Frying of Foods

52 Vassiliki Oreopoulou, Magdalini Krokida,

and Dimitris Marinos-Kouris

CONTENTS

52.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1225

52.2 The Frying Process............................................................................................................................. 1227
52.2.1 Heat Transfer ........................................................................................................................ 1228
52.2.2 Mass Transfer........................................................................................................................ 1230
52.3 Properties of Oils Related to Frying .................................................................................................. 1232
52.3.1 Thermal Properties ................................................................................................................ 1232
52.3.1.1 Specific Heat ......................................................................................................... 1232
52.3.1.2 Thermal Conductivity ........................................................................................... 1232
52.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties ......................................................................................... 1233
52.3.2.1 Vapor Pressure...................................................................................................... 1233
52.3.2.2 Smoke, Fire, and Flash Points.............................................................................. 1233
52.3.2.3 Viscosity................................................................................................................ 1234
52.3.2.4 Surface Tension .................................................................................................... 1234
52.3.2.5 Color..................................................................................................................... 1235
52.3.2.6 Alteration of Frying Oil........................................................................................ 1235
52.4 Industrial Frying Systems .................................................................................................................. 1236
52.4.1 Equipment ............................................................................................................................. 1236
52.4.1.1 Oil Tank................................................................................................................ 1237
52.4.1.2 Conveying System................................................................................................. 1237
52.4.1.3 Heating Units........................................................................................................ 1238
52.4.1.4 Exhaust System..................................................................................................... 1239
52.4.1.5 Recirculation of the Oil and Oil Turnover ........................................................... 1239
52.4.1.6 Filtration Systems ................................................................................................. 1239
52.4.2 Process Temperature and Time ............................................................................................. 1240
52.4.3 Fryer Operation and Control ................................................................................................ 1241
52.4.4 Frying Medium ..................................................................................................................... 1241
52.5 Product Quality and Shelf Life .......................................................................................................... 1242
Nomenclature ............................................................................................................................................... 1243
References .................................................................................................................................................... 1244

52.1 INTRODUCTION interior should be consumed shortly after prepar-

Frying is defined as a process of cooking and drying
through contact with hot oil. It is intended to make
food more palatable and tasteful, but at the same time
makes food safer and provides a preservative effect
that results from thermal destruction of microorgan-
isms and enzymes, and a reduction in water activity at
the surface or throughout the food. The shelf life of
fried products is mostly determined by the moisture
content after frying. Products that retain a moist
ation, or can be stored for a relatively short time
under chilling conditions or for a longer time under
freezing conditions. Most of these foods—with the
exception of par-fried goods—are not produced on a
commercial scale for distribution to retail stores, but
are important in catering applications. Foods that are
dried throughout during frying have a shelf life up to
several months, which is mostly limited by quality
deterioration of the absorbed oil and development of
a rancid odor and flavor. Storage stability of these

