Unit – 5

Operating System
Operating system acts as interface between the user and the computer hardware. They sit between the
user and the hardware of the computer providing an operational environment to the users and
application programs. For a user, therefore, a computer is nothing but the operating system running on
it. It is an extended machine.

User does not interact with the hardware of a computer directly but through the services offered by OS.
This is because the language that users employ is different from that of the hardware where as users
prefer to use natural language or near natural language for interaction, the hardware uses machine
language. Os takes instruction in the form of commands from the user and translates into machine
understandable instructions, gets these instructions executed by CPU and translates the result back into
user understandable form.

 OS is a resource allocate
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use
OS is a control program

 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer

COMPUTER SYSTEM ORGANIZATION

 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus providing access to shared
memory.
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles.
 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.
 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type.
 Each device controller has a local buffer.
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers.
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing an interrupt.

Fig Computer System Organization

COMPUTER SYSTEM STRUCTURE

 Computer system can be divided into four components

 Hardware : provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system:
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users

Operating system goals

 Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier.
 Make the computer system convenient to use.
 Application programs :
o It define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve the computing problems
of the users
o Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games
 Users: People, machines, other computers

Four Components of a Computer System

Fig Extended machine view of operating system

OPERATING SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION

 All operating system contain the same components whose functionalities are almost the same. For
instance, all the operating systems perform the functions of storage management, process
management, protection of users from one-another, etc.
 Operating system in general, performs similar functions but may have distinguishing features.
Therefore, they can be classified into different categories on different bases.
 Different types of operating system

 Single user- Single Processing System:-

 It has a single processor, runs a single program and interacts with a single user at a time. The OS for this
system is very simple to design and implement. Example: - MS-DOS
 Only one program resides in computer memory and it remains that till it is executed. It is also called
uni-program OS. In this OS, the whole, memory space is allocated to one program to memory
management’s not very difficult task to do. The CPU has to execute only 1 program at a time, so that
CPU management also does not have any problem.
 In a single user OS, a single user can access the computer at a particular time. The computer which are
based on this OS have a single processor and able to execute only a single program at a particular time.
This system provides all the resources to the users all the time. The single user OS into following
categories: -

Single user, single tasking:

 In a single user, single tasking OS, There is a single user to execute a program at a particular system.
 Example – MS-DOS

Single user, multitasking OS:

 In single user, multitasking OS a single user can execute multiple programs.

 Example – A user can program different programs such as making calculations in excel sheet, printing a
word document & downloading into the file from internet at the same time.

USER Application Programs

Operating System

Hardware

 Advantages of single user OS:-

o The CPU has to handle only one application program at a time so that process management is
easy in this environment.
o Due to the limited number of programs allocation of memory to the process & allocation of
resources to the process becomes any easy task to handle.

 Disadvantages of single user OS:-

o As the OS is handling one application at a time most of the CPU time is wasted, because it has
to sit idle most of the time while executing a single program.
o Resources like memory, CPU are not utilized at the maximum.

Batch Processing Systems

 The main function of a batch processing system is to automatically keep executing one job to the next
in batch. The main idea behind that batch processing system is to reduce the interface of the operator
during the processor or execution of jobs by computer system. All functioned of batch processing
 system are carried out by program is known as batch monitor.
 The batch monitor is a permanent program that resides in the main memory. In other words, a batch
monitor is responsible for controlling the environment of the system for smooth execution of the
process. In batch processing system, turn around time is use to define the total time taken by a job in
the execution. This time includes batch formation, ti me taken to print result 7the time required to
physically sort the printed outputs that belongs to a different jobs. Another important terms used in
batch processing system is job scheduling. It is a process of sequencing jobs to that.

Memory Management

 All data in memory before and after processing

 All instructions in memory in order to execute
 Memory management determines what is in memory when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of memory
 Allocating and deal locating memory space as needed

Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

Storage Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage.
 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file.
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive).
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, and data-transfer rate, access method (sequential or
random).
 File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who can access what.
 OS activities include.
 Creating and deleting files and directories.
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories.
 Mapping files onto secondary storage.
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media.
Operating System Structures

 Operating System Services

 User Operating System Interface
 System Calls
 Types of System Calls
 System Programs
 Operating System Design and Implementation
 Operating System Structure
 Virtual Machines
 Operating System Generation
 System Boot

OBJECTIVE

 To describe the services an operating system provides to users, processes, and other systems
 To discuss the various ways of structuring an operating system
 To explain how operating systems are installed and customized and how they boot

SERVICES OF OS

One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the user:

 User interface - Almost all Operating systems have a User Interface (UI).
 Varies between Command Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface (GUI) and Batch.
 Program Execution - The system must be able to load a program into memory and to run that
program, end execution, either normally or abnormally (indicating error)
 I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may involve a file or an I/O device.
 File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest. Obviously,
programs need to read and write files and directories, create and delete them, search them, list file
Information, permission management.

 Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same computer or between

computers over a network. Communications may be via shared memory or through message passing
(packets moved by the OS).
 Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors. It may occur in the CPU and
memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user program. For each type of error, OS should take the
appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.
 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the
system.
 Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the system itself via resource
sharing
 Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running concurrently, resources must be
allocated to each of them
 Many types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles, main memory, and file storage) may have special
allocation code, others (such as I/O devices) may have general request and release code.
 Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of
computer resources.

 Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multi-user or networked computer
system may want to control use of that information, concurrent processes should not interfere with
each other protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is controlled. Security of the
 system from outsiders requires user authentication, extends to defending external I/O devices from
invalid access attempts. If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be instituted
throughout it. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.

Functions of Operating System

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management

Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is
a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.

Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be
executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities for memory
management −

 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in
use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management

In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for
how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following
activities for processor management −

 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is
known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management

An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the
following activities for device management −

 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
  Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.

File Management

A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories
may contain files and other directions.

An Operating System does the following activities for file management −

 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known
as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −

 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized

access to programs and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and
response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and
error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer
systems.

Batch processing
Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the programs and data
together in a batch before processing starts. An operating system does the following activities related
to batch processing −

 The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and data as a
single unit.
 The OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without any manual
information.
 Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served fashion.
 When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for the job gets
copied into an output spool for later printing or processing.
 Advantages

 Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
 Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous job is finished, without
any manual intervention.

Disadvantages

 Difficult to debug program.

 A job could enter an infinite loop.
 Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.

Multitasking
Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching between
them. Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each program while it is running.
An OS does the following activities related to multitasking −

 The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly, and receives an
immediate response.
 The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple operations/executes
multiple programs at a time.
 Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems.
 These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a computer system at a
reasonable cost.
 A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and multiprogramming
to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.
 Each user has at least one separate program in memory.
 A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as a process.
 When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time before it either
finishes or needs to perform I/O.
 Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time to complete.
During this time, a CPU can be utilized by another process.
 The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously. Since each
action or command in a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little CPU time is needed
for each user.
 As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user is given the
impression that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU is being shared
among many users.
Multiprogramming
Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is referred as
multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming
increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.

The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.
An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.

 The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.

 This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
 The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.
 Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and system
resources using memory management programs to ensures that the CPU is never idle, unless
there are no jobs to process.

Advantages

 High and efficient CPU utilization.

 User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.

Disadvantages

 CPU scheduling is required.

 To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.
 

Time-sharing
Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of
multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed
as time-sharing.

The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that in
case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in
Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.

Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so
frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction
processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation.
That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the user submits the
command, the response time is in few seconds at most.

The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small
portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have been
modified to time-sharing systems.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.

Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.

On-line Process
Online processing typically refers to OLTP (online transaction processing), wherein transactions
take place rapidly after the request is made. Modern websites are typically designed this way -
airline reservations, Amazon, etc… Typically the backend database is tuned for this kind of rapid
query/response, with a middle layer that rapidly manages the transaction, and a front-end that
presents a pleasing and logical user interface for the consumer to interact with.

Online processing is an automated way to enter and process data or reports continuously as use
as the source documents are available. A good example of online processing is bar code scanning.
When you buy a shirt at Target, the bar code gets scanned at the register. This shirt (source
document) is immediately updated in Target’s inventory system as being sold. It is also updated
in cost and sales reports. The online processing system continuously updates the entire
accounting system.

What Does Online Processing Mean?

