Analog and telecommunication

electronics

F1: Power devices: diodes

» Switches
» pn Junction
» Diode models
» Dynamic behavior
» Zener diodes

Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 1 / 43

 F1: Power devices: diodes
Device structure, models, parameters
♦Switches
♦pn Junction
♦Diode models
♦Dynamic behavior

Special purpose diodes

♦PIN and Schottky
♦Zener

Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 2 / 43

 Parameters for power devices
Voltage
♦ Sustain high voltages
Current
♦ Handle high current
Power
♦ Deliver high power to the load
♦ Low dissipated power and temperature rise on control device
♦ High efficiency
Speed
♦ High frequency (RF – not here)
♦ Fast switching

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 Power devices
Diodes
♦Standard
♦P-I-N
♦Schottky
♦Zener
Transistors
♦BJT
♦MOS-FET
♦IGBT
♦SCR/TRIAC
Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 4 / 43
 Power device applications
Switches
♦Two-state devices
• ON /OFF state
♦Power switches
♦Signal switches
Amplifiers & linear applications
♦Analog devices
♦Continuous control output V or I from input V or I
♦Provide power gain
• Low input control power
♦Extremes of operation range: ON/OFF states
Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 5 / 43
 Switch operation
Type:
♦Mechanical
♦Electronic Control
Command signal
♦Mech/electric
ON state V

♦Short circuit, zero voltage drop I

OFF state
♦Open circuit, zero current
Power dissipation: 0
Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 6 / 43
 Switch parameters
ON state
♦ Ideal: Short circuit, 0 voltage drop
♦ Real:
• Low resistance Ron
• Low voltage drop Vsat
V
OFF state ON
voltag
♦ Ideal: Open circuit, 0 current e Vsat
I
♦ Real:
• High resistance Slope
Ron
• Low current (leakage) Ioff
Leakage
Power dissipation current
Ioff
♦ Ideal: V or I = 0;  Pd = 0
♦ Real: V and I ≠ 0  Pd ≠ 0
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 Switch parameters
Direction of V and I
♦ 1/2/4 quadrant
Power handling capabilities
♦ Vmax  Max voltage OFF state (breakdown voltage)
♦ Imax  Max current ON state
♦ Pd dissipated power (Max, actual)
Speed (Tc, switching time)
♦ Delay from command to complete state change
♦ ONOFF and ONOFF
EMI
♦ related with speed of change dV/dt, dI/dt, …

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 Mechanical switches
Mobile metal contact Open/closed
♦ Command signal: Force (finger, coil, other mechanical)
♦ Vmax  Max voltage OFF state (Vbrk): Contact spacing
♦ Imax  Max current ON state: Contact size
♦ Tc switching time: Mechanical time constant
Strong points
♦ Low Ron, Low Ioff, Low power loss
♦ Able to handle high V and I (within limits!)
Critical issues
♦ Number of cycles
♦ Arching, Bouncing
♦ Delay from command to actual state change
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 Electronic switches
Diodes
♦ Two-terminal devices: Control & Power on same pins
 ON/OFF controlled by applied V and I
Transistors and other devices (DIAC, TRIAC, …)
♦ At least 3 pins  Separate control signal
Smart SWS: Include control and check circuits
Strong points
♦ Speed
♦ Long life (No wear)
Critical issues
♦ Vmax, Imax
♦ Ron, Ioff,
Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 10 / 43
 Review of pn Junctions
Density gradient cause diffusion of majority charge
carriers across the junction.
These carriers combine with (and remove) carriers of
opposite polarity.

free p carriers free n carriers

(holes) (electrones)

No free carrier here: free carriers

depletion layer (insulator) available: conductor

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 Biased pn Junction
Forward bias
♦ p-type side positive with respect to n-type side
 thin depletion layer
♦ If forward bias voltage higher than a “threshold”
 majority charge carriers can move through the junction
 current flow, which increases with the voltage

Reverse bias
♦ p-type side negative with respect to the n-type side
 wide depletion layer
 less majority charge carriers through the junction
(same amount of minority carriers)
 small leakage current caused by minority carriers

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 Semiconductor junction model
In a diode current can flow only in one direction
♦Ideal, or first approximation model

conduction
voltage p
I = Is
(too small n
to be seen)

Turn-on voltage
(threshold)

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 I(V) characteristic of sem. junction
pn junction current I:  ηVV 
I D = I s  e − 1
IS: leakage current
T

 
 
♦reverse current, for V<0
V: applied voltage
kT e: electron charge,
VT = k: Boltzmann’s constant,
e T: absolute temperature,

η: a constant in the range 1 to 2 (we assume η =1)

♦At 25°C: VT =
kT
= 26 mV
e
Resistive behavior for high currents
Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 14 / 43
 Linear model and parameters
Imax:
Max direct current

ΔV/ΔI = Ron:
ON resistance

Is:
reverse current
(leakage)

Vbr (Vzk)
Von:
Breakdown voltage
ON voltage drop
Figure 3.8 The diode i–v relationship with some scales expanded and others compressed in order to reveal details.

Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 15 / 43

 Diode ON state
Near threshold  Exponential characteristic

High currents
♦ Resistance of low-doping material and contacts
♦ Linear V,I
♦ Current (Is) related with temperature
• Exponential dependence
♦ Current concentration in small area
• Hot spots
♦ Get wide effective active junction cross-section
• Multiple parallel device
• Current distribution + Positive feedback

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 Diode OFF: reverse breakdown
The junction cannot sustain too high reverse voltage
♦ For |V| > Vbr insulating layer is “broken”, and current increases
♦ Two types of breakdown
Zener breakdown
♦ A very high field strength across the junction pulls electrons
through the junction, causing large reverse current.
♦ Zener breakdown occurs below 5 V.
Avalanche breakdown
♦ Field strength is sufficient to accelerate the electrons;
♦ Electrons collide and accelerate other electrons, (avalanche)
♦ Avalanche breakdown occurs at voltages > 5 V

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 Diode equivalent circuits
Straight-line models, with different
approximation.

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 Silicon diode parameters
Turn -on voltage about 0.5 V
♦ Considered ON when I > |IS|
At “operating” current VD from 0.7 to 1 V
♦ Depends on current, higher for high currents
Breakdown voltage depends on device construction
♦ 40 V (small-signal)  400 V (power)  4 kV (High Voltage)
Max current depends on device construction
♦ 100 mA (signal)  many A (power)  a few kA (High
Current)
Leakage current Is depends on
♦ Material, temperature, device type, … (nA  mA)

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 Comparison of diode parameters

General
Small Signal
Description Purpose
Diode
Rectifier
Sample Device 1N4001 1N4148

Maximum DC/Average
1A 300 mA
Forward Current
Maximum Reverse
50 V 75 V
Voltage
Reverse Leak. Current
50 nA 5 nA
@ 25°C , VR = 20 V
1V
Forward Voltage ~0.7 V
@ IF = 10 mA

Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 20 / 43

 Device data sheet example
Medium power silicon diode:
1N4001…4007

Relevant parameters
VF
VR/VRRM
IF(AV)/IF(max)
Rθ

Vr

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 F1: Power devices
Device structure, models, parameters
♦ Switches
♦ pn Junction
♦ Diode models and parameters
♦ Dynamic behavior
Special purpose diodes
♦ PIN
♦ Schottky
♦ Zener
Application examples
♦ Rectifier
♦ Clamp
Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 22 / 43
 Increasing reverse breakdown voltage
Breakdown comes from high E-field E=V/x
♦ Reduce the E-field  same V, increase x (distance)
♦ Decrease doping to get wider depletion layer (increase “x”)
• Worse parameters in ON state
♦ Decrease doping only in a narrow layer: PIN diodes

p-Intrinsic (insulator)-n junction (PIN diode):

♦ OFF state:
• Can sustain very high inverse voltages (kV).

♦ ON state:
• Higher losses in the conductive region.
Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 23 / 43
 PIN diodes
Applications of PIN diodes:
♦ radio frequency switches and attenuators (low capacitance).
♦ radiation detectors and photodetectors.
♦ power electronics (central layer can withstand high voltages)
PIN structure used also in other power semiconductors:
♦ IGBTs, power MOSFETs, thyristors, …
♦ The intrinsic layer increases breakdown voltage
Drawbacks
♦ Higher ON resistance
♦ Higher threshold voltage (≈ 1 V)

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 Pin diode band diagram

p n p i n

Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 25 / 43

 ON  OFF  ON transients (ideal)
Vi positive
♦ Direct bias, ON Reverse bias:
Id = 0; Vd = Vi
♦ Current can flow Id Vd
Vi
Vi negative Vi
Id

♦ Reverse bias, OFF

Vd t
♦ No current
Actual transient depends
on parasitic capacitances Forward bias:
and charges in the junction
Vd = 0,6V
Id = Vi/R
♦ ON: charges are stored in the junction region
♦ ON  OFF: charges must be removed
♦ OFF  ON: faster transient
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 Junction in the transient
Forward bias:
♦ a large number of electrons/holes injected into the p/n-
material,
Switching to reverse bias:
♦ Stored minority carriers must return to the opposite material.
♦ Storage time ts: current reverses and stays at a constant level.
Electrons and holes diffuse and recombine
♦ Transition time Tt: current decreases to the reverse current Is
Ts + Tt = Trr: reverse recovery time.
During trr the diode dissipates energy
♦ high frequency applications  diodes with short trr.
♦ higher forward voltage drop and higher reverse currents.
Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 27 / 43
 ON  OFF  ON transient (actual)

ON  OFF OFF  ON

Vi
Id trr
ts tt
Vd t
90% final
trf
Id = Is
Forward
bias

Minority carrier
RC transient
storage removal
Id = Vi/R

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 Switching parameters
ON  OFF
♦ Charges stored in the junction must be removed
♦ Reverse current flow
• High losses (for a short time)
• Qrr: reverse injected charge
• Trr: reverse recovery time
• Irr: reverse peak current
OFF  ON
♦ Faster than ONOFF
♦ Relevant timing parameter:
• Trf (recovery forward)
• Much faster that Trr