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

products may be increased by using packaging mater-
ials with adequate barrier properties.
The term ‘‘industrial frying’’ is used to describe
high-volume deep-fat frying conducted usually as a
primary business. Most industrial fryers are continu-
ous and highly automated with capacities up to some
tons per hour. Large batch frying systems are also
included in the industrial frying classification. Fried
foods have a unique flavor—texture combination that
makes them highly acceptable by the consumers.
Therefore, a wide range of products has been devel-
oped and new products are continuously introduced
in the market. The main categories of fried products
are presented in Table 52.1.
Potato chips, extruded snacks, nuts, and nut
mixtures are dried throughout during frying, there-
fore, they have a low moisture and can be stored for a
long time at ambient temperature. Potato chips
(crisps) are the original savory snack food and the
leading one in the United States and Canada [48,52].
In addition to the traditional thin, salted slices of
potatoes, chips of different sizes, shapes, and flavors
are currently produced in several countries [58,69].
Also, fabricated chips are prepared from dough con-
taining mainly dried potatoes, gelatinized starch, and
gluten [33]. Moreover, corn and tortilla chips are
becoming popular in many parts of the world [48,69].
Extruded fried snack foods consist another major
produce of the food industry [69]. As extruder tech-
nology has developed, the sizes and shapes of ex-
truded products have become almost limitless.
Having a milled cereal, e.g., corn, wheat, oats and
rice, potatoes, or legumes as starting material, the
extruded snacks are flavored with various ingredients
to provide many common flavors, e.g., pork, cheese,
and pizza, and new ones are also continuously intro-
duced in the market [1,69]. Nuts and nut-based
snacks are very popular all over the world. Nut mix-
tures containing rice, legumes, vegetables, and many
TABLE 52.1
The Main Classes of Fried Products
Class
(Potato) Chips Potato chips of various shapes and flavors, tortilla chips, and corn chips
Extruded snacks Snacks of various shapes, flavors and texture, prepared with cereal, potato, or legume flour
Nuts Nuts or nut mixtures with legumes and flavorings
Bakery products Doughnuts and fried pies
Par-fried frozen food French fries, fish, chicken, and pancakes
Food-service products Chicken, fish, meat, and potatoes
a
Exchanged with natural oil.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
other ingredients, as well as various flavors are used in
the fried products.
Doughnuts and other fried bakery goods like pies
probably exceed in tonnage, in the United States, any
other type of sweet dough product [41]. They have
intermediate or high moisture content and can be
preserved for a short period before consumption.
Doughnuts are usually prepared from yeast-leavened
dough, where honey or flavor ingredients may be
added. The familiar doughnut shape predominates,
but other shapes, e.g., twists, sticks, honey buns,
and rolls are also produced through sheeting and
cutting or extrusion processes. After frying they may
be coated with powdered sugar, glazes, icings, and
toppings or filled with jellies, fruits, and jam. Fried
pies present special problems during frying due to the
filling they contain. The crust must be thoroughly
cooked to a medium brown color and the filling
must be cooked to an optimal point before significant
steam evolution occurs in the interior of the pie that
may lead to bursting.
Par-fried (or prefried) french fries is one of the
most important products of potato processing indus-
tries [33]. They have high moisture content and are
stored under freezing until the finish frying. The in-
dustrial process includes a water-blanching step, prior
to frying, in order to obtain a more uniform color and
improved texture of the fried product, to reduce fat
absorption by gelatinizing the surface layer of starch
and to reduce frying time. The use of additives during
blanching can further improve color and texture [33].
Coating with hydrocolloids may also be used to re-
duce oil absorption and to improve texture [34]. Other
par-fried foods include, e.g., fish sticks and pieces of
chicken. Most of them are also stored under freezing
until the finish frying, but storage under chilling and
consumption in a few days may be also practiced.
Some of these products are covered with some batter
before prefrying. This coating results in the formation
Products Fat Content (%)
25–40
20–40
5–6a
10–25
5–7
Broad range
of a crust with the desirable color and texture [2,56].
Par-frying aims to decrease the necessary frying time
at home or restaurant, while at the same time reduces
the load of microorganisms in food, offering a pre-
servative effect.
The foods mentioned so far are the main products
of industrial frying operations. Several other foods
like chicken, fish, meat, and potatoes are fried in
large quantities in fast food, catering enterprises,
and restaurants. The fried-chicken-on-the-bone is a
typical example of a product with annual sales of
few billion dollars [60].
52.2 THE FRYING PROCESS
When food is placed in hot oil, a complex heat-and-
mass-transfer phenomenon takes place. Heat is
transferred by convection from the surrounding oil
to the surface of the food and by conduction within
the solid food. Water is vaporized and escapes from
the surface of the food to the oil, while oil penetrates
into the food. Some food components may also dif-
fuse and dissolve into the oil. As water vapor moves
away, the surface begins to dry and crust is formed.
Additionally several physicochemical changes occur
in food, e.g., starch gelatinization and protein de-
naturation. Also physicochemical changes take place
in oil, e.g., oxidation reactions, hydrolytic cleavage,
change of color, and viscosity. Dissolvement of food
components into the oil may affect the rate of these
changes.
Convective heat transfer at the surface of the food
is complicated due to vigorous movement of vapor
bubbles escaping from the food that cause a consid-
erable turbulence in the oil. Additionally vapor bub-
bles are entrapped under the bottom surface of the
food being fried and prevent efficient heat transfer to
that side of the food. Another problem is the accu-
mulation of some food items at the top of the oil bath
where oil foam is formed that presents a significantly
different heat transfer coefficient.
As frying proceeds the amount of water vapor
bubbles escaping from food decreases as a result of
decrease in the remaining moisture in the material.
The crust that is initially formed at the surface of the
material moves towards inside and the temperature of
the dried regions rises above the boiling point of the
water. The moist core of the material cannot exceed
the boiling point of the liquid phase. Since the liquid
phase is water with some solutes, its boiling point is
slightly elevated above the boiling point of water.
Based on experimental observations Farkas [66] sug-
gested that the frying process is composed of four
distinct stages:
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
1. Initial heating—It begins with immersion of
the food in the frying oil and lasts until the
temperature at the surface of the food becomes
equivalent to the elevated boiling point of the
liquid. The duration of this stage does not ex-
ceed a few seconds. During this short period the
mode of heat transfer between the oil and the
food is natural convection and no vaporization
of water occurs from the surface of the food.
2. Surface boiling—Water vaporization signals
the beginning of this stage. The bubbles formed
cause turbulence in the oil surrounding the
food and, therefore, the mode of heat transfer
to the food surface changes from natural to
forced convection. Crust starts to form at the
surface of the food.
3. Falling rate—During this stage, that resembles
the falling-rate period observed in food dehy-
dration processes, more internal moisture
leaves the food, the internal core temperature
rises to the boiling point of the liquid, and
the crust layer increases in thickness. After a
sufficient time and more removal of moisture,
the vapor transfer at the surface decreases.
4. Bubble end point—If the frying process is
extended to a considerably long time, the rate
of moisture removal diminishes due to effective
decrease of moisture content, and no more bub-
bles escape from the surface of the product. This
final stage is referred to as the bubble end point.
Oil penetrates into the food at the dried region
that has a porous structure, consisting of different-
sized capillaries. As more water leaves the food and
