
e 1 2 3 4 5 Avg NOP AVG Info culty Disc ICC ICC e es
PAD 3.88 FALS TRU TRU FALS FALS FALS
1 2 6 20 72 24 8 E E E E E 1 E 1 2
PAD FALS TRU TRU FALS TRU FALS
2 4 6 19 72 22 3.84 E E E E E 5 E 2 7
PAD 3.44 FALS TRU TRU TRU TRU TRU
3 9 14 31 52 18 8 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
PAD FALS FALS TRU
4 2 9 14 51 46 4.08 E E E 1 1
PAD 4.36 FALS FALS TRU
5 1 5 12 35 71 8 E E E 1 1
PAD 3.60 FALS TRU TRU TRU FALS FALS
6 1 12 36 61 14 8 E E E E E 3 E 2 5
PAD 3.34 FALS TRU TRU TRU FALS FALS
7 6 23 40 32 22 4 E E E E E 1 E 2 3
PAD 3.74 FALS TRU TRU FALS TRU TRU
8 2 12 23 66 19 4 E E E E E 4 E 3 7
PAD FALS TRU FALS FALS TRU FALS
9 2 16 20 53 31 3.8 E E E E E 4 E 1 5
PAD 2.97 FALS TRU FALS FALS TRU TRU
10 7 44 30 32 11 6 E E E E E 5 E 2 7
11 9 32 40 28 15 4 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
PAD TRU TRU TRU FALS TRU TRU
12 5 25 27 39 28 3.48 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
13 10 30 24 43 17 4 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PAD 3.20 FALS TRU FALS FALS TRU TRU
14 5 35 28 41 15 8 E E E E E 5 E 2 7
118
15 9 33 24 43 14 6 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PAD 2.61 FALS TRU TRU FALS FALS FALS
16 13 59 23 23 7 6 E E E E E 1 E 1 2
PAD FALS FALS TRU
17 21 49 34 16 5 2.48 E E E 1 1
PAD FALS TRU TRU TRU FALS FALS
18 8 30 35 40 10 3.12 E E E E E 1 E 2 3
PAD FALS TRU TRU FALS TRU TRU
19 22 39 28 29 7 2.68 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PAD 3.13 FALS TRU TRU TRU FALS TRU
20 12 27 29 44 12 6 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
21 4 20 29 57 13 4 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
3.81 FALS TRU TRU FALS TRU TRU
SMI1 1 9 18 79 15 6 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
3.24 FALS TRU TRU TRU TRU TRU
SMI2 10 29 27 37 19 8 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
SMI3 10 44 29 35 6 4 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
3.16 FALS TRU TRU TRU FALS FALS
SMI4 10 22 41 39 11 8 E E E E E 2 E 2 4
FALS TRU TRU TRU TRU TRU
SMI5 9 22 29 55 9 3.28 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
4.39 FALS FALS TRU
SMI6 0 1 10 52 59 2 E E E 1 1
SMI7 6 27 45 33 11 3.16 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
SMI8 1 10 26 68 18 3.76 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
FALS FALS TRU
SMI9 1 2 14 61 45 4.2 E E E 1 1
SMI1 3.91 FALS TRU TRU FALS FALS FALS
0 2 10 19 58 34 2 E E E E E 2 E 1 3
SMI1 3.46 FALS TRU TRU TRU TRU TRU
1 3 17 33 62 8 4 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
SMI1 3.40 FALS TRU TRU TRU TRU TRU
2 3 20 33 59 8 8 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
SMI1 FALS TRU TRU FALS FALS FALS
3 10 17 20 53 23 3.52 E E E E E 1 E 1 2
119
SMI1 2.00 FALS FALS TRU
4 34 63 21 7 0 8 E E E 1 1
SMI1 3.18 FALS TRU FALS FALS FALS FALS
5 12 33 20 39 19 4 E E E E E 4 E 0 4
SMI1 2.91 FALS TRU TRU FALS FALS FALS
6 17 39 23 28 17 2 E E E E E 1 E 1 2
SMI1 FALS TRU FALS FALS FALS FALS
7 10 30 20 44 19 3.28 E E E E E 4 E 0 4
SMI1 2.59 FALS TRU FALS TRU TRU TRU
8 20 45 33 20 7 2 E E E E E 4 E 3 7
SMI1 FALS FALS TRU
9 1 8 19 47 48 4.08 E E E 1 1
SMI2 3.52 TRU TRU TRU FALS FALS FALS
0 3 21 39 30 30 8 E E E E E 0 E 1 1
3.96 FALS TRU FALS FALS TRU FALS
PBI1 1 7 14 75 25 8 E E E E E 2 E 1 3
PBI2 2 8 44 48 20 3.64 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
FALS TRU FALS TRU TRU TRU
PBI3 6 25 39 33 21 3.32 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
2.96 FALS TRU TRU FALS FALS FALS
PBI4 13 33 33 36 9 8 E E E E E 0 E 1 1
PBI5 6 9 18 44 46 2 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
PBI6 2 15 18 49 39 2 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
PBI7 6 25 17 39 36 4 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PBI8 7 17 16 42 40 2 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PBI9 5 11 26 46 36 4 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
PBI1 4.07 FALS FALS TRU TRU
0 3 10 17 40 52 2 E E E E 2 2
PBI1 4.31 FALS FALS TRU TRU
1 2 3 10 48 59 2 E E E E 2 2
PBI1 3.87 FALS TRU TRU FALS TRU FALS
2 7 8 17 54 37 2 E E E E E 0 E 2 2
PBI1 3.29 FALS TRU TRU TRU TRU FALS
3 7 21 37 48 12 6 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
120
PBI1 FALS TRU TRU FALS TRU TRU
4 6 21 22 38 35 3.64 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PBI1 3.75 FALS TRU FALS FALS FALS FALS
5 3 9 31 54 27 2 E E E E E 0 E 0 0
PBI1 3.43 TRU TRU TRU FALS TRU TRU
6 10 24 23 38 28 2 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PBI1 3.53 TRU TRU TRU FALS TRU TRU
7 6 21 23 49 24 6 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PBI1 3.34 FALS TRU TRU FALS TRU TRU
8 11 32 17 31 32 4 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PBI1 4.03 FALS FALS FALS
9 9 7 11 41 54 2 E E E 0 0
PBI2 3.57 FALS TRU TRU FALS TRU TRU
0 4 19 27 51 24 6 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PSS 3.89 FALS TRU TRU FALS TRU TRU
1 2 4 27 64 26 6 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PSS 3.82 FALS TRU TRU FALS FALS FALS
2 3 13 20 54 32 4 E E E E E 3 E 1 4
PSS FALS TRU FALS TRU FALS FALS
3 19 44 32 21 8 2.64 E E E E E 5 E 1 6
PSS 2.75 FALS TRU TRU TRU FALS FALS
4 14 45 31 28 7 2 E E E E E 0 E 2 2
PSS FALS TRU TRU TRU TRU TRU
5 10 19 41 39 15 3.24 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
6 16 26 29 40 12 6 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PSS 3.91 FALS TRU FALS FALS TRU TRU
7 1 13 19 54 35 2 E E E E E 5 E 2 7
PSS 3.62 FALS TRU TRU TRU TRU TRU
8 5 12 27 59 21 4 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
9 4 8 19 53 39 6 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
10 4 8 22 62 29 2 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
