G
Genuine Altruism
Hysla Magalhães de Moura and
Deise Maria Leal Fernandes Mendes
State University of Rio de Janeiro,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Synonyms
Evolutionary psychology; Genuine altruism;
Pro-social behavior
Definition
According to the evolutionist perspective, altru-
ism refers to behaviors that increase gains in
fitness for the beneficiary (i.e., it favors the repro-
ductive success and the maintenance of the spe-
cies) at a certain cost to the benefactor. However,
to better understand this psychological phenome-
non, it makes sense to consider both proximal
and distal causes. According to De Waal (2008),
proximate causes refer to situations that promote
psychological, neural, and physiological mecha-
nisms of the organism, as well as behavior. Distal
causes refer to the selective processes that main-
tain behaviors throughout the evolution of
the species due to their consequences for fitness.
In this sense, the author considers that to better
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
T. K. Shackelford, V. A. Weekes-Shackelford (eds.), Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_3464-1
understand the evolutionary causes of altruism,
one should focus on distal causes, particularly
the effects of altruistic behaviors
Introduction
It is intriguing to contemplate how individuals of
the human species, as well as others, can act so
differently in the face of their fellow man in need,
such that, at times, they ignore even desperate
requests for help, while, at other times, they
engage in actions that may endanger their own
life, to try to help the other individual. Among
a list of behaviors that are directed to benefit third
parties, and considering their potentially high
costs to the benefactor, altruistic actions are
discussed in this entry.
The French philosopher Auguste Comte was
the first to use the word altruism as a concept to
oppose selfishness. The term refers to a notion that
has become one of the most controversial themes
in social and behavioral sciences, for it involves
a discussion as to whether this psychological phe-
nomenon is developed for selfish/extrinsic or gen-
uine/intrinsic reasons. One might think that it
would be a difficult term to define, since, on one
hand, the literature recognizes altruism as an act
aimed at benefiting another organism, yet on the
other, there are conflicting views in discussion as
to what factors would be involved in its costs and
2 Genuine Altruism
benefits. This is highlighted in the question
of whether altruism is performed for intrinsic
or extrinsic reasons (Bykov 2017), such as
(respectively) satisfaction with life or gains
derived from the action. However, considering
the complexity and relevance of this construct,
it is important to discuss the conception of altru-
ism, with the desire to seek a better understanding
and contribute to the discussion within this field
of study. In view of this, we have presented at the
beginning of the entry (definition session) what
has been found in the literature with respect to
genuine altruism.
In the literature, we find differing theoretical
currents such as kinship selection or even recip-
rocal altruism directed toward understanding
altruism. The perspective of altruism as arising
from kin selection, in accordance with Lopreato
(1981), was developed by Willian D. Hamilton,
in which altruistic actions develop taking into
account genetic proximity to the beneficiary
of the action. This approach thus argues that the
probability of occurrence of altruism increases
when the coefficient of relations between distrib-
utor and recipient increases and when the gains
achieved by the beneficiary are greater than the
costs to the benefactor. From the perspective of
reciprocal altruism, elaborated by Robert
L. Trivers, also as discussed by Lopreato, recip-
rocal altruism is developed in view of a high
possibility of future repayment.
Considerable debates have been waged
concerning kinship and reciprocal altruism.
However, certain behaviors (such as those
addressed to strangers in recognized need) have
for some time been calling the attention of
scholars. Such actions are often called pure,
ascetic, or genuine altruism, the latter being the
designation that will be adopted in this entry.
Genuine altruism is normally attributed to
group selection (Lopreato 1981). In this sense,
Boorman and Levitt (1980) argue that if certain
genotypes multiply, reducing the possibility
of extinction of a certain group, then phenotypes
are likely to evolve, even if harmful to the
individual. In accordance with this conception,
groups possessing more altruistic individuals
may well prevail over groups formed mostly by
selfish subjects.
It seems that altruism may have been selected
because of inclusive fitness. Particularly, in the
case of the human species, people sometimes con-
sider others within their social group as honorary
relatives (Allen-Hermanson 2017), which ends up
bringing advantages not only to the group but also
to the individuals, since each of the individuals
in the group enjoys an increased fitness as well.
It should be mentioned that the concept of
inclusive fitness was introduced by William
D. Hamilton when discussing elevation of repro-
ductive success probability, (a traditional concep-
tion of fitness developed by Darwin) as being
alone insufficient to explain the plurality of
behaviors that occur in nature in many species.
Altruism can be found in various species of
the animal kingdom, such as insects, ants, and
bees and even in human and nonhuman primates.
Accordingly, research developed by De Waal
(2008) has confirmed that if newborn simians are
rejected during weaning, their lives may be spared
from possible consequences of the neglect if
another member of the group takes over for their
care, avoiding premature death.
With specific regard to human primates,
Warneken and Tomasello (2009) argue that
this would be a genuinely altruistic species,
since aptitude for altruism arises at the beginning
of ontogenesis, before socialization is able to
exert an even greater influence on the baby’s
development. Consistent with this perspective,
Warneken (2010) points out that the emergence
of altruistic behaviors so early in ontogenesis
suggests that social and moral norms are not the
principal source of altruism. By contra-arguing
that children grasp cultural patterns quickly and
parents might be stimulating altruistic behaviors,
the authors argue that if this was really the case,
such altruistic manifestations would not be found
in chimpanzees. Based on this set of ideas, in
addition to environmental influences, it is
Genuine Altruism
proposed that altruism in the human species arises
from a biological tendency, not predetermined as
specific behavior, yet enabling a varied (and
comforting) performance toward the subject who
is in trouble (Warneken and Tomasello 2009).