the crust thickness increases, more oil is absorbed in
the food. At the end of frying, when the food material
is removed from the oil bath, an oil layer remains at
the surface of the food and oil from this layer is
further absorbed into the pores of the material due
to capillary forces.
Foods that retain a moist interior are not fried
to the bubble endpoint stage, but it is essential for
food safety that the thermal center has received
adequate heat to destroy microorganisms. This is
particularly important for foods that are able to
support pathogenic bacteria, like meat and fish
products.
There are two main methods of commercial fry-
ing: (1) the deep-fat frying and (2) the swallow frying.
In deep-fat frying or immersion frying, the food is
covered by the oil and all surfaces receive a similar
heat treatment to produce a uniform color and ap-
pearance (Figure 52.1). Heat is transferred by convec-
tion to the surface of the food material and by
conduction to the interior of the food. Frying follows
the stages mentioned above and convective heat
transfer coefficient changes with bubble formation
because of turbulence. Deep-fat frying is suitable for
foods of all shapes, but irregularly shaped food tends
to entrain a greater volume of oil when it is removed
from the fryer. The deep-fat frying is the method used
almost exclusively by the food industry, to produce
snacks, potato chips, and several fried goods.
Shallow frying or contact frying is most suited to
foods that have a large surface/volume ratio. The food
is placed in the frying pan that contains a thin layer of
oil and heat is transferred to the bottom surface of the
food material mostly by conduction from the hot sur-
face of the pan through the thin layer of oil (Figure
52.1). The thickness of the oil layer varies owing to
irregularities in the surface of the food. This, together
with the escape of water vapor bubbles from the hot
surface of the food, causes temperature variations and
produces the characteristic irregular browning of
shallow-fried foods. Shallow frying has high surface
heat transfer coefficients, but not stable across the
entire surface of the food.
52.2.1 HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer has been studied in deep-fat frying of
various foodstuffs. All the developed models consider
that only conductive heat transfer occurs inside the
product. The liquid water is considered to move from
the inside of the product being fried to the evapor-
ation zone, leaving the product surface as a vapor.
Therefore, the rate of water loss is accounted for, in
heat transfer models. The oil penetrates into the food
mainly during the cooling period after frying, as
proved by many investigators, therefore, heat transfer
due to oil migration in the product is considered
negligible.
Crust
Oil
Metal
Heat, Oil
Moisture
(a) (b)
FIGURE 52.1 Heat and mass transfer in: (a) shallow frying
and (b) deep-fat frying.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
A model for heat transfer in chips, which are dried
throughout frying, was developed by Moreira et al.
[48]. Since thickness of the chips was one order of
magnitude smaller than the other dimensions, infinite
slab geometry was considered, with negligible shrink-
age. The food was considered homogeneous during
the frying process and a unique differential equation
was used to describe heat transfer through the chip
with a constant thermal diffusivity
2 
@Q Q
¼a (52:1)
@t @x2
and with the boundary condition
@Q @Mw
k jx¼xo ¼ h(Qx¼xo  T)  hfg Dr j (52:2)
@x @x x¼xo
where Q is the tortilla chip temperature (8C), t is the
time (s), a is the thermal diffusivity (m2 s1), x is the
variable distance across the thickness of the chip (m),
k is the thermal conductivity of the chip (W m1
8C1), h is the convective heat transfer coefficient
(W m2 8C1), hfg is the latent heat of vaporization,
(kJ kg1), D is the mass diffusivity (m2 s1), r is the
density (kg m3), and Mw is the moisture content (%
dry basis).
Farkas et al. [19,20] studied heat transfer in larger
items of food, which retain a moist core after frying,
e.g., french fries. They considered the food as a semi-
infinite slab and the movement of the crust/core inter-
face as a moving boundary problem. The properties of
the crust were considered to be uniquely different from
those of the core and separate mathematical expressions
were developed to describe heat transfer in each region.
The crust region was assumed to contain a negligible
amount of water and the conductive heat transfer coef-
ficients of each region were considered constant.
In core region
@2Q @Q @Q
kII þ Nbx cpb ¼ («b rb cpb þ «s rs cps ) (52:3)
@x2 @x @t
In crust region
@Q @2Q @Q
(«g rg cpg þ «s rs cps ) ¼ kI 2 þ Ngx cpg (52:4)
@t @x @x
where kI, kII are the thermal conductivities in crust
and core regions, respectively (W m1 8C1), Q is the
temperature (8C), Nix is the flux of species i in x-
direction (kg m2 s1), cpi is the specific heat of spe-
cies i (J kg1 8C1), «i is the volume fraction of species
i (mi3mt3), ri is the density of species i (kg of i m3
i ),
and subscripts b, g, and s refer to liquid water, water
vapor, and solid, respectively.
 Several initial and boundary conditions were
considered, as well as, different values for the con-
vective heat transfer coefficient for free convection
(250 W m2 K1) and convection when boiling exists
(500 W m2 K1). Experimental results were in good
agreement with values of temperature predicted by the
model. The crust temperature raised quickly at the
boiling point of water, remained for a short period
until the water present vaporized and raised subse-
quently much higher than the boiling point of water,
depending on the oil temperature. The crust/core inter-
face remained at a constant temperature of 1028C after
the crust was formed. The temperature profile in the
core region remained unaffected by the oil temperature
because of the presence of the boundary at the crust/
core interface. The same results in potato strip frying
were observed by Pravisani and Calvelo [57], who
found the boundary temperature equal to 1038C.
Vijayan and Singh [70] to predict heat transfer
during frying of frozen foods developed a similar
model. The model involves two moving boundaries,
one between frozen and unfrozen regions and the
other between crust and core.
For products that do not form a crust during
frying, e.g., sausages, a model considering the food
material as homogeneous and isothermal throughout
frying was proposed by Dincer [15], and a new par-
ameter defined as frying coefficient was inserted to
facilitate and accurately determine thermal diffusivity
of the product, which was considered constant.
@ 2 (Q  T) 1 @(Q  T) 1 @(Q  T)
þ ¼ (52:5)
@r2 r @r a @t
where Q is the food temperature (8C), T, is the oil
2
temperature (8C), a ¼ FR m2I
is the thermal diffusivity
(m2 s1), F is the frying coefficient (s1), R is the
radius (m), and m is the root of the transcendental
characteristic equation.
The sausages were considered as infinite cylinders
and thermal diffusivity was calculated equal to 3.846
 107 m2 s1. Constant thermal diffusivity and
homogeneity of the food were also the simplifying
assumptions necessary to develop a model to predict
internal temperature profile in chicken pieces fried
under pressure [60]. For the chicken pieces a three-
dimensional heat transfer was considered and the
predicted results were closer to experimental ones
obtained at the center of the pieces, than those
obtained near the boundaries. Better simulation was
also obtained for more regularly shaped pieces.
In the models described above, a constant con-
vective heat transfer coefficient was assumed during
the hole frying process, or two independent values
were considered: (1) one for the initial frying stage
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and (2) another for the following stages where bub-
bling occurs. It is generally accepted that the convect-
ive heat transfer coefficient depends on the type of
shortening used for frying, its viscosity, and the tur-
bulence caused by water vapor bubbles released dur-
ing the process. In the stage of initial heating, when
no vaporization of water occurs surface heat transfer
is accomplished by natural convection. Using a metal
transducer, simulating the food being deep fried Cali-
fano and Calvelo [9] found that the convective heat
transfer coefficient ranged between 150 and 165 W
m2 K1 for temperatures of 50 to 1008C. Following
the same method Miller et al. [46] determined the
convective heat transfer coefficients for canola oil,
palm oil, corn oil, and soybean oil at 170, 180, and
1908C and found that they ranged between 250 and
280 W m2 K1. Determination of the convective