11 1 9 33 59 21 4 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
PSS FALS TRU TRU FALS TRU TRU
12 11 36 31 33 12 3 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
13 3 18 37 48 17 8 E E E E E 5 E 4 9
121
PSS FALS TRU TRU FALS TRU TRU
14 6 11 13 67 26 3.8 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PSS 3.96 FALS TRU FALS TRU TRU TRU
15 2 6 19 64 31 8 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
16 23 46 20 31 5 2 E E E E E 0 E 1 1
PSS 3.64 FALS TRU FALS TRU TRU FALS
17 2 12 41 43 25 8 E E E E E 5 E 2 7
18 2 5 22 44 51 6 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
19 3 7 8 54 50 8 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
PSS 3.41 FALS TRU FALS TRU TRU TRU
20 9 17 35 40 22 6 E E E E E 5 E 3 8
21 15 39 40 20 11 4 E E E E E 0 E 1 1
1) Item-wise difficulty (item mean) and discrimination indices. Include SD also.
PBI SCALE
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
SMI GRAPHS
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
PAD GRAPHS
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
PSS GRAPH
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
2) QQ Plots and Histogram of MTDS total scores
QQ Plots of MTDS total scores
Histogram of MTDS total scores
164
4) Validity index with DMI validity scale.
165
5) CFA Fit Indices
166
Discussion
The study was conducted on an online platform where the participants were required to fill a
questionnaire online and they marked their answers on a likert-type scale. There were 4
dimensions namely, perceived ability to dance, perceived body image, perceived social support
and social media influence. I found it very interesting that such engaging dimensions were
introduced within the test which took into account a lot of modern factors through which an
individual would get affected in terms of his/her motivational levels.
A negative factor which was noticed while administering the test was that it became quite
tiresome towards the end for a lot of participants to answer so many questions which would have
affected the answers they chose leading to fatigue. In addition to that, since the test aimed to
focus on all of the above mentioned dimensions, the focus was divided to all of them and hence
no conclusion as to which factors affect motivation the most was made.
167
References
Aujla, I. (2015). The role of psychological factors in the career of the independent dancer.
Frontiers. Geraadpleegd op 21 april 2022, van
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01688/full
Baligad, R., & Martin, J. (2017). Comparative Analysis on the Motivation for Dancing of Male
and Female Students. SCITEPRESS, 1, 354–358.
Eckelkamp, S. (2020, November 20). 12 Reasons Dancing Your Butt off Is the Most Badass
Mind-Body Workout. Greatist.
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%20similar%20but%20distinct%20trait.
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Validation Scale
The Dance Motivation Inventory
I dance…
1. … because I like being in control of my body
2. … because it fills me up with energy
3. … to avoid feeling the blues
4. … because I like the company
5. … because I can experience an altered state of mind
6. … because I am looking for a sex partner
7. … because I constantly improve
8. … because I feel sexy when I dance
9. … to exercise
10. … because I can experience ecstasy
12. … to watch my lines
13. … because girls are pretty / boys are handsome
14. … because I am surrounded by people who think like me
14. … because when I dance, I don't have to deal with my everyday problems
15. … because I can meet many people like me
16. … because dancing brings out the man/woman within me
17. … because otherwise my life would be empty
18. … because I like being physically close to another human being
19. … because it feels like floating
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20. … to be healthy
21. … to be fit
22. … because I enjoy it
23. … because it improves my coordination
24. … because it makes easy to socialise
25. … because dancing improves my self-esteem
26. … because I feel that I would miss something if I didn't dance
27. … because dancing improves my mood
28. … because I can experience a trance-like state
29. … because I am looking for a relationship
Instructions: There are a number of reasons why people choose to dance. Some reasons are listed
below. Why do you dance? Please answer from 1 to 5 where 1=I strongly disagree, 2=I disagree,
3=I neither agree nor disagree, 4=I agree, 5=I strongly agree. There is no right or wrong answer.
We are only interested in your motives for dancing.
Key: Fitness: 12, 20, 21 and 9; Mood Enhancement: 22, 27 and 2; Intimacy: 13, 29, 18, 6 and 25;
Socialising: 4, 14 and 15; Trance: 28, 10, 19 and 5; Mastery: 23, 1 and 7; Self-confidence: 16, 8
and 25; Escapism: 3, 17, 14 and 26
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Chapter 5: Personality
A Scale to Measure Unhealthy Personality Traits among Adolescents
According to Roberts (2009) Personality traits can be defined as, "Personality
characteristics that are relatively long-lasting patterns of thoughts, feelings, and actions that show
the tendency to behave in specific ways in specific situations." (M Almlund et al ,2011). As said
by Roberts (2008), Personality characteristics are consistent patterns in each person that separate
them from others. However, several other researchers said that, “personality alters, and this
changeability is caused not just by innate development but also due to societal needs and
experiences. (J Specht, et al, 2011).
