See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/270877187

Limitations of performance assessment in 3D turbine stage computations

using wall functions with high and low-Re turbulence models

Conference Paper · September 2009

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.3030.3044

CITATIONS READS

0 179

3 authors:

Carlos Xisto José Páscoa

Chalmers University of Technology Universidade da Beira Interior
56 PUBLICATIONS   343 CITATIONS    212 PUBLICATIONS   1,324 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Emil Göttlich
Graz University of Technology
100 PUBLICATIONS   844 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

ROBUST View project

Discoid unoffensive drone View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Carlos Xisto on 14 January 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Limitations of performance assessment in 3D turbine stage computations
using wall functions with high and low-Re turbulence models
Carlos M. C. Xisto1 e José C. Páscoa1 and Emil Göttlich2
1
Universidade da Beira Interior, Departamento de Engª Electromecânica,
Calçada Fonte do Lameiro, 1, 6200-001 Covilhã, Portugal
email: pascoa@ubi.pt http://www.ubi.pt
2
Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics, Graz University of Technology,
Graz, Styria A-8010, Austria

Abstract
The increase of efficiency in turbine blading systems is a field of continuous improvement in gas turbine
industries. Currently the main efforts are directed towards re-blading by readapting the geometries to
thermodynamic conditions. A CFD code can help reveal performance trends in the application of three-
dimensional blade stacking with competitive costs as compared to experimental testing. Due to the high
computing costs involved, the routinely computation of turbulent flow in turbine stages as a trial and error
design tool, or coupled to optimization algorithms, is still only feasible under a steady flow assumption and by
using wall functions for the near wall solution. In the present work we have applied the k-∈ and the Spalart-
Allmaras turbulence models to compute the turbulent flow around 3D turbine blades. For the T106 geometry the
computations, using wall functions for the two models, are compared with the Spalart-Allmaras results without
wall functions and also with experimental results. The results obtained for the Graz transonic turbine stage are
compared with experiments. The accuracy inherent to performance assessment using wall functions is analyzed.
This will permit that the following work, related to optimization of blade geometries, can be judged on the base
of the accuracy attainable using wall functions.

Key-words: turbine stage; CFD; turbulence model; wall functions.

1 Introduction
The design of turbomachines, namely for aeronautical propulsion, follows a well-established chain of levels of
detail. The master design team establishes the main parameters for the turbomachine. This means defining the
overall pressure ratio, the number of stages and other main design variables for the gas turbine. This main team
is further sub-divided into the compressor, turbine, and combustion chamber design teams. For each of this
design sub-teams the level of detail is increasingly higher, both in the definition of the geometry and on the use
of the physical models representing the flowfield [1].
For the present work we will concentrate on the turbine stage. We will also reserve to company
designers the intricate work of defining the design of a target engine. Herein we will be concerned in assessing
the level of detail that can be attained, using CFD, under the limited computing power we currently have
available.
The analysis of the flow in tubine blades has been extended from 2D to 3D, and from pure Euler
equations to Navier-Stokes modeling, including turbulent flow. This later has only been possible due to fast
development of computer power of modern desktop computers. The later are typically available in Portuguese
Universities [2,3]. Most of these analyses were carried out for isolated blade rows. However, this approach is not
accurate in many circumstances, due to a strong coupling and interaction between the several blade rows.
The computation of blade rows can be made using several approaches. This can be done using the
mixing plane approach or the average passage equations of Adamczyk, or even using pure unsteady solution
through one blade pitch [4]. To fully account for the rotor-stator interaction, a 3D unsteady Navier-Stokes
analysis is required, but such an analysis is too CPU-intensive and expensive in terms of computing power, so
we will restrict our approach to the mixing plane model [5].
The mixing plane approach is applied at the blade row interface between the stator-rotor. It can also be
applied to several stages in series. In this approach one assumes that the flow is totally mixed out and is axis-
symmetric between the blade rows. Actually, it can only include the effects of radial variation in an approximate
way and cannot account for any circumferential variations, such as those created by wakes, leakage or secondary
flows. Albeit this, it is important to clarify that the pitchwise averaging does not affect the spanwise variation in
flow. Actually, the spanwise variation of pressure, velocity, flow angle, etc, at all stations between hub and tip is
obtained from the full 3D Navier-Stokes computation.
The inclusion of viscous effects in 3D blade row computations is still limited by the availability of
adequate turbulence models. The computation using DNS, or even LES, is still fairly expensive in terms of
computer time. The current state-of-the-art approach is limited to the use of turbulence models and, depending
on the available computing power, to the use of wall functions or in better conditions to resolve the boundary
layer using a low-Reynolds turbulence model [3].
The computation of the flow, for a single blade row, can nowadays routinely be made using a low-Re
turbulence model and resolving the boundary layer, even with desktop computers. The computation of a whole
stage is more computing demanding and, at least with our current capabilities, can only be accomplished with the
use of wall functions. This introduces the reason for the current work, which is to analyze the performance
assessment limitations when using wall functions, for turbine stage computations, instead of resolving the
boundary layer.
In the present work we have computed the flow for the T106 turbine blade cascade, using wall
functions and by resolving the full boundary layer [6]. This allowed us to analyze the capabilities of both
models, using several turbulence closures. Afterwards we have computed the flow for a transonic turbine stage,
whose experimental results were made available by the Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine
Dynamics, Graz University of Technology [7].
Numerical modeling of turbine blades as been the subject of intense research, and in recent years
special attention was given to turbulence modeling [8]. Very good results were obtained even with the Baldwin-
Lomax algebraic model, for low inlet turbulence intensities Tu<0.2. It is usually recognized that to model the
influence of high values of turbulence only two equation methods are recommended, k − ω or a low-Re version
of k − ε . Typically, on the suction side the Launder-Sharma model was able to capture the laminar region. All
other turbulence models consider an almost immediate transition with a fully turbulent boundary layer on the
suction surface. Most of the methods predict usually a higher level of turbulence around the leading edge. Being
this excessive production of turbulence caused by the high normal strains computed in the stagnation region. On
the contrary, almost all methods predict with good accuracy the flow in the pressure surface. Another region of
interest is the trailing edge, for this region all the methods tend to capture the separation point with oscillations in
its location. All algebraic methods give bad results in this trailing edge region. These methods lack accuracy
when big regions of separated flow, shocks, or high inlet turbulence are present. Our approach is to use transport
models, for which part of this problems can be solved.