heat transfer coefficient during frying was attempted
by Sahin et al. [64], who assumed a constant value
during the whole process. They used sunflower oil at
different frying temperatures and found that the con-
vective heat transfer coefficient increased from 90 W
m2 K1 at 1508C to 200 W m2 K1 at 1908C. The
dependence of heat transfer coefficient on the water
loss rate of potato during frying was studied by Costa
et al. [13]. They found that the convective heat trans-
fer coefficient increased, following the increase of
water loss, until complete drying of the potato surface
and then decreased until the end of frying. The max-
imum values were up to two times greater than the
values obtained in the absence of frying, and ranged
(for sunflower oil) between 443 and 750 W m2 K1,
depending on the oil temperature and product geom-
etry. Higher values (30% on an average) were ob-
served for potato chips, compared with french fries.
They also commented that when the water loss rate is
very high, the bubbles near the product surface may
hinder the heat transfer. Hubart and Farkas [31] pre-
sented values starting from 300 W m2 K1 before the
beginning of bubbling, increasing to 1100 W m2 K1
and then decreasing below 200 W m2 K1 after 900 s.
Fellows [21] reported values of 250 to 300 W m2 K1
before bubbling and 800 to 1000 W m2 K1 during
vigorous boiling. He also reported surface heat trans-
fer coefficients of 200 to 450 W m2 K1 during
shallow frying.
Viscosity is another factor that affects the heat
transfer coefficient between the oil and the food [46].
Viscosity increases with frying time at a very slow rate,
therefore, the oil has to be used for several hours
before any major difference is observed. The fresh oil
has a higher convective heat transfer coefficient than
the used oil. Thus, the value for fresh soybean oil at
1888C was found equal to 282 W m2 K1 compared
with 261 W m2 K1 for the used oil [45], while similar
values, i.e., 285 W m2 K1 for fresh oil compared
with 273 W m2 K1 for used one were obtained for
soybean oil at 1908C [48]. It should be noted, however
that the increase of viscosity is accompanied by de-
crease in surface tension, which facilitates the contact
between the oil and the food and increases the rate of
heat transfer, according to Blumenthal [5].
Another parameter considered as constant in most
models is thermal conductivity. In fact thermal con-
ductivity decreases with frying time, as water is re-
moved from the product and oil, which has a lower
thermal conductivity than water, is absorbed. Thermal
conductivity is also affected by other changes that may
occur in the food, e.g., starch gelatinization. Results
for tortilla chips fried in soybean oil at 1908C showed
that the thermal conductivity decreased from 0.23 to
0.09 W m1 K1[47]. Most of this change occurred
during the first 10 to 15 s of frying when most of the
water evaporated from the chips and almost all free
starch granules gelatinized. Similarly, Sahin et al. [64]
found a decrease in thermal conductivity with frying
time, which was greater at the beginning of frying and
leveled off towards the end. They also found that, for
the same frying time, thermal conductivity decreased
as frying temperature increased.
Thermal diffusivity is also expected to change dur-
ing frying, depending up on the change of specific heat
and density of the product being fried, in addition to
the change in thermal conductivity. For example, for
tortilla chips the change was not significant as the
decrease in thermal conductivity was balanced by a
decrease in specific heat and bulk density [47].
52.2.2 MASS TRANSFER
Dehydration in hot oil at temperatures between 160
and 1808C is characterized by very high drying rates.
This rapid drying is critical for ensuring favorable
structural and textural properties of the final product.
Dehydration in oil inevitably leads to a substantial
uptake of oil on or into the potato chips. In the early
stages, surface water is lost by a combination of water
droplets leaving the food surface and evaporation of
boiling water. Water loss is not uniform through the
entire food slice. It occurs first on the edges and
gradually evolves to the core. Crust formation is a
characteristic of fried foods and is closely linked to oil
penetration. A dry surface crust is formed and a
1038C isotherm evolves towards the center. It is a
complex process in which factors such as temperature
of the oil, food weight/frying-oil volume ratio,
surface area/volume ratio, length of frying time, oil
source, food characteristics, and industrial method
used, are involved. Oil adsorption into the voids
created by the release of vapor occurs mostly when
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
the slice is removed from the frying medium as a
result of a pressure drop, caused by the cooling of
the product. Moreira et al. [50] measured the oil
content on the surface and at the core of tortilla
chips during frying and cooling, and found that only
20% of the total oil contained in the product was
absorbed inside the chip during frying, while it
amounted to 64% during cooling. Oil absorption is
affected by the porosity of the product. Porosity in-
creases during frying and longer frying times resulted
in more uniform pore size distribution [35]. For
longer shelf life the moisture content of chips and
other products that are dried throughout during fry-
ing should be within 2 to 3%, and from the eco-
nomic point of view, their oil content should be as
low as possible. Nutrition studies on fried products
are related to oil uptake.
Moreira et al. [49] observed that moisture loss and
oil absorption rates were faster during the first 15 s
of frying of tortilla chips and became fairly constant
as frying continued. Oil absorption as a function of
frying time was described by a first-order exponential
equation
O(t) ¼ Oe ½1  exp (kt) (52:6)
where Oe is the final oil content and k is the rate
constant, with values varying from 0.223 to
0.330 s1. The increase of frying temperature from
150 to 1908C increased the moisture loss rate; the oil
absorption rate was not affected during the first 15 s,
but the final oil content was higher for tortilla chips
fried at higher temperature [49,50]. On the contrary,
according to Guillaumin [28] a temperature variation
between 150 and 1808C had no significant effect on oil
absorption.
Baumann and Escher [4] developed a correlation
for the quantitative description of oil uptake between
frying time t (s), oil temperature T, initial dry matter
content DMr, wet basis (kg/kg), and final moisture
content W, wet basis (kg/kg), while the thickness of
the potato slices b (mm), was considered to be in-
versely related to the oil uptake, assuming that the
oil is deposited primarily on the surface of the slice. It
is expressed as
1
F ¼ C1 þ C2 t þ C3 T þ C4 DMr þ C5 W þ C6 (52:7)
b
where F is the fat content of chips, wet basis (kg/kg),
and C1 (kg/kg), C2 (kg/(kg s)), C3 (kg/(kg 8C)), C4
(kg/kg), C5 (kg/kg), and C6 (kg mm/kg) are con-
stants.
Reddy and Das [61] presented a model for the
prediction of moisture M0 , and oil O content (wt %),
of chips that include time of frying t (s), oil tempera-
ture T (8C), and thickness of slice b (mm), as param-
eters. It is given by the regression equations
M 0 ¼ 192:42  0:426807t  0:795T þ 9:958b (52:8)
O ¼ 54:98 þ 0:21156t þ 0:398T  4:904b (52:9)
Rice and Gamble [62] proposed a similar model that
can be expressed as
Ð remaining moisture present. An overall correlation of
M 2 ¼ 19:2t þ 40T  6036 (52:10)
Ð
where M is the moisture loss (% initial weight), t is
the frying time (s), and T is the oil temperature (8C).
Costa and Oliveira [14], assuming that the potato
slice consists of two compartments, proposed the fol-
lowing relationship for the kinetics of water loss dur-
ing potato frying
m Moreover, they proposed the following equations
¼ aeKc t (1 þ Kc t) þ (1  a)eKe t (1 þ Ke t)
mo
(52:11)
frequency factor (g oil/g potato solids, min), k1 coef-
ficient (N1), k2 coefficient (g oil–g potato/g potato
solids–g water, min) and T is the temperature of
frying oil (K).
Gamble et al. [26] came to the conclusion that oil
content is closely correlated to the square root of the
frying time. To a reasonable approximation the oil
content was twice the square root of the frying time in
seconds. The oil content was not directly related to
frying temperature, but was more closely related to the
all data independent of frying temperature produced a
direct relation between oil and moisture content (if not
mechanistically linked), which can be expressed as
O ¼ 37:8  0:483M 0 (52:14)
and stands in the temperature range from 145 to
1858C.
to correlate moisture and oil content with the frying
time t (s), and square root frying time:

where m is the moisture content at time t, mo is the initial M 0 ¼ 62:9  0:189t (52:15)
moisture content, Kc and Ke, are the rate constants of O ¼ 7:87  0:0888t (52:16)
the mass lumped capacity of the core and the edge, pffiffi
respectively, and a is the fraction of the total water M 0 ¼ 100  5:34 t (52:17)
contained in the core of the raw material. pffiffi
Kozempel et al. [36], proposed the use of Fick’s O ¼ 9:70  2:53 t (52:18)
law (for an infinite slab) for the estimation of the
moisture content of fried french fries, which depends Krokida et al. [37] presented the following kinetic
on the diffusion of water vapor in the material model for water loss during frying of french fries:

X  Xe
M 8 ¼ exp (KX t) (52:19)
¼ Xo  Xe
Mo p2
 
2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
where X is the potato moisture content (kg/kg db), in
 e(Dp t=L ) þ e9(Dp t=L ) þ e25(Dp t=L ) þ   
9 25 frying time t (min), Xo is the initial moisture content (kg/
(52:12)  T KXT  b KXd 1 C KXC
kg db), KX ¼ KoX 170 10 2 þ 100 is the rate
1
where M is the potato moisture, t is the residence time, constant of moisture content kinetics (min ), b is the
Mo is the initial moisture, L is the nominal thickness of sample size (mm), C is the concentration of hydrogen-
 T XT  b Xd 1 C XC
cut potato, and D ¼ Doe(E/RT) is the diffusion coef- ated oil in total oil (%), Xe ¼ Xoe 170 10 2 þ 100
ficient, which has to be calculated as a function of is the moisture content in equilibrium (kg/kg db), and
temperature due to rapid temperature change that the KoX, KXT, KXb, KXC, Xoe, XT, Xb, XC are parameters.
potato pieces undergo in the oil bath. It should be For the oil uptake they proposed the kinetic model,
noted that only the first term is significant.
They also develop the following equation for the Y ¼ Ye [1  exp (KY t)] (52:20)
estimation of oil absorption, assuming that it depends
on the moisture and texture of the potato pieces, where Y is the oil content of potato strips (kg/kg db),
 T YT  b Yd 1 C YC
Ye ¼ Yoe 170 10 2 þ 100 is the oil content at
dS  (k1 TX )   T KYT
¼ ko e þ k2 (M)  e(E=RT) (52:13) infinite process time (kg/kg db), KY ¼ KoY 170
dt  b KYd 1 C KYC
10 2 þ 100 is the rate constant of oil uptake
where S is the concentration of oil (wt oil/wt potato), (min1), and Yoe, YT, Yb, YC, KoY, KYT, KYb, KYC are
t is the time (h), TX is the texture (N), ko is a parameters.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Oil content of tortilla chips was higher for higher
initial moisture content [50].
The oil quality, especially its viscosity and surface
tension, affects the oil absorbed in the product. Viscos-
ity increases and surface tension decreases with
extended oil use due to the formation of polymers and
polar compounds, respectively, through degradation
reactions. Consequently, absorption is greater if the
oil is extensively used [28]. However, Moreira et al.
[50] found that higher viscosity and lower surface ten-
sion caused an increased oil adherence on the surface of
the product, but not an increased final oil content.
Krokida et al. [38] studied the osmotic pretreat-
ment and came to the conclusion that it affects all the
quality attributes for the french fries. Both the
mass transfer phenomena (e.g., water loss and oil
uptake) that take place during frying get less intense
due to the osmotic pretreatment before frying. Color
darkness takes place during osmotic dehydration and
browning reactions during frying are promoted
resulting in more dark and red colored fried product.
Salt treated samples have the most acceptable color.
The structural properties are also affected by osmotic
pretreatment, which can be an effective method to
produce low-fat french fries.
52.3 PROPERTIES OF OILS RELATED
TO FRYING
52.3.1 THERMAL PROPERTIES
52.3.1.1 Specific Heat
Oils, fats, and their derivatives such as fatty acids at
temperatures just above their melting points have spe-
cific heats of about 1.9 kJ kg1 K1 or somewhat higher.
Published data on the specific heats of fatty acids or
triglycerides indicate that, in the liquid state, the specific
heat increases with fatty acid chain length and decreases
as fat becomes more unsaturated. In the solid state there
is little change in specific heat with chain length and a
progressive increase with increase of the degree of un-
saturation. In both solid and liquid states there is a
progressive increase in specific heat as temperature in-
creases [24]. For example, for simple and hydrogenated
cottonseed oils the specific heat (kJ kg1 K1) as a
function of temperature in degree Celsius was found as:
simple oil (iodine value, 108.3):
cp ¼ 1.934 þ 0.00255T for T: 15 to 608C
partially hydrogenated oil (iodine value, 59.5):
cp ¼ 1.989 þ 0.00230T for T: 40 to 708C
highly hydrogenated oil (iodine value, 0.85):
cp ¼ 1.917 þ 0.00406T for T: 60 to 808C
Similar equations have been published by Formo [24]
for simple and hydrogenated peanut oil.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
According to values tabulated by Rahman [59]
specific heat of cottonseed oil varied from 2.176 kJ
kg1 K1 at 808C to 2.489 kJ kg1 K1 at 2208C, and
that of soybean oil from 2.063 kJ kg1 K1 at 208C to
2.502 kJ kg1 K1 at 2208C. The results obtained
by Kasprzycka-Guttman and Odzeniak (cited by
Rahman [59]) for various oils, in the range of 70 to
1408C, are presented in Table 52.2. Choi and Okos
(cited by Rahman [59]) proposed a general equation
for specific heat of fats as a function of temperature,
T, from 40 to 1508C:
cp ¼ 1:9842 þ 1:4733  103 T  4:8008  106 T 2
Figure 52.2 presents the change in specific heat of
pure triglycerides and natural oils according to data
published by Formo [24] and Rahman [59].
52.3.1.2 Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity data for oils, fats, and deriva-
tives are very limited. They are poor conductors of
heat and the thermal conductivity values decrease
with temperature. For example, thermal conductivity
of olive oil is 0.1675 W m1 K1 at 198C and 0.1611
W m1 K1 at 718C [24]. Sligthly higher values, i.e.,
0.1887 W m1 K1 at 5.68C and 0.1627 W m1 K1 at
1008C, were presented by Polley et al. (cited by
Rahman [59]). The effect of temperature increase on
thermal conductivity of commercial fatty acids is
given in Table 52.3 [24]. Choi and Okos (cited by
Rahman [59]) proposed the following equation for
thermal conductivity of fats as a function of tempera-
ture in degree Celcius, T, from 40 to 1508C:
k ¼ 0:181  2:76  103 T  1:77  107 T 2
TABLE 52.2
Specific Heat Correlation of Edible Oils
as a Function of Temperature
Edible Oil Equationa
Olive Coi ¼ 1.9518T þ 0.0006T2 þ 6.2992T3
Sunflower Coi ¼ 1.5951T þ 0.0097T2  0.0000T3
Soybean Coi ¼ 2.1339T  0.0034T2 þ 0.0000T3
Rape Coi ¼ 1.9339T þ 0.0005T2 þ 0.0000T3
Linen Coi ¼ 1.9460T þ 0.0022T2  4.3697T3
Castor Coi ¼ 2.0676T þ 0.0035T2  0.0000T3
Lard Coi ¼ 2.0849T  0.0043T2 þ 0.0000T3
a
T in K.
Source: From Rahman, S. 1995. Food Properties Handbook, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 327, 238–264. With permission.
 3

2.5

Specific heat (kJ/kg ⬚C)

Trilaurin
2
Trimyristine
Tripalmitin

1.5 Tristearin
Cottonseed oil
Soybean oil
1
0 50 100 150 200 250
Temperature (⬚C)

FIGURE 52.2 Specific heat of common pure triglycerides and natural oils.

52.3.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES physical properties of the oils, but also the sensorial
properties and nutritional value.
Fresh oils consist mainly (up to 98%) of triglycerides.
Characteristics permitting oil use for deep fat frying
52.3.2.1 Vapor Pressure
are high vapor pressure and resistance to decompos-
ition. Decomposition of oils during frying proceeds Vapor pressure, related to boiling point, is one of the
through thermal, oxidative, and hydrolytic reactions. most important characteristics for the application of
The first reactions result in the formation of various oils to frying processes. Triglycerides of long-chain
oxidized and polymerized products, while the latter in fatty acids have extremely low vapor pressure, which
free fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides. All these increases as the fatty acid chain length decreases.
substances cause an alteration of not only the Vegetable oils, consisting mainly of triglycerides
with long-chain fatty acids, have consequently very
low vapor pressure, e.g., 0.001 and 0.05 mm Hg at
254 and 3088C, respectively, for soybean and olive
TABLE 52.3 oil [24].
Thermal Conductivities of Commercial Fatty Acids Monoglycerides have considerably higher vapor
pressures, and fatty acids are even more volatile.
Acid Temperature (8C) Thermal Conductivity (W/m 8C)
Therefore, these products of hydrolytic cleavage are
Lauric 72.5 0.192 a source of smoke arising from used frying oil. The
90 0.185 vapor pressures or boiling points of some saturated
106 0.174 fatty acids are given in Table 52.4 [24]. The logarithm
148 0.138 of vapor pressure of fatty acids and typical synthetic
Oleic 72.5 0.188 triglycerides is a linear function of the reciprocal of
90 0.178
the absolute temperature [24]. The heat of vaporiza-
106 0.155
tion of fatty materials has been calculated from vapor
148 0.115
Palmitic 72.5 0.172
pressure data by means of the Clausius-Clapeyron
90 0.157 equation and amounts to 238 kJ kg1 for oleic and
106 0.138 stearic acids at atmospheric pressure and 209 kJ kg1
148 0.102 for soybean oil at 0.001 to 0.05 mm Hg [24].
Steatic 72.5 0.160
90 0.146 52.3.2.2 Smoke, Fire, and Flash Points
106 0.132
148 0.096 The smoke, fire, and flash points of a fatty material
are measures of its thermal stability when heated in

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

TABLE 52.4
Boiling Points of Saturated Fatty Acids

Pressure (mm) Boiling Point (8C)