Research has shown that formation of an unhealthy personality is influenced by
personality characteristics. It has been known for a while that personality traits contribute to the
progression of the disease. (AR Sutin, et al, 2013).
People with unhealthy personalities are described as weird, eccentric, dramatic,
emotional, unpredictable, or lacking empathy. (JG Kerns, 2020; C Young et al., 2018; JC Perry,
2014). Polek (2018) defined unhealthy personality traits as inflexible and destructive personality
characteristics that produce subjective discomfort. The fact is that all of the above traits dicussed
above share defining characteristics related to social and emotional dysfunction such as
difficulties in confiding and forming close and stable relationships with others, suspiciousness,
low trust, negative and unstable affect .etc. (E Polek et al, 2018).
Several researches show that teenagers show risky behaviors. Hence, death rates in
adolescents increase by up to 200 percent from middle childhood. This spike in morbidity and
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death has been linked to a dramatic increase in hazardous and antisocial conduct throughout
adolescence. Adolescents, for example, are more prone to misuse alcohol, use illegal drugs, have
unprotected sex, do antisocial behaviors, drive dangerously, and drive while inebriated than both
children and adults. (H Pharo et al, 2011).
In a survey conducted by researcher Helle , The National Epidemiologic Study on
Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC), indicated that 42 percent of those who matched the
DSM-IV alcohol dependence criteria also met the diagnostic criteria for any personality disorder.
Of those individuals who met diagnostic criteria for BPD, 46% to 49% also met diagnostic
criteria for alcohol abuse disorder, and 59% met diagnostic criteria for lifetime AUD. Among the
general population or clinical samples of individuals with a diagnosis of AUD or alcohol
dependence, the prevalence of a BPD diagnosis was approximately 12% to 17%. Overall, AUD
and BPD overlap to a high degree (AC Helle et al, 2019). According to NESARC data borderline
personality disorder is the highest attributable risk factor for suicide attempts. Therefore,
borderline personality disorders is a unique contributors to suicide-related outcomes.(EB Ansell
et al 2015)
The BPD impulsivity criteria for substance abuse is indicated by persistent, excessive
drug use as well as issues resulting from such use. (For example, emotional instability and
interpersonal issues.) Further, emotion dysregulation is linked to the emergence of excessive
drug use. Emotion dysregulation and impulsivity, according to current views, play an important
role in the development of both illnesses i.e borderline personality disorder and substance abuse
disorder. Furthermore, the co-occurrence of BPD and SUD may indicate shared etiological
mechanisms, such as the early manifestation of poor impulse control and emotional
dysregulation in both disorders. (TJ Trull et al, 2018).
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However the majority of past research only focused on adult samples, as only adults can
be properly diagnosed with PD in severe mental diagnosis systems. Recently, there has been a
surge in interest in studying unhealthy traits in teenagers, particularly during early adolescence
because this is a pivotal developmental time in the start and progression of unhealthy traits
.Korenblum and colleagues found that 42 percent of the teenagers in their nonclinical groups had
varied degrees of personality disorder symptoms with at least 33% meeting the diagnostic
criteria for a PD (Y Wang et al, 2013).
Personality disorders are thought to be chronic rather than episodic beginning in
childhood and extending into adulthood and influencing all parts of a person’s life. ( DH Barlow
et al ,2016).However ,many psychologists and psychiatrists acknowledge that PDs in teenagers
exist, the majority of them do not diagnose them. As a result, professionals' hesitation to
recognize PDs in adolescents may hinder the development of an individual. (EMP Laurenssen et
al, 2013)
It is largely assumed that adolescence is a period of change and turmoil. This might be
the reason that it is confusing for clinicians to consider diagnosing a personality disorder during
a time of identity questioning and consolidation. It is true that moodiness and some degree of
impulsive behavior and risk-taking are common in adolescents, but most of them are not
seriously troubled. (MP Larrivée, 2022).However,no studies have examined longitudinal
association of adolescents' risky behavior over time, and we know relatively little about the role
of psychopathology through manifestation of borderline personality traits . This study examines
longitudinal associations between adolescents’ borderline personality disorder (BPD) symptoms
and risky behaviour of adolescents.(S Choukas-Bradley et al, 2020 )
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Rationale
It is difficult for health care professionals and parents to look at the signs and know
whether an adolescent has emerging BPD or if the individual is simply going through a normal
teenage phase. Because teen personalities are still forming, young people may undergo many
changes before they’re considered an adult. DSM-5 permits the diagnosis of BPD in patients
younger than 18 if symptoms persist for at least 1 year .Hence, I am developing a scale that
would be administered twice on the samples after 1 year follow up to check the severity of bpd