2 Numerical modeling of the T106 cascade

We have chosen the T106 cascade because it is under our computing power, see Fig. 1. This is the case if we use
wall functions or if we compute the whole boundary layer. The experimental, and numerical, test case was
recently presented by Cutrone [6].
The inlet flow is subsonic with a Mach number of 0.59. At inlet we have imposed the total pressure,
total temperature and flow angle, and at exit we have imposed the static pressure. At inlet the turbulence
intensity imposed in [6] is 5.8% with a length scale of 2% chord and this was made the same in our numerical
computations.
The mesh was carefully generated in order to obtain a good smoothness and it comprises 20 blocks. For
grid independency studies two meshes were created, Mesh-A with 1 251 250 nodes and Mesh-B that is 30%
lower in node count. This later comprises only 466 284 nodes. Both meshes are of an H-type topology except for
the O-block around the blade. For Mesh-A 130 points are distributed around the half-mirrored blade span. For
the inter-blade domain 55 points are used, with another 171 nodes distributed along the axial flow direction. In
this later case 107 points are distributed along the blade surface. In the B-Mesh we have distributed 91 points for
the blade span, 42 for the inter-blade region, 122 for the axial flow direction with 77 on the blade surface. The
aft blade computing domain extents for one blade pitch, and the fore domain extents for 0.875xpitch. The mesh
used for the computations without wall functions comprises 1 535 950 nodes, 130 points along the symmetric
blade span, 171 points in axial direction with 107 used to define the blade, and 65 point in the inter-blade region.
2.1 Computation of turbulent flow
In order to compute the flow we have used the FLUENT® code. The code solves the full 3D Navier-Stokes
equations using an explicit discretization and utilizes a time-marching approach; this later is implemented trough
a 3 stage Runge-Kutta integration scheme. A second order upwind discretization in space is herein retained. As
was previously referred the mesh comprised both H and O type blocks. For this test case two turbulence closures
were applied, the standard k − ε and the Spalart-Allmaras low-Re turbulence model.
.
2.2 Results for the T106 cascade
Figure 2 presents a comparison between the experimental and numerical results. These results were obtained
with the hi-Re standard k − ε turbulence model and with the Spalart-Allmaras low-Re turbulence model, both
using wall functions (grid B). The computation was accomplished using wall functions that conforms to a y+
between 30 and 300.
In Figure 2, we also, present the results obtain when resolving the whole boundary layer. These results
were obtain with a maximum value of 0,48 in the spanwise distribution of the y+, and with a maximum value of
0,53 in the sidewall.