Caproic Caprylic Capric Lauric Myristic Palmitic Stearic

1 61.7 87.5 110.3 130.2 149.2 167.4 183.6

2 71.9 97.9 121.1 141.8 161.1 179.0 195.9
4 82.8 109.1 132.7 154.1 173.9 192.2 209.2
8 94.6 121.3 145.5 167.4 187.6 206.1 224.1
16 107.3 134.6 159.4 181.8 202.4 221.5 240.0
32 120.8 149.2 174.6 197.4 218.3 238.4 257.1
64 136.0 165.3 191.3 214.6 236.3 257.1 276.8
128 152.5 183.3 209.8 234.3 257.3 278.7 299.7
256 171.5 203.0 230.6 256.6 281.5 303.6 324.8
512 192.5 225.6 254.9 282.5 309.0 332.6a 355.2a
760 205.8 239.7 270.0 298.9 326.2a 351.5a 376.1a
a
Values obtained by extrapolation.

contact with air. The smoke point is the temperature
at which smoking is first detected in a laboratory
apparatus protected from drafts. The flash point is
the temperature at which the volatile products are
evolved at a rate sufficient to be ignited, but not to
support combustion. The fire point is the temperature
at which the volatile products support continued
combustion.
Fatty acids are much more volatile than glycer-
ides; therefore, smoke, flash, and fire points of oils
depend principally on the content of free fatty acids,
and decrease if hydrolytic degradation is extended
during frying. The smoke point of cottonseed, corn,
or peanut oils, e.g., decreases from about 2328C at a
free fatty acid content of 0.01% to 938C at a free fatty
acid content of 100%. The unsaturation of oil has
hardly any effect on its smoke, flash, and fire points.
52.3.2.3 Viscosity
The viscosity of an oil is strongly affected by the
degradation during frying, increasing as a result of
the formation of dimers and polymers through ther-
mal and oxidative degradation [5,11,55]. Keeping the
oil at frying temperature caused an increase of viscos-
ity with time, which was even higher when the oil was
aerated [12]. The increase observed during continuous
heating of the oil was higher than that during frying
at the same temperature (27% compared with 11%
after 90 h at 1858C [11]. Experiments of potato frying
with corn oil showed that after 36 h of frying, when
smoking and foaming of the oil indicated that it was
no longer suitable for frying, its viscosity had in-
creased by 28.6% [27].
52.3.2.4 Surface Tension
Fresh oils consist mainly of triglycerides and are im-
miscible with water, which is the main constituent of
all foods. The surface tension between oil and food
reduces by the action of polar compounds that are
formed through degradation reactions and leaching
of food materials into the oil during the frying pro-
cess. As a result, oil and food contact increases and
heat transfer becomes more effective. Blumenthal [5]
observed that the contact time of fresh oil at the food
surface is only about 10% of the food immersion time.
As the oil continues to be used, the contact time
increases to about 20%, then optimally to about
50%. This causes normal absorption of oil into food
and proper cooking of the exterior and the interior.
If the oil degrades further, more surfactants are
formed, causing an increased contact time (80% or
higher). As a result, an excessive oil pickup by the
food and an increased rate of heat transfer to the
surface of the food is observed, while conduction of
heat to the interior cannot be sped up by changes in
the oil. Thus, excessive darkening and drying at the
surface occur.
Sodium oleate, a water-activated surfactant, was
isolated from the polar fraction of frying fat [6,27].
Other water-activated surfactants are phospholipids
and inorganic salts. Lipid-activated surfactants in-
clude low-polar thermal polymers and high-polar oxi-
dated compounds. The mono- and di-glycerides
formed through hydrolysis also cause a rapid drop
of the interfacial tension between oil and water [23].
The oil–air surface tension was found to decrease
by 2.20% after 36 h of potato frying [27]. At high