traits. The above topic has been chosen because unhealthy personality patterns during
adolescence such as aggressive behaviors, suicide, substance abuse, sexual activity, alcohol
abuse problems may increase in later life and this may also increase the risk for unhealthy
personalities or major personality disorders in later stages of life. Hence, I'm exploring this in my
research study. The right development of an individual begins in the early stage of life and hence,
it is an important step to identify personality pathology, unhealthy personality traits before
adulthood. Therefore, it’s better to know the severity so that we tackle them. This will help in
improving our understanding of unhealthy traits in adolescence and may help to reduce the risk
of subsequent exasperation of the condition in later life.
Target Population
Individuals aged between 11 to 21 will be the target population.
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Method
The following scale will be developed on Google form in the form of 5 point Likert scale
ranging from never to always .The google form will be sent to participants. The participants will
have 3 sets of questions. Each set of 10 questions. Since I’m measuring the frequency of
engaging in unhealthy personality traits the first set of questions would be based on alcohol
abuse/ substance abuse, second set of questions would be on aggressive tendencies and third set
of questions would be on sexual activity. Participants have to respond to the following
statements.
Validity
Construct validity will be established in order to check whether the test measures the
construct that it is supposed to measure.The scale will be compared to Personality Assessment
Inventory- Borderline Scale(PAI- BOR) given by Pilkonis, Paul (2018). By comparing to this
scale, convergent validity will be established to understand how the two scales are closely
related to each other. However , if the test turns out to be invalid then we will retain the items
by vote retention based on the theoretical significance of the given particular item. No. of items
to be retained (10) per dimension. 10 from alcohol abuse/ substance abuse, 10 from aggressive
tendencies, 10 from sexual activity.
At least 30% should have voted to retain the item. Since it’s based on individuals
thereotical understanding there might be individual differences. Hence if 30% people agree to
retain the item, then the item should be retained.
Item Pool
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1= never, 2=rarely, 3= sometimes, 4=frequently, 5= Always
Dimension 1= statements based on alcohol abuse /substance abuse
1. When I feel unstable with my emotions I opt for alcohol to cope with it.
2. I drink and drive.
3. When I feel unstable with my emotions I opt for drugs to cope with it.
4. I often do drugs without thinking about the consequences.
5. When people leave me alone I feel irritate and keep myself safe with consumption
of substances.
6. Substances are the best way to regulate mood swings.
7. Nobody understands me so I started having substances
8. I use substances to control my emotions
9. I don't feel suicidal when I am under the influence of substances
10. I love the feeling which I get when I am under the influence of substances
11. I threaten my family when they dint give me money to buy alcohol/ drugs
12. I spend most of my day at bars
13. I spend most of my money on drugs
14. I recommend people to consume alcohol/ substances
15. I consume alcohol/ substances atleast once in a day
16. I purchase alcohol illegally
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17. I create trouble to my family because of my daily consumption of substances
18. Alcohol makes me feel better about myself
19. Alcohol helps me get sympathy from people.
20. Im always thinking of alcohol when I'm sober .
Dimension 2= statements based on aggressive tendencies
1. I get angry easily when I see people neglecting me
2. I harm myself when I am angry
3. I usually don’t empathize with others
4. I don’t get mood swings
5. I engage in self harm when my personal relationships go for a toss
6. I get irritated when I feel lonely
7. I engage in physical fights with my friends
8. I get angry quite often when I don’t get appropriate attention
9. I harm others when I get angry
10. I get angry for less than 3 times a week
11. I find it hard to control myself from destructing things when I am experiencing high bouts
of anger.
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12. I project my anger on non- living objects.
13. I often break doors / windows when I am under the impulse
14. I project my anger on birds and animals.
15. I give death threats to people when they don’t listen to me when I am angry
16. I have put my life at risk when I am angry.
17. I indulge in rash driving under the rage
18. I use abusive language when I am angry
19. I exaggerate the way I feel while expressing the cause behind my anger.
20. I feel angry when things don’t go my way
Dimension 3= statements based on sexual activity
1. I often engage in casual sex than being in a committed relationship.
2. There is consistent fear of rejection from loved ones hence I don’t commit.
3. When I don't get the attention which I need I try ways such as seduction.
4. I often engage in unprotected sex
5. I avoid sexual relationships with people
6. I engage in impulsive sexual relationship which at times ends up harming / hurting my partner
7. I engage in sex for fun with no feelings involved
8. I have multiple sexual relationships
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9. I engage in casual sex