T106 cascade of blades

Pitch (s) 79.9 mm
Chord (c) 100 mm
Axial chord ( c ax ) 86.1 mm
Inlet angle 37.7º
Outlet angle 63.2º
Span 300 mm

a) b)

Fig.1. Geometry of the T106 rectilinear cascade a); details of the geometric parameters b).

Fig.2. Comparison between the experimental and computed pressure distributions for the T106 cascade.

In Figure 3 we present the passage vortex computed for the T106 blade, using wall functions and
resolving the whole boundary layer. These results allow us to assess the capability of the wall functions in the
prediction of secondary flows. As we can see, the prediction for the intensity of the passage vortex, obtain with
the models using wall functions is smaller that when we used the Spalart-Allmaras to resolve the whole
boundary layer.

a)

b)

Fig.3. Representation of the passage vortex computed for the T106 blade using wall functions a); and resolving
the boundary layer b). PS-Pressure Surface, SS-Suction Surface.
3 Computation of Graz transonic turbine stage
This transonic test case was tested experimentally at Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine
Dynamics of Graz Technical University. The test case was carefully tested by our co-author Emil Götlich and is
representative of state-of-the-art geometries for the last stages of modern gas turbine [7]. A high level of detail
for the geometry was considered, including the fillets at hub and tip sections. The stator comprises 24 blades and
the rotor has 36 blades, which represents a ratio of 2:3 between the stator and rotor blades. In our case, using the
mixing plane model we can perform the computation using only one blade for the stator and rotor rows.

Tab.1. Detailed data for the geometry and flow conditions of the Graz transonic turbine stage [7].

Stator blade number 24

Rotor blade number 36
Stator chord at midspan 78.9 mm
Axial stator chord at midspan 56.1 mm
Stator geometric turning angle 70 º
Rotor chord at midspan 55.9 mm
Axial rotor chord at midspan 46.8 mm
Rotor geometric turning angle 107 º
Stator aspect-ratio 0.7
Rotor aspect-ratio 1.24
Pressure-ratio p tot ,in / p out 3.5
Rotating speed 10 600 rpm
Total pressure, at inlet 403 K
Stator Reynolds number 2.57x106
Rotor Reynolds number 1.69x106

Fig.4. Mesh used for the computation of the Graz transonic turbine stage. In the upper image it is depicted the
mesh at the hub surface. The lower image represents the mesh used for the blade span.
 a)

b)
Fig.5. Results obtained for the computation of the Graz transonic stage: a) Isolines of velocity for a radial section
at stator midspan (r=0.226) computed using the mixing plane approach. b) Experimental results obtained in [7].
 The first phase of the computations performed for the stage was made using isolated blade rows for the
stator and rotor. By solving each flow in an isolated blade row we were able to detect any flow convergence
problems, typically created by poor mesh quality. After this fine-tuning of the mesh we proceed into the full
stage computation. For this test case we solved the Navier-Stokes equations using the Spalart-Allmaras
turbulence model, as this model performed better in the T106 test case. In this computation an implicit
discretization using double precision was retained. The computations started using a first-order discretization in
space and later on were toggle to second order accuracy.
The mesh comprises 15 H blocks, with 8 blocks in the stator and 7 in the rotor. The overall mesh
comprises 224 136 nodes, these were 131 136 for the stator and 93 000 for the rotor. The stator blade comprises
49 points in the inter-blade region and 93 points in the axial flow direction, with 65 points used to define the
blade surface. For the radial direction we have distributed 30 points. For the rotor blade 29 points were applied in
the inter-blade zone and 93 on the axial direction, with 65 points used to define the blade geometry. In the radial
direction 30 points were used, the mesh can be seen in Fig. 4.
The flowfield at inlet of the stator is completely subsonic, transonic flow is restricted to minor zones
around the stator trailing edge. Thus, at stage inlet we have imposed stagnation pressure and temperature with
the corresponding flow angles and at stage outlet static pressure is imposed. At the mixing plane interface also
characteristic boundary conditions are imposed, namely stagnation pressure, temperature, flow angles at rotor
inlet and static pressure at stator outlet. In order to apply the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence models we have
considered a turbulence intensity of 10% and a length scale of 1% pitch at stator midspan. These turbulence
quantities are usually applied in modeling turbomachinery flows.
The initial computations were performed with an explicit approach and using pure characteristic
boundary conditions to extrapolate the variables at the boundaries. Unfortunately convergence was not attained,
the residues got stuck at a minor value. Convergence was attained only when using the implicit formulation and
applying non-reflecting boundary conditions. Due to computing power restrictions only results for the Spalart-
Allmaras turbulence model using wall functions were obtained.
Figure 5-a) presents the numerical results of velocity obtained for a section at stator midspan. These can
be compared with the experimental results obtained for the stage using PIV [7].
The numerical result shows a good agreement with the experimental data. However more experimental
data is necessary for a precise validation of the model. Only with a spanwise distribution of experimental and
computed variables we can assess, in full, the capability of the mixing plane model in the prediction of this flow
field.