Before computers were widespread in business accounting systems, most companies had to
process data or reports in batches. Invoices, for instances, had to be gathered, entered, and
processed periodically by employees. Batch processing could be done daily or even weekly. As
you can see, this is the most efficient manual way to process data, but it also provides outdated
information. After computers and mainframe servers became more affordable for smaller
business, most business moved from batch processing to online processing.
 Example

As you can see, the online processing system has many advantages over the batch processing
system. Online processing is faster and gives continuous data for management. Take our Target
example of instance. If batch processing was used, inventory reports would only be updated
periodically. This means that management would only have useful inventory data on the day a
batch process was run. This could be as often as every day or as infrequent as every month. Since
online processing updates continuously, managers can run an inventory report any day at any
time and have accurate up-to-date information.

Real-time process
Real-time processing generally refers to computation that completes within a specific running
period of time such that another, also real-time process, can complete. The prototypical example
of this is any video game, flight simulator, or other application that must update a video view at a
1/60th per second (or similar) frame rate. If this nearly lag-free computation rate can be
maintained, the frame updates will appear to be a video view of a synthetic world. Thus, a video
game or flight simulator. Note: Some real-time systems update at relatively modest frame rates,
such as 1/4 of a second. Many video games are in this category, as that allows a much broader
range of laptops, desktops, and smartphones to successfully complete the gaming calculations
within the allotted time. I worked in this space extensively throughout my early career.

Real-Time Processing involves continuous input, process, and output of data. Hence, it
processes in a short period of time. There are some programs which use such data
processing type. For example, bank ATMs, customer services, radar systems, and Point of
Sale (POS) Systems. Every transaction is directly reflected in the master file, with this
data process. So, that it will always be up-to-date.

In addition, for tasks like fraud detection, real-time processing is very useful. Basically, if
process transaction data, we can detect that signal fraud in real time. Also, can stop
fraudulent transactions before they take place, through real-time processing.
We can say, the Real-Time processing system

 Real-Time processing helps to compute a function of one data element. Also, can say it
computes a smallish window of recent data.

 Real-Time processing computes something relatively simple

 While we need to compute in near-real-time, only seconds at most, we go for real-time

processing.

 In real-time processing, computations are generally independent.

 They are asynchronous in nature. It means a source of data doesn’t interact with the stream
processing directly.
 i. Advantages of Real-Time Processing

 While performing real-time processing, there is no significant delay in response.

 In real-time processing, information is always up to date. Hence, it makes the organization

able to take immediate action. Also, when responding to an event, issue or scenario in the
shortest possible span of time.

 It also makes the organization able to gain insights from the updated data. Even helps to
detect patterns of possible identification of either opportunities or threats.

ii. Disadvantages of Real-Time Processing

 Real-Time processing is very complex as well as expensive processing.

 Also turns out to be very difficult for auditing.

 Real-Time processing is a bit tedious processing.

So this was all in Batch Processing vs Real Time Processing. Hope you like our
explanation.

Introduction to windows 98
Windows 98 is an operating system. An operating system is the program that interface between a user
and hardware. It is a graphical user interface (GUI) based operating system. Which makes our
operation interactive and easy to use.

Windows 98 is an improved version of Windows 95. Main feature in windows 98 is its 'Desktop'.
When computer is started it appears on the screen. This feature was also given in windows 95. Each
file folder and document are represented by an icon on the desktop.

Main features of Windows 98 are as given below:-

 We can use My Computer to quickly and easily access any file and folder present in
computer. We can open it by simply double clicking on this icon present at top left corner of
the Desktop.
 We can set the mouse to be single click for open any program instead of double click.
 When we start windows, the large area we see is called the Desktop. We can customize the
desktop by adding shortcuts to our favorites programs and documents. To change the settings
of the Desktop like color and background, right click the mouse button anywhere in the
desktop, and then select Properties.
 At the bottom left of the screen there is a taskbar which contains a Start button. Which could
be used for start quickly any program. When we open a Program, Document or Window a
button appears on the taskbar. We can use these buttons to easily switch between the windows
we have opened.
 For easy maintenance of our PC windows 98 introduces a Windows Maintenance Wizard,
which helps us to delete unnecessary files and make sure our hard-disk is properly
functioning.
  The Backup utility provided in Windows 98 makes easier and faster to backing up out data.
 The Active Desktop feature allow the feature to put active contents from Web pages on our
desktop. We can make our favorite newspaper to our desktop wallpaper.

Windows 98

Windows 98 is released by Microsoft in June 25, 1998. It is a mixed 16 bit/32 bit Windows operating
system. The version number is 4.1 and the code name is Menphis.