10. I engage in sex with people whom I hardly know
11. I prefer having sex on the first date itself even if my partner is not okay with it.
12. I hardly care about my partner's consent for physical relationship
13. I like my partner to be submissive
14. I care about my partner being comfortable during sex
15. I use sex to punish my partner
16. Delay or absence of orgasm causes me irritation
17. I victimise my partner when they don’t satisfy me
18. I manipulate my partner to have sex
19. I am always thinking of sex
20. I use sex as a means of validation from my partner
Post - task questions
1. What do you think the test was about?
2. Did you face any difficulty while understanding the questions / statements?
3. Were you able to relate to the questions?
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Results
Item
Code 1 2 3 4 5 AVG NOP AVG BOTH
AA1 104 13 6 0 0 1.20 FALSE FALSE FALSE
AT1 37 44 37 2 3 2.11 FALSE FALSE FALSE
AT3 3 9 26 28 57 4.03 FALSE TRUE FALSE
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SA1 104 10 5 4 0 1.26 FALSE FALSE FALSE
SA5 32 12 16 16 47 3.28 FALSE TRUE FALSE
SA14 24 3 2 5 89 4.07 FALSE TRUE FALSE
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Discussion
and precise, as well as easy to understand. This study aimed to understand unhealthy traits in
adolescence in order to help to reduce the risk of subsequent exasperation of the condition in
later life. In the process of checking for reliability, multiple items seemed to prove invalid as
none of the participants selected the scores which related to unhealthy behaviour patterns and
failed to give the discarded results. Due to this the validity of the test was questioned and so the
entire test would need to be discarded and no scores or statistical analysis would be recorded.
This could be due to reasons linked to the review of literature in the contextual
surroundings. The literature gap of understanding unhealthy behaviour traits, though important to
study, seemed to be less prevalent in an Indian cultural context as perhaps a western culture
through which such traits are more commonly spotted amongst adolescents.
Another factor could be a bias from the test taker. Considering the fact that the unhealthy
behaviours which stemmed from violent or abusive traits are not socially desirable answers or
statements that people might want to publicly acknowledge, it is also possible that due to
conformity of social norms, individuals would provide desirable answers as compared to truthful
answers. This could have skewed the results in order to disprove the unhealthy behaviour
patterns, thus proving the test invalid.
183
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economics. In Handbook of the Economics of Education (Vol. 4, pp. 1-181). Elsevier.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). DSM 5 diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders. In DSM 5 Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (pp. 947-p).
Ansell, E. B., Wright, A. G., Markowitz, J. C., Sanislow, C. A., Hopwood, C. J., Zanarini, M. C.,
... & Grilo, C. M. (2015). Personality disorder risk factors for suicide attempts over 10 years of
follow-up. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 6(2), 161.
Barlow, D. H., Durand, V. M., & Hofmann, S. G. (2016). Abnormal psychology: An integrative
approach. Cengage learning.
Choukas-Bradley, S., Hipwell, A. E., Roberts, S. R., Maheux, A. J., & Stepp, S. D. (2020).
Developmental trajectories of adolescent girls’ borderline personality symptoms and sexual risk
behaviors. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 48(12), 1649-1658.
Helle, A. C., Watts, A. L., Trull, T. J., & Sher, K. J. (2019). Alcohol use disorder and antisocial
and borderline personality disorders. Alcohol research: current reviews.
Kerns, J. G. (2020). Cluster A personality disorders.
Larrivée, M. P. (2022). Borderline personality disorder in adolescents: the
He-who-must-not-be-named of psychiatry. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience.
Laurenssen, E. M. P., Hutsebaut, J., Feenstra, D. J., Van Busschbach, J. J., & Luyten, P. (2013).
Diagnosis of personality disorders in adolescents: a study among psychologists. Child and
adolescent psychiatry and mental health, 7(1), 1-4.
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Perry, J. C. (2014). Cluster C personality disorders: Avoidant, dependent, and
obsessive-compulsive.
Pharo, H., Sim, C., Graham, M., Gross, J., & Hayne, H. (2011). Risky business: executive
function, personality, and reckless behavior during adolescence and emerging adulthood.
Behavioral neuroscience, 125(6), 970.
Polek, E., Jones, P. B., Fearon, P., Brodbeck, J., Moutoussis, M., Dolan, R., ... & Nspn
Consortium. (2018). Personality dimensions emerging during adolescence and young adulthood
are underpinned by a single latent trait indexing impairment in social functioning. BMC
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Trull, T. J., Freeman, L. K., Vebares, T. J., Choate, A. M., Helle, A. C., & Wycoff, A. M. (2018).
Borderline personality disorder and substance use disorders: an updated review. Borderline
personality disorder and emotion dysregulation, 5(1), 1-12.
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186
Chapter 6: Individual Proposal:
Motivation in Working Mothers
Intrinsic and extrinsic sorts of motivation are widely studied- motivation being the method
whereby goal‐directed activities are initiated and sustained. (Woodworth, 1954). Intrinsic
motivation remains a crucial construct, reflecting the natural human propensity to gain