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 Schottky diodes
Schottky junction
♦ Metal - Si (light doping, if heavy doping becomes a contact)
♦ Conduction based on majority carriers (from metal)
Benefits:
♦ No charge storage in depletion region  Fast switch
♦ Lower threshold voltage and direct drop (0,3 V), less Pd
♦ Schottky junctions used to speed-up BJT circuits (logic ICs)
Drawbacks
♦ High capacitance (OFF state)
♦ Low reverse voltage (<100V)
♦ High reverse current (temperature-dependent)

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 Comparison of diode parameters
General Fast
Small Signal Schottky
Description Purpose Switching
Diode Diode
Rectifier Rectifier
Sample Device 1N4001 1N4933 1N4148 ZC2800

Maximum DC/Average
1A 1A 300 mA 15 mA
Forward Current
Maximum Reverse
50 V 50 V 75 V 70 V
Voltage
Reverse Leak. Current
50 nA 200 nA 5 nA 200 nA
@ 25°C , VR = 20 V
1V 1V 0.41 V
Forward Voltage ~0.7 V
@ IF = 1A @ IF = 10 mA @ 1 mA
Rev Rec Time Trr 2 μs 200 ns 4 ns < 1 ns
Cost 20 cent 15 cent 25 cent 100 cent

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 Data sheet Schottky diode

Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 32 / 43

 Schottky junction in logic circuits
Schottky junctions are used also for BJT logic
gates
to avoid saturation and increase speed (no
reverse recovery delay).

♦The Shottky junction is

placed from B to C; as
C voltage goes below B,
the diode steers current
away from B, and avoids
transistor saturation

Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes

♦Embedded in gate 33 / 43
 Zener diodes
All junctions have breakdown
Breakdowns usually change junction parameters to
worse values (high local heating, modification of
doping)
Some devices are designed to operate in breakdown
without degradation:
ZENER diodes
Used for
♦ Protection circuits
♦ Low power voltage regulators
♦ Cheap reference voltage sources

Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 34 / 43

 Zener diode i(v) characteristic
IZ and VZ have
inverse sign
from ID, VD of
standard diodes IZ

Zener operation VZ
 reverse bias
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 Zener diode i(v) characteristic
IZ and VZ have inverse sign from ID, VD
♦“Standard” diodes operates in forward/reverse bias
• Breakdown is a fault condition
♦Zener operates in reverse bias (breakdown)

ID IZ

VD
VZ

About
Breakdown
0,6 V Zener
voltage

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 Zener diode equivalent circuit
VZ0:VZ for I = 0 (linear model)
I Rz
RZ: ΔV/ΔI (actually differential rZ) +
V Vzo

IZmin:
minimum current to exit
knee region I
Slope
ΔV/ΔI = Rz

Pdmax (or Izmax): V

limited by temperature rise VZ0

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 Diode circuit analysis
Non-linear behavior of diodes  analysis complex
Correct:
♦Solve system with
nonlinear equations
E = VD + VR = VD + I R
k VD
I = IS (e )
Approximated:
♦Use linear piecewise model, with two-step analysis
• Evaluate ON/OFF switching point
• Use separate models for each state
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 Diode circuits: power rectifier
One application of diodes is in rectification
♦ Half-wave rectifier

♦ 4 diodes  full wave rectifier

Other parameters (evaluated with independent
models)
♦ Effects of leakage current Is
♦ Effect of voltage drop on the junction
♦ Effect of diode series resistance
♦…
Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 39 / 43
 Diode circuits: ACDC conversion
Half-wave rectifier
♦ Capacitor used
to produce
a steadier output
♦ VI is AC
♦ VO is almost DC
Basic AC-DC
converter used as
♦ power supply
♦ AM detector,
(measurement
systems & radio RX)
♦…
Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 40 / 43
 Diode circuits: signal clamping
A simple form of
signal conditioning

Circuits limit the

excursion of the
voltage waveform

(b) and (c) use

Zener diodes.

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 Diode circuits: over-voltage protection
When switch is open, the inductor tries to make current
continue to flow
♦ large back e.m.f.
♦ arcing in mechanical switches,
♦ breakdown in electronic switches
Catch diode
♦ low impedance path to
dissipate the energy
stored in the inductor
• SW closed: diode reverse-biased, no current flow
• SW opens: the current in L continue to flow through the diode

Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 42 / 43

 Inductive load driver
Diode clamp to supply voltage
Vs to limit the max voltage VS
across active device

♦ ON: D
current flows through the MOS
G
♦ ONOFF: S
current can continue to flow
through the diode

Mandatory to drive inductive loads

(coils, motors, …)
Analog and telecom. electronics F1: Power devices: diodes 43 / 43