Introduction
Windows98 has integrated the Internet standard comprehensively. It unifys ans simplifys desktop
with Internet technology and allows the users to find and browse the information on the computer or
on the internet more simply and faster. It has a faster speed and greater stability. With the brand new
self-maintenance and updating function, users can have more spare time to concentrate on work or
games instead of system management.

Features
This new system is edited on the base of Windows95. It improves the hardware standard, such as
MMX, and AGP. It has other features like supporting FAT32 file system, multi-display, Web TV and
the Internet Explorer integrated to the Windows GUI. That is called Active Desktop.
Besides, in the internal memory management, it improved the problem that when the 16 bit and 32 bit
source code are saved to one same storage space, one program error will cause the whole system
downtime. From Windows98, the reformation of memory management is to put 16 bit and 32 bit
source code to different memory spaces. Once there is a program error, you can just stop that program
and the system will not be affected.
From Windows98, the multiprocess operating systems have completely different improvement with
the preemptive multitasks of Windows95. The user can choose to averagely distribute system
resource for multitasking or put a prigram that needs a lot of time to the backstage. Thus increase the
practical applicability of multitasking. Although Windows98 is not perfect in evry aspect, as all the
Windows9x can enter into the pure DOS operation interface so that it needn't DOS startup disk to
repair when the system crashes, this is one of its advantages. The present Windows XP/VISTA/2000
can no longer enter into the pure DOS interface, so if you need to repair you have to use DOS starup
disk, the other Windows9x or connect the hardware to the other Windows9x computer.

Advantages
A great improvement compared to Windows95
1. Convenient to install: when installing Windows98, system will lead you to complete the
installation, and examine all the common hardwares such as moderm, CD-ROM driver, audio card,
and printer, etc.
2. More coordinating with the present soft and hard wares: Windows98 provides internal support for
more than 1900 present hardware devices, and has passed the test of compatibility with more than
3500 popular softwares. The internal support includes the 32 bit device driver program. That means
the hardware being supported will run faster and more effectively under Windows98 environment.
3. Plug and paly function: when you are using the "plug and play" device on the computer
Windows98 will set it automatically.
4. Improved UI: the desktop of Windows98 makes you concentrate more on your own task. There are
only a few graphic objests on the desktop, and that is simpler than before. The "start" button leads
you to start the daily work with the computer. If you want to quickly start a frequently-used program
or document, you can just pull it to the "start" button. It will be listed with other functions (like set-up
procedure, open a document, get help, change system settings, and find files) together in the "start"
menu. "My computer" makes browsing the content (all kinds of files, folders, and procedures) of
computer more convenient. "Network neiborhood" makes examing and using network simpler.
"Recycle bin" provides you a temporary space for placing deleted files. You can choose to shift
delete or get back to use.
5. Provide better support for MS-DOS without MS-DOS: different from Windows3.1, Windows98
will not run on the MS-DOS operating system. Windows98 is a tightly integrated system. It enters
into the GUI directly instead of command line. But Windows98 still supports MS-DOS.
6. Support long file name: in Windows98, the longest file name can be 255 characters. That makes
finding files very easy.
7. The function of mouse stands out: in Windows98, point to any object with the mouse pointer and
click the right button, you will see a pop-up menu that lists out all the orders related to the object.
With this menu, you can copy, delete, rename, create shortcut, and view the file and folder's
attributes.
8. Play CD automatically: if you put a CD that supports automatically playing, Windows98 will paly
the CD automatically instead of tedious operation procedure to choose play tool.
9. Added and improved the tools of accessories: Windows98 provides a group of tools that adapts to
the new interface. "Tablet" is the 32 bit editor. It replaces the "Write" and "Notebook" of
Windows3.1. "Picture" is the 32 bit tool that replaces "Brush". As "Picture" is the OLE software, its
images can be connected or inset to other documents. The backup of 32 bit makes the backup from
computer or disk, magcard easier.
10. Connection with Internet: after the installation of IE4.0 in Windows98, there is a option to open
active desktop. That makes IE4.0 one intefrated part of Windows98 desktop. Through choosing
active desktop, users can set the wallpaper as the HTML page that can directly get informations from
Internet. Besides, changing the traditional explorer to the Internet Explorer makes different Windows
intefaces. "Start" menu includes address bar and interlinkage, collection, and so on, making net play
more covenient.