knowledge and assimilate. It ties down to the motivation derived from doing an activity simply
for the pleasure that comes from doing it. (Deci, 1975; Deci and Ryan, 1985).
Harter studied two types of Intrinsic motivation- motivation toward accomplishments, and to
experience stimulation. With regards to working mothers, the sheer need to prove oneself in their
respective field, notwithstanding their personal life, could be an example of IM toward
accomplishments. On the other hand, mothers that truly enjoy what they do, rather than doing
said job for simply remuneration benefits, belong to the second category of IM. Deci and Ryan
also concluded that Intrinsic Motivation stems from the basic need to be independent. Contrary
to Intrinsic motivation, Extrinsic motivation pertains to a motivation to succeed simply to make
ends meet. Deci and Ryan have boiled extrinsic motivation down to three types. External
regulation is a type of EM that occurs, solely for external rewards. Whereas, introjected
regulation pertains when an individual internalises the reasoning for their actions. Ultimately, the
behaviours become valued to that individual, and EM slowly shifts to IM. This last type is called
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Identification, wherein the individual starts to do certain tasks only because they are important to
them.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation has been measured in the past with the use of the Academic
Motivation Scale. The AMS is a scale that has been used widespreadly to measure students’
motivation levels toward learning. It is a scale that consists of different 28-item 7 point Likert
Scales. After an extensive literature search through Scopus and PubMed it was found that no
study has been conducted that measures the Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation of Working
Mothers in India. The current study aims to assess the motivation levels of working mothers in
India, using a Likert-scale of 40 items.
Motherhood confers upon an individual the responsibility of raising a toddler. This process also
changes the way in which she is looked at in society and at her workplace. It can necessitate her
to demand frequent leave options, and job security may be in danger. Significant social and
private adjustments are necessary to deal with such a situation. A working mother, especially one
who has the great fortune to be ready to balance her home and work, enjoys the stimulation that
employment or career provides. (Clark R, Hyde; 1997). She develops the power of raising a
useful member of society and along with gaining financial independence.
Certain usual issues torture most working women. The Better Health Channelon the Web,
ratified by the Government of Australia, has listed some of the common issues that may concern
working mothers (Better Health Channel, 2008). The main amongst these are income difficulties.
If the mother works, hiring somebody to look after the child (daycare) is essential and can be
quite expensive. It may actually completely put the financial benefits of both the parents working
188
off track. In Asian countries, and in many joint family systems, grandparents and other non
working family members fulfil the need for childcare–they look after the child when the mother
is at work. This extremely essential benefit (of willing child support from the family members
themselves) in joint families not only acknowledges that the working mother is the crux of the
family, but also gives her the necessary support to be able to perform her dual role efficiently.
Stress loads can obviously be quite high amongst working mothers and may often interfere in
their personal life.
The sudden increment of married women into the workforce goes against Asian thinking that
women must choose between family and career. Many observers deemed working mothers as
selfish, manipulative and even dangerous to their children and society (Wilson, 2006). It was
complained that the rise in juvenile delinquency could also be attributed to women who are
working mothers, but needs and requirements of the family unit will always supersede ill-defined
logic. Women, whether or not they are mothers, continue to work. The reasons are, more often
than not, their dreams. Many of these mothers are still young and have spent years nurturing their
careers. When both spouses work it may be necessary for the mother to retain her job if she has
insurance benefits, and if she wants to retire with greater perks (Edelman, 2002). Many of these
women find the need to maintain a parallel source of income their way of creating a mark in the
world.
Motherhood leads to a concrete bias in employment for women seeking a job in typically male
settings (Heilman and Okimoto, 2008). In general, for both men and women, parenthood changes
the way in which both individuals are viewed in terms of expected commitment toward work,
producing expectations of unreliability. There are probable heightened associations with gender
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stereotypes that occur when women are mothers; this may lead to heightened performance
expectations that predispose greater negativity to be directed at mothers than at non mothers
when career advancement decisions are made (Heilman and Okimoto, 2008). They also noted
that employment bias occurred against mothers irrespective of whether they were studying or
employed, and that women have undue disadvantages when at the workplace, a problem that has
been called the Maternal Wall by Williams (Heilman and Okimoto, 2008; Williams, 2001).