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

surfactant concentration, the reduction of the inter-
facial tension causes the formation of persistent vapor
bubbles at the air/oil interface, or in other words,
foaming.
52.3.2.5 Color
Carotenoid and chlorophyll pigments are responsible
for the color of the fresh oils. Usually color is one of
the properties most frequently determined at the pur-
chase of the oil in the frying industry [53]. The color
of frying oil darkens with use and eventually affects
the color of the fried product. Perhaps, the color
change is the most noticeable of all changes occurring
during frying. Food introduces various components
to the oil during frying. Many of these components
contribute to color formation by reacting with oil or
its degradation products. Maillard browning reac-
tions are believed to be the source of some of the
color development [32,54]. Since Maillard reactions
are greatly accelerated by increasing temperature,
dark coloration at the surface of the fried food and
in the frying oil can readily occur. Furthermore, al-
dehyde groups of triglyceride molecules, derived from
lipid degradation react with amino groups to form
dark coloring compounds. However, a darkening is
observed even when the oil is simply heated at frying
temperature, without the addition of any food. In fact
darkening during heating is more intense than that
developed during frying [11,25].
52.3.2.6 Alteration of Frying Oil
During the frying process the lipid material is exposed
to high temperature in the presence of air and mois-
ture. Under these conditions a wide variety of reac-
tions takes place and the main groups of alteration
compounds generated are summarized in Table 52.5
[11,25,7,16].
TABLE 52.5
Main Groups of Compounds Formed during Deep-Fat Frying
Type of Reaction Causative Agent
Oxidation Oxygen
Thermal degradation Temperature
Hydrolysis Moisture
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
The rate of the oxidation reactions is higher for the
fatty acids that contain more double bonds. However,
even saturated fatty acids undergo oxidation. The rela-
tive reaction rates of oleic (C18:1), linoleic (C18:2), and
linolenic acid (C18:3) with oxygen are 1, 10, 25, respect-
ively [18]. Therefore, the inherent stability to oxida-
tion, expressing the relative reaction rate with oxygen
of oil depends on the fatty acid content of its triglycer-
ides and can be calculated as [18]:
Inherent stability ¼ (% oleic acid  1
þ % linoleic acid  10
þ % linolenic acid  25)=100
The primary oxidation products are hydroperoxides,
which decompose quickly at frying temperature
and cannot be detected. The decomposition products
include several volatiles. The volatile compounds in-
crease at the beginning of frying until they reach a
plateau, as a result of simultaneous evaporation, de-
composition, and formation [11,55]. Other secondary
products formed are nonvolatile polar compounds,
e.g., dimers and oligomers. The content of polar com-
pounds increases linearly with frying time [29,30,
43,65] and may be considered as the most representa-
tive index of oil degradation during frying [25,63,71].
Several countries have established 25 to 27% total
polar content as the regulatory limit for use of
the frying oil [22]. The polar content increase is ac-
companied with interfacial tension decrease, as polar
materials act as surfactants and viscosity increase,
since dimers and oligomers are formed. Thus, the
decrease in surface tension was highly correlated
with the increase in viscosity [27], and a higher
fat absorption in frying food was observed as the
viscosity of the frying oil increased [55]. The viscosity
increase is not only due to the polymers formed
through secondary reactions of hydroperoxides, but
Resulting Compounds
Oxidized monomeric triglycerides
Dimeric and oligomeric triglycerides
Volatile compounds (e.g., aldehydes, ketones, alcohols,
esters, hydrocarbons, and aromatic compounds)
Cyclic monomeric triglycerides
Nonpolar dimeric and oligomeric triglycerides
Fatty acids
Monoglycerides
Diglycerides
also due to polymers formed through thermal
alterations.
The polyunsaturated fatty acids upon oxidation
tend to form conjugated structures. Thus, the conju-
gated dienes content increases with frying time, when
oils rich in linoleic acid are used [25,30,71] and con-
jugated trienes are also formed when linolenic acid is
present.
The rate of all oxidation reactions increases with
temperature. However, the increase from 155 to
1958C was moderate [30]. The elimination of air, on
the other hand, seems to affect greatly the degrad-
ation reactions [55].
Products formed through hydrolytic cleavage, i.e.,
free fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides increase at
the beginning of frying and remain almost constant
afterwards [30]. Normally 0.5 to 0.8% free fatty acids
content is encountered in frying oils [55]. Higher con-
tents may cause extensive smoking of the oil, but
usually the simultaneous formation and evaporation
of the acids leads to a plateau.
52.4 INDUSTRIAL FRYING SYSTEMS
52.4.1 EQUIPMENT
The equipment used in industrial frying consists
mainly of continuous, highly automated deep-fat fry-
ers. Large batch frying systems are also included in
the industrial frying classification. The first continu-
ous fryer was developed in 1929 for the production of
potato chips. A wide variety of industrial fryers fol-
lowed, suitable to produce every type of fried food
from savory snacks, doughnuts, and vegetables to
breaded meat and seafood. The more widely used
are the traditional fryers for chips and several snacks,
but pressure fryers, vacuum fryers, shaped product
fryers, and a number of others are also commercially
available in a variety of sizes and configurations.
They have production capacities from a few hundred
kilograms per hour for some snacks to tens of tons
per hour for par-fried french fries.
Continuous deep-fat frying systems consist of five
independent sets of equipment: (1) an oil tank where
the food to be fried is submerged; (2) a conveying
means for moving the food into, through, and out
of the oil; (3) a heating unit; (4) an exhaust system to
remove the vapors emerging from the oil tank; and
(5) an oil recirculation system, which pumps the oil
through filters (and external heaters if used) and
replenishes it from a bulk supply to maintain a steady
volume in the tank. Banks [3] designated six zones or
fryer areas in an industrial fryer used for snacks
production, where product handling and processing
conditions are controlled to regulate frying:
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
1. The entry zone where the food is rapidly heated
and is covered in a few seconds with small
steam bubbles, more or less uniform in size
and distribution. Bubbles keep the food pieces
separated and, along with the flow of oil, pre-
vent clump formation. Mechanical pressure or
even pressure due to excessive oil flow that
would force the food pieces into close contact
must be avoided in the entry zone. The food
must move freely with the aid of a smooth oil
flow. At the end of the entry zone a ‘‘breaker
bar’’ or any other appropriate device may be
used for the separation of any clumps that have
been formed. Starch, in starch containing foods
like savory snacks and potato products, begins
to gelatinize in the entry zone, first on the
surface and later through to the interior.
2. The case-hardening zone where the bubble pat-
tern on the food surface changes, with some
areas emitting larger and more frequent steam
bubbles and others smaller and at a slower rate.
The larger bubble sites mark surface points
where steam channels have erupted due to
steam pressure generated in the interior of the
product. The steam pressure increase may cause
intercellular separation and formation of chan-
nels that break through to the surface or
formation of blisters in the interior of the
product. The smaller bubble sites reflect the
dehydration of cells close to and on the surface.
An outer layer of a crust begins to form as a
result of this dehydration and food begins to
case harden. When case hardening is complete
food pieces have less tendency to stick together,
but they are still pliable and malleable.
3. The shape-firming zone where the larger bubble
sites on the food surface continue to emit
steam, while the smaller bubble points further
diminish. The thickness of the crust layer in-
creases and cells below the crust dehydrate and
become fixed. Crust thickness and subsurface
structure depend greatly on frying temperature.
Higher temperatures result in a thinner crust
layer. The original subsurface cellular struc-
ture, interlaced with some voids, is generally
maintained, although cell walls are distorted,
in nominal frying conditions. When a tempera-
ture profile, typical of kettle frying, is used, the
original cellular structure is almost completely
destroyed and a porous, cavernous structure is
formed.
4. The cooking or moisture reduction zone where
the food having a nonsticky surface and a rela-
tively firm shape continues to loose moisture
through steam emission and cooking. The
 temperature that was maintained slightly over
the boiling point of water until now begins to
rise, initiating the final phase of frying. Usually
there is a need to keep the products under the
surface of the oil in this zone by a submerger
belt.
5. The finish frying zone which starts as the prod-
uct approaches the end of the submerger belt
and continuous until the product is removed
from the fryer by the carry out conveyor. Fin-
ish frying is very important for the quality of
the product and must be carefully controlled. If
the product is removed from the fryer before
finish frying is completed it would have poor
flavor, light color, poor textural characteristics,
and low oil content. It is the final dehydration
and temperature rise that support chemical re-
actions generating much of the flavor and color
of the products and create the desired texture.
6. The takeout zone where the product is moved
out of the oil by a conveyor. The product is still
hot in that zone and continues to cook. Its
surface is covered with oil and has a wet ap-
pearance. As the product cools, the residual
water vapor condenses, creating a pressure dif-
ference that pulls the oil from the surface into
the pores and leaves the surface almost dry.
Handling of the product at the takeout zone
influences its moisture, texture, flavor, color,
and especially oil content. To increase oil up-
take, additional oil can be sprayed on the hot
product, to be absorbed as the product cools.
On the contrary, if low oil content is desired the
product has to be maintained at temperature as
it leaves the oil bath and the surface oil can be