Internet and Its Uses

Internet is defined as an interconnection of networks. Internet allows computers on different
kinds of networks to interact with each other. Any two computers, often having different
software and hardware, can exchange information over the Internet, as long as they obey the
technical rules of Internet communication. The exchange of information may be among
connected computers located anywhere, like military and research institutions, different kinds of
organizations, banks, educational institutions (elementary schools, high schools, colleges), public
libraries, commercial sectors etc.

Internet is a global network of inter-connected computers, where one computer can be connected to
any other computer (or computerized device) in any portion of the world.

Internet uses various internet protocol technologies. The recent introduction of mobile internet have
been equally successful.

Internet surfing is very easy. Internet is available in all major villages, towns, cities of almost every
country. It is possible to surf through Internet with the help of internet browsers such as Windows
explorer, Google chrome, etc.

The organization that provides the Internet service to end-users are known as an Internet Services
Providers (ISP). The major internet companies of India are BSNL, Vodafone, Airtel, Idea, and Aircel.

Uses of Internet
The key to success of Internet is the information. The better the quality, the more usage of Internet
operations.

Large volume of Information: Internet can be used to collect information from around the world.
This information could relate to education, medicine, literature, software, computers, business,
entertainment, friendship, tourism, and leisure.

People can search for information by visiting the home page of various search engines such as
Google, Yahoo, Bing, etc.

News and Journals: All the newspapers, magazines and journals of the world are available on the
Internet. With the introduction of broadband and advanced mobile telecommunication technologies
such as 3G (third generation) and 4G (fourth generation), the speed of internet service has increased
tremendously. A person can get the latest news about the world in a matter of few seconds.

Electronic Mode of Communication: Internet has given the most exciting mode of communication
to all. We can send an E-mail (the short form of Electronic Mailing System) to all the corners of the
world.

Chatting: There are many chatting software that can be used to send and receive real-time messages
over the internet. We can chat with our friend and relatives using any one of the chatting software.

Social Networking: People can connect with old friends on social networking sites. They can even
chat with them when they are online. Social networking sites also allow us to share pictures with
others. We can share pictures with our loved ones, while we are on a vacation. People are even
concluding business deals over these social networking sites such as Facebook.

Online Banking (Net-Banking): The use of internet can also be seen in the field of banking
transactions. Many banks such as HSBC, SBI, Axis Bank, Hdfc Bank, etc. offers online banking
facilities to its customers. They can transfer funds from one account to another using the net-banking
facility.

E-commerce: Internet is also used for carrying out business operations and that set of operations is
known as Electronic Commerce (E-commerce). Flipkart is the largest e-commerce company in India.
The rival, Amazon, is giving stiff competition to Flipkart.

Mobile commerce: Mobile commerce (also M-Commerce) refers to the commercial transaction that
takes place over the mobile internet. Using the mobile internet technology, many companies have
introduced mobile version of websites and mobile apps, to promote and sell their products. Customers
can simply browse several through the products and buy online through mobile internet.

Mobile wallet: Many companies offer the service of mobile wallet to its customers. Users must have
a smart-phone and internet connection to use this service. Users can pay an amount into their mobile
wallet, which they can use to make online payment such as bill payments, recharges, etc.

Entertainment: Apart from a major source of knowledge and information, the utility of Internet in
the field of entertainment cannot be undermined. We can visit various video sites and watch movies
and serials at our convenient time.
Terminology of Internet
Internet

The Internet is a world wide network of computers that are connected (networked) and are using
the communication method called TCP/IP. The Internet was named ARPANET in 1969 by the
Advanced Research Projects Agency of the U.S. Department of Defense with just four computers
connected together.

World Wide Web

Also called web or www, it is a collection of information, resources, pictures, sounds, multimedia on
the internet that are linked and connected together. Using a software product such as Netscape
makes accessing and linking to web pages containing information, easy. The world wide web was
invented by Tim Bernes-lee in the CERN Laboratory in March 1989.

Host

A computer that is used to transfer data on the Internet.