A study conducted by David J. Osman and Jayce R. Warner measured teacher motivation. It
essentially explored the link between professional development and practice. The main
motivation for teachers is supposed to be the usage of structured activities like lectures and
discussions, and the outcome of said activities on the students. Another important motivational
factor is expectancy. Expectancy for success is a subjective evaluation of performance on a
future task (Wigfield, Eccles, & Rodrigues, 1998). Expectancy Value Theory (Vroom, 1964)
basically concludes that motivation for a given behaviour or action is determined by two factors:
(i) expectancy, ie, how likely it is that a desired outcome is achieved through the behaviour or
action; (ii) value, ie, how much the individual values the desired outcome.
So as to measure the motivation levels of teachers, Osman and Wayne developed a scale with 24
items that were aligned with constructs of expectancy value theory. These items were designed to
measure 5 different measures of teacher’s motivation, and participants were required to rate their
levels of agreement on a 6-point Likert scale. Using this data, an exploratory factor analysis in
SPSS indicated that a 3-factor model was more suitable for the study than the initially
hypothesised 5-factor model.
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There has been no research conducted to discover motivation in working mothers, let alone
explore and measure the intrinsic and extrinsic types. This highlights the large research gap that
exists, thus this study aims to discover the same.
METHOD
Sample: The target population will consist of 30 Participants. They will be cis-gendered working
mothers with children aging from 1month-8 years of age, belonging to a similar education
background.
Variables:
Independent Variable- Working Mothers
Theoretical Definition: An individual who has a job alongside taking care of their child.
Operational Definition: The possession of a job alongside raising a child (working mother)
would be the operational definition of this independent variable.
Dependent Variable- Working Mothers’ level of motivation at their workplace
Theoretical Definition: The process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented
behaviours.
Operational Definition: A Five-point Likert Scale to measure motivation levels of working
mothers.
191
RATIONALE
Various researches have been conducted based on motivation levels in different individuals.
However, there has been no specific research that studies intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in
working mothers, as well as its measurement and comparison. This study could be useful and
contribute to this research gap, as there is no data that exists on this topic.
PROCEDURE
The experimenter will share a scale in the form of a Google Form, consisting of 20 items based
on IM and 20 items based on EM, that will measure intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of working
mothers. The 30 participants will be required to fill out this form. Comparing the scores of both
groups will allow the researcher to gauge which type of motivation encourages mothers to work.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
I would use t-test as my statistical tool so as to compare the mean scores of both the constructs
(IM and EM) of the Item pool.
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ITEM POOL
All items will be in a 5-point Likert scale format, ranging from Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral,
Disagree to Strongly Disagree.
1. I love my job.
2. I have always envisioned a life where I have a job.
3. I had dreams and aspirations of success even before I had a family.
4. I do my job for my own satisfaction.
5. My job remuneration benefits are secondary to me.
6. My job is important to my family.
7. My family encourages me to work.
8. My family supports my child when I am not around to look after them.
9. I am happy with the amount of time I get with my child.
10. My child is accustomed to my schedule.
11. I enjoy the work-life balance I have.
12. Nobody has forced me to do my job.
13. I look forward to personal accomplishments at work.
14. I am fond of the people I work with.
15. I look forward to work events.
16. I wake up everyday excited to go to my job.
17. My partner has a stable income.
18. My partner respects the work I do.
19. My partner takes joint accountability of our child/ren with me.
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20. I want my child/ren to work and pursue their dreams.
21. I work because I have to.
22. I work so my family can survive.
23. I do not like my job.
24. I work my job so I can earn money for my family.
25. My partner does not support my family.
26. My partner is not supportive of my career.
27. I do not have external help with my child/ren.
28. I would not work this job if I did not need the remuneration benefits.
29. I do not look forward to going to work everyday.
30. I am unhappy that I do not get enough time with my child/ren.
31. I do not feel the need to work for myself.
32. I did not envision a life for myself where I was working.
33. I do not feel an internal drive to go to work.
34. I wish I did not have to work.
35. I do not like my work environment.
36. My parents do not respect my work.
37. I have frequent feelings of distress regarding my job.
38. I am happy with my income.
39. I work for short-term benefits.
40. I am usually demotivated at work.
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References
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H. S. N. C.