The notion of genuine altruism involves three
characteristics: (I) the helping act consists as an
end in itself, not aiming at gains for oneself;
(II) is practiced voluntarily; (III) is aimed at
benefiting other individuals (Leeds 1963). From
this logic, as truly altruistic behaviors/actions,
we cite anonymous donations to charities, dona-
tion of food and clothing for victims of public
calamities or natural disasters, or even donating
hair for people with cancer. Certain considerations
concerning genuine altruism have already been
noted. However, for a better understanding of
perspectives adopted toward this phenomenon,
we believe that it is fundamental to address
aspects questioning genuine altruism
Genuine Altruism: Points and
Counterpoints
There are those who argue that altruism is devel-
oped in the light of future gains that such
actions might bring about, and it is then attributed
to selfishness, albeit indirect. Nevertheless,
Andreoni et al. (2017) have shown that even
after suppressing incentives, in a considerable
number of situations, research participants choose
options that involve equal benefits for all involved
and as well that avoid selfishness. Similarly,
Forsythe et al. (1994) tested the hypothesis
of justice, using dictator and ultimatum games in
which the players receive an amount to divide
between them. Contrary to expectations, the
results, to a significant extent, indicated that
players decided to donate to their opponent an
amount equal to or greater than their own reward.
This choice cannot be explained solely by some
yearning for justice. The findings, at least in part,
can be attributed to altruism.
The following question might be raised, “what
would lead one individual to act for the other at
the cost of his own fitness?” In order to try
to understand this question, studies developed
3
by one of the most notable theorists Daniel
C. Batson discussing the dilemma of whether or
not altruism can be purely attributed to selfish
reasons become useful. Taking this paradox into
account, and using as a starting point a defense of
the conception of genuine altruism, he argues that
altruism would be motivated by empathy, which
culminated in the formulation of the empathy-
altruism hypothesis. Additionally, this author in
addition has developed experiments using selfish
motivations in different situations, thus putting to
the test the hypothesis and confirming it, as can
be verified in Batson et al. (1981). From this
perspective, empathy would be a proximal cause
of altruism (De Waal 2008).
The conception that altruism may be motivated
by empathy was not introduced recently, but it
was proposed by Adam Smith and David Hume
back in the eighteenth century. However, it was
Batson who first formulated the hypothesis of
empathy-altruism, which defends the idea that
empathic emotional states foster the development
of altruistic motivations and behaviors (see
Batson et al. 1981).
In accordance with this hypothesis, an individ-
ual, upon verifying that someone is in need,
experiences an empathic concern generated by
observation, which, in turn, would lead to behav-
ior in response to the situation. And in this sense,
the empathic concern presents itself as a propeller
of the altruistic act directed toward the other, with
the purpose of diminishing their suffering.
To illustrate this idea, the study by Batson et al.
(1981) examined degrees of difficulty in escaping
such situation without giving assistance (high or
low) and of levels of empathy (high or low).
University students were asked to observe a sup-
posed student receiving electric shocks and had
the option of assisting the person by receiving the
shocks instead. The results demonstrated that high
levels of empathy are accompanied by aiding
activity, regardless of the cost (high or low) that
such aid might require.
Along the same lines of thought, and in
response to the conception that altruistic behav-
iors are based on potential rewards, Batson et al.
(1983) argue that, if this were so, increases in pro-
social actions would only occur in contexts
4 Genuine Altruism
in which people might think they are being eval-
uated, that is, in cases where their empathy is
being measured before the development of pro-
social acts. However, the literature indicates that
participants perform acts of helping/altruism even
before they realize that their levels of empathy are
being evaluated.
Conclusion
Altruism is a controversial subject. Some scholars
believe that behaviors aimed at benefiting another
organism are developed for selfish reasons, such
as a future reward. Others defend the idea that
altruism is intended solely to assist another indi-
vidual in a situation of recognized need. Given the
existence of different perspectives on the origin of
altruism, this entry purposes not to solve the the-
oretical conflicts but simply to briefly discuss
genuine altruism.
This entry presents arguments that endorse
altruism as motivated by intrinsic reasons, such
as empathy. Thus, the studies of Batson, a recog-
nized scholar involved in empirical studies and
theoretical formulations regarding altruism, are
emphasized. Although it is known that there is a
hegemonic theoretical perspective that argues that
actions for the benefit of others are due to personal
or species gains, more and more studies are being
developed to understand genuine altruism.
Indeed, the literature has been recognized that
this psychological phenomenon has biological as
well as environmental roots, enabling a behavioral
repertoire as extensive as comforting for the indi-
vidual in need (Warneken and Tomasello 2009).
Evolutionary psychology brings important
contributions to understanding the roots of genu-
ine altruism. However, any attempt to understand
altruism on a solely phylogenetic basis, without
taking into account factors such as ontogenesis,
culture, and context, may be (given all of its
complexity) too simplistic for human nature.
Cross-References
▶ Altruism Among Nonkin
▶ Altruism And Costs To Altruist
▶ High-Cost Altruistic Helping
▶ Puzzle of Altruism, The
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