Web Hosting

To store and make web pages available and ready for inquiries, or a computer that has a consistant
connection to the Internet.
Web Server
A Web Server is a computer that stores web pages. It is responsible for accepting request(s) from users and
serves them with web pages. Two important web server programs are: IIS (Internet Information server) and
Apache, etc. Web servers are connected to the Internet 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

Web Page

A web page (such as the one you are looking at now) is an electronic document written in a computer
language called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language).Web pages can contain text, graphics, video, animation,
and sound, as well as interactive features, such as data entry forms. Each page has a unique address known
as a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) that identifies its location on the server. Web pages usually contain
hyperlinks to other web pages.

Website

A website (often shortened to just site) is one or more web pages, belonging to a particular company,
institute, government or an individual. The first page is called the home page, which acts like an index,
indicating the content on the site. 248 :: Data Entry Operations By default the home page is named as
index.htm. From the home page, you can click hyperlinks to access other web pages.

FTP

Using file transfer protocol software to receive from upload) or send to (download) files (text, pictures,
spreadsheets, etc.) from one computer/server to another.

Domain Name

A domain name is a description or representation of a computer's location on the Internet. It is

usually separated by a dot.
For example:
www.comentum.com
sales.comentum.com
joespizza.comentum.com

In this example, comentum.com is at the hightest level (directly to the left of .com), making it the
best commercial and most protected name for the Commentum Communications company. Any
additional name information following after (to the left) of .com is under that domain umbrella, as
in the joespizza.commentum.com example above, and does not hold the highest position in the
domain name heirarchy.
In the same example, it is better to hold a domain name like the following:
joespizza.com
(rather than)
joespizza.comentum.com

DNS

DNS (Domain Name System) is a large database of domain names and their correspondent Internet
(IP Addresses) for example: www.widget.com corrisponds to it's unique number 207.168.6.12
IP address

An IP (Internet Protocol) address is an unique number used to identify a computer on the Internet. If
you are connected to the Internet, you must have a unique network number, which is an IP address.
An example of an IP address is:
207.168.6.12
There are four numbers separated by a dot, and are between 0 and 255.

HTML

Hypertext Markup Language is a coding language used to tell a browser how to place pictures, text,
multimedia and links to create a web page. When a user clicks on a link within a web page, that link,
which is coded with HTML, links the user to a specific linked web page.

Hypertext

Hypertext is text on a webpage that links to another document or webpage. The hypertext link can
be as small as a letter or word, or as big as all the text on the page.

FTP

File Transfer Protocal is a method of transferring files between two computers on the Internet. To
access, upload or download information on a server computer (or a computer that accesses a server
computer), FTP software makes the information access or transfer possible.

home Page

A home Page is the main or index page of a web site. For example, if a user opens Netscape or
Internet Explorer and types the URL, http://www.commentum.com, that would open the home
Page of the Commentum Communications company.

InterNic

InterNic is the agency that governs and maintains the name and host registration on the Internet.

URL

Uniform Resource Locator is a web address used to connect to a remote resource on the world wide
web.
For example:
https://www.comentum.com
ftp://ftp.comentum.com
telnet://info.comentum.com

In the above example, http:// is a type of Protocol (communication rules and methods) followed by
www.commentum.com, which a host address. A port number could also be added after the host
address (example: https://www.comentum.com:80).
Port

In relationship to the Internet, a Port is a channel that a server software would listen to, for any
inquiries, there are certain standard default channels set for certain server software. For example, a
web server software by default will listen to port 80 for any inquiry. Web server software can also
listen to any other port, for example: http://www.commentum.com:5000

Baud

Baud is the number of time per second that a modem converts digital signals to analog sounds, so
that it can transfer information over an analog telephone line.

Bit

Bit is a single digit in the binary numbering system (base 2). For example: 1 is a bit or 0 is a bit.

Byte

A Byte generally consists of eight bits.

Java

Java is an object-oriented programming language created by Sun Microsystems Company. It can

operate on any type ("virtual machine") of operating system, or computer system (PC, Mac, Solaris,
etc.). It is a flexible tool for integrating interactivity and multimedia, and a very secure language,
making it a useful language for networking or the Internet.

JavaScript

JavaScript is a powerful scripting language created by Netscape, and is supported by Netscape 2.0
and higher, and Explorer 4.0 and higher. It is primarily used to add interactivity and multimedia to
web pages.

JScript

JScript is a scripting language created by Microscoft, similar to JavaScript.

Server

A server is a computer with a software program set up for serving web pages to a user on the same
computer or another computer. The server computer coupled with server software, listens for
inquiries from a client computer (a computer other than the server).