Kishinchand Chellaram College

Churchgate, 400 020

Academic Year 2021-22

MPSY 10 Practical / Field Work Component Psychometrics Testing Practicals

University Seat No. :

Ms. Veena Kumar Mx. Sujay Bhandary

Head of Department Subject Teacher-In-Charge

Stamp of the College

Sr. Date Title Page No.

II Self Designed Scale 186

Attitudes towards Cannabis consumers in India

underestimation of the worth of someone. An individual may view a cannabis consumer as

In Michigan, a study was conducted via computer-assisted telephone interviewing to

Although as of today the consumption of cannabis for non-medicinal purposes is illegal,

it relied on self-reporting marijuana consumption which could be under reported.

normalisation of drugs by showing it in films, music, clothing etc. Additionally, a lot of

carried out to characterise representations of codeine misuse by analysing posts on Instagram to

potential for drug use and codeine mis-use to be normalised.

Individuals with substance dependence face a lot of discrimination and stigmatization

self-loathing and insecurities.

The measured attitudes towards cannabis consumption could also be an indicator of

cannabis consumption is normalized and accepted. It is important to understand the attitudes of

how people across different age groups perceive cannabis consumption.

various forms of media representation and other similar factors.

Independent Variable- Consumers of cannabis.

stem, divided serrated leaves, and glandular hairs) as a recreational drug.

Operational Definition- survey questions regarding attitudes towards consumers of

Theoretical Definition- a settled way of thinking or feeling about something.

Operational Definition- a five-point likert scale to measure attitudes towards cannabis

give socially desirable responses.

have a mix of both marijuana consumers as well as non- consumers.

cannabis consumption in order to prevent a cognitive bias due to directed questions.

The survey shall be administered via google form.

number from 1 (“Strongly disagree”) to 6 (‘Strongly agree”).

to prevent a cognitive bias due to directed questions.)

Statements with a negative connotation-

● I refrain from talking to someone if I know they are a user of cannabis.

● I think consumption of cannabis should remain criminalized.

● I would avoid employing a user of cannabis.

● I think cannabis users are a bad influence.

● I think it is unacceptable to consume bhang on Holi.

● I think it is unacceptable to smoke hash or weed.

● I think consumers of cannabis are untrustworthy.

● I think consumers of cannabis are weak.

● I think consumers of cannabis are irresponsible.

● I think consumers of cannabis are unreliable.

● I think consumers of cannabis are unprofessional.

● I think consumers of cannabis are rebellious.

● I think consumers of cannabis are ignorant.

● I think consumers of cannabis are reckless.

● I think consuming cannabis dulls people’s personalities.

● I think consumers of cannabis lack foresight.

● I think smoking cannabis is worse than consuming it in an edible form.

● I would feel uncomfortable if my partner was a consumer of cannabis.

they found out I am a cannabis consumer.

● I think people who consume cannabis are not healthy.

● I refrain from consuming marijuana because it is against my culture.

Statements with a positive connotation-

● I have friends who consume cannabis.

● I think cannabis consumers are more creative.

● I think cannabis consumers are open minded.

● I get along well with cannabis consumers.

● I think consuming cannabis can help people gain new perspectives.