4 Conclusions
In the present work we have performed a study on accuracy limitations related to the computation of turbulent
flow in gas turbines. Accuracy is partly limited by the expensive computing resources needed to model the
complex geometries involved and also by the accuracy of the available physical models.
A detailed analysis of the flow was performed for a rectilinear cascade that involves the representation
of secondary flow. It was clear that only low-Reynolds number models resolving the full boundary layer can
approach the experimental results. Albeit this, the modeling of secondary flows in these regions is still computed
in approximate way, in comparison to experiments, even if we solve the full boundary layer.
The later implies that in computing stage flows we should resort to low-Reynolds number turbulence
models. But diverse problems arose in the computation of the transonic stage. Albeit first order convergence can
be readily attained, second order computations were much difficult to obtain. These difficulties can compromise
the results even at the level of accuracy already obtained with wall functions.
In open literature there are scarce references on turbulence modeling of compressible flow using the
mixing plane algorithm implemented in FLUENT®. This is especially the case if we restrict our research to
simulations that present supersonic pockets near the mixing plane interface, those references are almost missing,
and those that in fact exist don’t go beyond a first-order discretization [10]. In this work we present a second
order computation for this kind of flowfield [11]. Albeit mixing-plane and full unsteady computations are
internationally used this work presents, at the best of our knowledge, the first results obtained by a Portuguese
team on a full 3D Navier-Stokes computation of a gas turbine stage.

References
1. J. C. Páscoa, C. M. C. Xisto, Computational Modeling of Sweep and Lean Effects on 3D Turbine Blades for
Performance Assessment, Proc. ENCIT 2008 – 12th Brazilian Congresso of Thermal Engineering and
Sciences, R. Koury, M. Barbosa (Eds), Paper 1-5274, 8 pgs, Belo Horizonte, 10-14 November 2008,
Associação Brasileira de Engenharia e Ciências Mecânicas.
 2. J. C. Páscoa, A. C. Mendes, L. M. C. Gato L. C., An Efficient Finite Volume Scheme with Improved
Artificial Viscosity Suitable for Transonic-flow Calculations, International Series on Advances in Fluid
Mechanics, 32, 505-514, 2002.
3. J. C. Páscoa, J. K. Luff, J. J. McGuirk, A. C. Mendes, On Accurate Numerical Modeling of 3D Turbulent
Flow Through a DCA Compressor Cascade and its Experimental Validation, International Journal of
Dynamics of Fluids, 2(1), 1–18, 2006.
4. W. N. Dawes, Toward improved throughflow capability: The use of three-dimensional viscous flow solvers
in a multistage environment, Journal of Turbomachinery, 114, 8-17, 1992.
5. J. D. Denton, The calculation of three-dimensional visocous flow through multistage turbomachines, Journal
of Turbomachinery, 114, 18-26, 1992.
6. L. Cutrone, P. D. Palma, G. Pascazio and M. Napolitano, Predicting transition in two and three-dimensional
separated flows, International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 29, 504-526, 2008.
7. E. Göttlich, J. Woisetschläger, P. Pieringer, B. Hampel, F. Heitmeir, Investigation of Vortex Shedding and
Wake-wake Interaction in a Transonic Turbine Stage Using Laser-Doppler-Velocimetry and Particle-Image-
Velocimetry, Journal of Turbomachinery, 128 178-187, 2006.
8. S. Djouimaa, L. Messaoudi, P. W. Giel, Transonic turbine blade loading calculations using different
turbulence models – effects of reflecting and non-reflecting boundary conditions, Applied Thermal
Engineering, 27, 779-787, 2007.
9. Y. Liu, Aerodynamics and heat transfer predictions in a highly loaded turbine blade, International Journal of
Heat and Fluid Flow, 28, 932-937, 2007.
10. Hanus, D., Censký, T., Neveceral, J., e Horký, V. (2005). First stage of the centrifugal compressor design
with tandem rotor blade. In ISABE - 17th International Symposium on Airbreathing Engines.
11. C. M. C. Xisto, “Estudo da física do escoamento secundário e modelação computacional do escoamento
turbulento 3D em coroas de pás de turbinas”, M.Sc. Thesis, pp. 110, University of Beira Interior, Portugal,
2009.

View publication stats