Upload

To upload is to transfer data from your computer to another computer.

Download

To download is to transfer data from another computer to your computer.

Browser
A browser, or web browser, is a software application that allows users to access and browse the web. There
are many different browsers available, each with their own design and features. Some of the most popular
include Chrome, Firefox, and Internet Explorer.

A browser is a software program created as a simplified means to present and explore content on the World
Wide Web. These pieces of content, including pictures, videos, and web pages, are connected using
hyperlinks and classified with Uniform Recourse Identifiers (URLs).

There have been many different web browsers that have come and gone over the years. The first, named
WorldWideWeb (later changed to Nexus), was invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1990. However, the first
graphical browser and widely used browser that help bring popularity to the Internet was NCSA Mosaic.

List of current Internet browsers

 Google Chrome

 Microsoft Edge

 Microsoft Internet Explorer

 Mozilla Firefox

 Opera

 Apple Safari
Search Engine
It is specialized software, such as AltaVista and Yahoo, that lets WWW browser users search for information
on the Web by using keywords, phrases, and boolean logic. Different search engines have different ways of
categorizing and indexing information. Search engines are accessed by typing in the URL of that engine or
using a browser's compilation of search engines in its Internet search function.

Search Engine refers to a huge database of internet resources such as web pages, newsgroups,
programs, images etc. It helps to locate information on World Wide Web.

User can search for any information by passing query in form of keywords or phrase. It then searches
for relevant information in its database and return to the user.

Search Engine Components

Generally there are three basic components of a search engine as listed below:

1. Web Crawler
2. Database
3. Search Interfaces
 Web crawler

It is also known as spider or bots. It is a software component that traverses the web to gather
information.

Database

All the information on the web is stored in database. It consists of huge web resources.

Search Interfaces

This component is an interface between user and the database. It helps the user to search through the
database.

Search Engine Working

Web crawler, database and the search interface are the major component of a search engine that
actually makes search engine to work. Search engines make use of Boolean expression AND, OR,
NOT to restrict and widen the results of a search. Following are the steps that are performed by the
search engine:

 The search engine looks for the keyword in the index for predefined database instead of going
directly to the web to search for the keyword.
 It then uses software to search for the information in the database. This software component is
known as web crawler.
 Once web crawler finds the pages, the search engine then shows the relevant web pages as a
result. These retrieved web pages generally include title of page, size of text portion, first
several sentences etc.

These search criteria may vary from one search engine to the other. The retrieved information is ranked
according to various factors such as frequency of keywords, relevancy of information, links etc.

 User can click on any of the search results to open it.

Architecture

The search engine architecture comprises of the three basic layers listed below:

 Content collection and refinement.

 Search core
 User and application interfaces
Examples

Following are the several search engines available today:

Search
Description
Engine

Google It was originally called BackRub. It is the most popular search engine globally.

It was launched in 2009 by Microsoft. It is the latest web-based search engine that also
Bing
delivers Yahoo’s results.

It was launched in 1996 and was originally known as Ask Jeeves. It includes support for match,
Ask
dictionary, and conversation question.

It was launched by Digital Equipment Corporation in 1995. Since 2003, it is powered by Yahoo
AltaVista
technology.

AOL.Search It is powered by Google.

LYCOS It is top 5 internet portal and 13th largest online property according to Media Matrix.

Alexa It is subsidiary of Amazon and used for providing website traffic information.
Electronic Mail
Electronic mail (E-mail) is an electronic message transmitted over a network from one user to
another. E-mail is a text-based mail consisting of lines of text, and can include attachments such
as audio messages, pictures and documents. The features of e-mail are as follows:

E-mail can be sent to one person or more than one person at the same time.
Communicating via e-mail does not require physical presence of the recipient. The recipient can
open the e-mail at his/her convenience.
Since messages are transmitted electronically, e-mail is a fast way to communicate with the
people in your office or to people located in a distant country, as compared to postal system.
E-mail messages can be sent at any time of the day.
A copy of e-mail message that the sender has sent is available on the senders computer for later
reference.
In addition to sending messages, e-mail is an ideal method for sending documents already on
the computer, as attachments.
E-mail has features of the regular postal service. The sender of e-mail gets the e-mail address of
the recipient, composes the message and sends it. The recipient of e-mail can read the mail,
forward it or reply back. The recipient can also store the e-mail or delete it.

E-mail Address
To use e-mail, a user must have an e-mail address. The e-mail address contains all information
required to send or receive a message from anywhere in the world. An e-mail address consists of
two parts separated by @ symbol (spelled as at)—the first part is user_name and the second part
is host computer name. The e-mail address may look like

abcdgoel@gmail.com

where, abcdgoel is the user_name,

gmail.com is the host computer name (domain name) i.e. the mailbox where finally the mail will
be delivered. gmail is the mail server where the mailbox “abcdgoel” exists.

E-mail Message Format

The e-mail message consists of two parts-header and body.

The header contains information about the message, such as—


From—Sender’s e-mail address.
To—Recipient’s e-mail address.
Date—When the e-mail was sent.
Subject—The topic of the message.
Cc—Addresses where carbon copies of the same e-mail will be sent. The recipients of e-mail can
see all e-mail addresses to which the copies have been sent.
Bcc—Addresses where Blind carbon copies (Bcc) of the same e-mail will be sent. The recipients
of e-mail do not know that the same e-mail has been sent to other e-mail addresses.
The size of e-mail.

The body contains the text of the message and any attachments to be sent. Figure shows
the “compose mail” on gmail.com to create a new e-mail message.
 Figure - The “compose mail” screen on gmail

E-mail Services

There are two kinds of e-mail services—Application-based e-mail, and Web-based e-mail.

Application-based e-mail is installed onto the user’s computer. The mail is stored on the user’s
computer. For using an application based e-mail, the user uses a program such as Microsoft
Outlook, Outlook Express etc. The user must have an e-mail account on the Internet mail server
with a domain name (e.g. vsnl.com), which is provided by the ISP whose services the user is
using to connect to the Internet. The user also has an e-mail address (create e-mail address by
adding your username to e-mail server’s domain name. E.g. aagoel@vsnl.com), which identifies
the user uniquely on the e-mail server.

Web-based e-mail or Webmail appears in a web browser’s window. A web-based e-mail can be
accessed by the user from any Internet-connected computer anywhere in the world. Web-based
e-mail is not stored on the user’s computer. Many free web-based e-mail services are available.
Hotmail, yahoo, and gmail provide free e-mail accounts. An example of web-based e-mail
address is ashima1234@gmail.com.

How E-mail Works


The e-mail works on the client-server model.
E-mail clients are the users who wish to use the e-mail facility. The basic functionality of the
client includes—create new e-mail, display and store received e-mails, address list of contacts
etc. Both, the sender of e-mail and the recipient of e-mail are e-mail clients.
E-mail server is a combination of processes running on a server with a large storage capacity—a
list of users and rules, and the capability to receive, send, and store emails and attachments.
These servers are designed to operate without constant user intervention.
The e-mail client interacts with the e-mail server to send or receive e-mail. Most email servers
provide email services by running two separate processes on the same machine-Post Office
Protocol 3 (POP3) and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). Some e-mail servers also run
another process on the machine—Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP).
SMTP is used to send e-mail from the client to server and from one server to another server.
POP3 is used by client for application based e-mail to access mail from the server.
IMAP is used by client for web-based e-mail to access mail on server.
The e-mail client-server work as follows:
o The client connects to e-mail server when the user wants to send, check or receive email.
The client connects to the server on two TCP/IP ports—(1) SMTP on port 25, and
(2) POP3 on port 110 or IMAP on port 143.
o SMTP server accepts outgoing email from client (sender e-mail client). Next, the SMTP
server checks the e-mail address at which e-mail has to be delivered (recipient e-mail
client). If the recipient e-mail client resides on the same SMTP server, then the e-mail is
sent to the local POP or IMAP server, otherwise, the e-mail is sent to another SMTP
server so that it reaches the recipient e-mail client’s SMTP server.
o POP3 stores e-mail for a client on a remote server. When the client gets connected to
server, the e-mail messages are downloaded from POP3 server to client’s computer.
o IMAP also stores e-mails on a remote server. However, the e-mail messages are not
downloaded to the client’s computer. The user manipulates the e-mail messages
directly on the e-mail server.
o The POP3/IMAP and SMTP are linked by an internal mail delivery mechanism that
moves mail between the POP3/IMAP and SMTP servers.

Figure shows the interaction between e-mail client-server.

Figure - Interaction between e-mail client and server