removed by a stream of hot gas. Some of the
early commercial processes utilized a stream of
hot air to reduce surface oil, but caused rapid
oxidation and decrease of product shelf life. To
avoid oxidation, units developed later use dry
steam in conjunction with an oxygen-free
chamber [3]. Centrifugal force is also used in
some operations to reduce oil content of the
products.
52.4.1.1 Oil Tank
The oil tank is usually constructed of stainless steel
and may have a rectangular shape or a V-shaped
bottom. The V-shaped bottom facilitates settling
and removal of sediment. Tubes or electrical elements
may be placed in the tank, if an internal heating
system is used. The thermal insulation of the tank is
a very important feature since it improves fryer effi-
ciency and lessens the risk of burns to those making
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
casual contact. Some metals are strong catalysts of oil
oxidation. Their catalytic activity varies following the
order: copper > copper alloys > iron > zinc > stainless
steel > magnesium. Copper and copper alloys are det-
rimental for oil deterioration; therefore, all metal sur-
faces that come in contact with the oil should not
contain any of these metals.
The size of a fryer varies depending on the finished
product output, which may range from 100 to 5000 kg/
h for potato chips and other snacks, or 14,000 kg/h for
par-fried french fries [3]. The proper sizing of the fryer
is very important. The best quality products are pro-
duced when fryers operate at full capacity and on a
continuous basis. Operating the fryer outside of its
designed capacity can cause both unacceptable prod-
uct quality and equipment failures, with risks increas-
ing in proportion to the deviation from design
capacity. Operating the fryer below the rated capacity
results in unnecessary quantities of frying oil being
kept heated and reduction of oil turnover, which
increases oxidative deterioration. Therefore, extended
operation below the rated capacity affects negatively
the frying oil quality and the flavor, nutritive quality,
and shelf life of the fried product. Operating above the
rated capacity changes the frying temperature profile
and may result in undercooked products with a bland
unacceptable flavor. Also, it forces extensive heat
input, which can lead to early equipment failure [3,10].
Apart from the conventional frying process, some
frying systems have a short frying step followed by a
finish-cook step in an oven with steam or hot air. In
impingement ovens, high-velocity hot air is forced
against the food at 908 angle [32]. In a reverse situ-
ation, microwaves or steam have been used for the
initial cook, followed by a finish-frying step. One of
the main goals in this procedure is to reduce oil
absorption in the food.
52.4.1.2 Conveying System
The food to be fried is carried into and through the oil
tank by an appropriate conveyor. Food can also be
fed by slow-moving paddles and it either sinks to
the submerged conveyor or, if it floats, is held below
the surface by a second conveyor. The conveyor speed
controls the frying time. The fried food is removed
from the fryer by an inclined conveyor and excess oil
is drained back into the tank.
Matz [41] has classified the following conveying
mechanisms: (1) spacer bar conveying, in which the
frying piece floats between transverse bars that push it
over the surface at a rate adjusted to give it the
desired cook by the time it emerges from the end of
the tank; (2) drop plate conveying, in which the prod-
uct rests on shelves moving below the fat surface until
the pieces develop enough buoyancy to rise to the
surface where they contact an upper conveying
means; (3) hold-down conveying, in which a mesh
band moving just underneath the surface of the oil
contacts the upper surface of the buoyant product
and carries it along; (4) restrained conveying, in
which products are carried between two horizontal
mesh belts; (5) conveyors for nonfloating products,
traveling well below the surface of the oil and utilizing
baskets, belts, or other holding devices having no
covers; (6) compartmentalized conveying, in which
dough pieces are held in small molds that may help
to shape the product as it cooks (e.g., fabricated
chips); and (7) conveying by the current of the oil
that is being created by pumps. Some other types
also have been devised to transport foods requiring
special treatment. An example is the rotating drum
conveyor described by Bullock (cited by Matz [41]), in
which the drum has internal shelves. During part of
the drum’s rotation, the food is immersed into hot oil.
Some products, e.g., doughnuts, must be turned
over a little more than half way through the frying
process in order to get a symmetrical shape and a
uniform crust color. For these products conveyors
that automatically turn the dough pieces at the proper
time are used.
The food may be transferred out of the fryer by an
inclined conveyor or some more complex mechanism.
Usually foods have to be cooled before packaging in
order to become firmer and to slow moisture migra-
tion from the crumb to the crust for those products
that retain a moist interior.
Improved product quality is closely related to
appropriate gentle handling through the fryer. Con-
temporary fryers often feature interchangeable inlet
sections produced in a cartridge design, which pro-
mote simple and rapid product changeover and easy
height adjustment to support various types of trans-
fers. Developments in hold-down conveyors permit
an easier vertical adjustment to provide the needed
gap to ensure both product control and minimal
damage from the belting. To minimize belting dam-
age conveyors with Teflon slats that present a nearly
smooth, nonstick surface are now available [68].
52.4.1.3 Heating Units
Fryers are heated by electricity, gas, fuel oil, or steam.
Dual-fuel systems convertible from fuel oil to gas are
available. A direct heating system for heating the oil
in the tank may be applied, or an external one by
means of a heat exchanger.
The direct heating systems include bottom-fired
gas strip burners, tubular heating systems, or elec-
trical heating elements installed inside the tank. In
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
bottom heating systems a problem may arise from
the accumulation of sediments on the bottom of the
vat and formation of an insulating layer between the
heat source and the oil. Moreover solids are over-
heated and deteriorate quickly affecting the frying
oil quality. This situation can be overcome to a cer-
tain extent by constructing the tank with a V-shaped
bottom, so that the solid material accumulates on the
lowest part of the vat, bellow the level at which heat is
being applied.
The tubular heating systems transfer heat by pass-
ing burning gases, thermal oil, or steam through tubes
that run through the vat from side to side. One ad-
vantage of tubular systems, as compared with direct
bottom heating is that there is a cooler zone below
the heating tubes, where solids settle away from the
high heat and turbulence so that they do not interfere
with heat transfer and do not deteriorate very fast.
The V-shaped bottom facilitates settling and removal
of solid sediment in this case, as well. Another advan-
tage is the large heating surface that enables a suffi-
cient heat transfer rate, at a lower temperature
difference between the surface of the tubes and the
surrounding oil. As a result of overheating of the oil,
generation of burnt deposits on the heating surfaces,
and quality deterioration are diminished. Disadvan-
tages are the greater difficulty of cleaning tubes and
the need for a larger quantity of frying oil for the
same output.
Electrical heating systems are convenient, but they
are used mostly in batch fryers, or in small continuous
systems, due to higher energy cost. Electricity is used
to heat resistance elements inside small stainless steel
tubes assembled in grids. These grids are fixed in the
fryer, just above the bottom of the tank and can be
raised out of the tank to make cleaning easier. Elec-
trically heated fryers have the advantage of require-
ment of smaller amount of oil than the tubular ones.
Also it is very easy to create different temperature
zones inside the fryer by the appropriate position of
the heating elements.
Microwave heating, as an additional source to con-
ventional heating, has been claimed to offer advantages
to the cooking of some products, e.g., doughnuts [68].
Microwave radiation is applied when the doughnuts are
fried on their first side and result in a faster increase of
the temperature inside the doughnut and consequently
in a faster expansion. The total volume of the product is
larger and fat absorption may be reduced up to 25%.
A patent of a short-wave infrared heated conveyor,
simulating contact frying, was proposed for pizzas and
pancakes by Dagerskog et al. (cited by Matz [41]).
External heat exchangers are of direct or indirect
heating type. Direct heating is accomplished by gas, oil,
or propane burning. Indirect systems use chlorinated
hydrocarbon heat transfer fluids or steam. The exter-
nal heat exchangers allow the fryer tank to be shal-
lower and, therefore, a smaller amount of oil is needed
in the tank, but a considerable amount is needed to fill
the heat exchanger and the piping to and from it. A
major advantage of the external heat exchangers is the
more uniform temperature of the oil in the fryer, as
compared with heating systems installed in the tank.
The initial cost of external heating is higher [41], but a
longer equipment life, an improved product quality, a
higher safety, and environmental protection are
achieved according to Swackhamer [68]. For fryers
with multiple temperature zones, oil can be pumped
from an external heat exchanger through separate
pipes at a different flow. The flow into each separate
zone is controlled individually to maintain the preset
temperature of the zone.
Heat and oil recovery systems are used to reduce
energy and oil costs. The exhaust vapor escaping
from the vat is used to preheat incoming food or oil.
If direct contact of this vapor with the incoming food
is applied some of the oil carried by exhaust vapor is
absorbed in the food reducing the amount of oil that
is required in the fryer. Alternatively a heat exchanger
may be mounted in the exhaust hood to recover heat
and use it to preheat incoming food or oil, or to heat
process water. Oil recovery systems are also used to
remove the oil entrained in exhaust vapor and to
return it to the oil tank. In addition, pollution control
systems prevent smoke and other volatile products of
oil degradation from being discharged to the atmos-
phere, by feeding the exhaust air into the burner used
to heat the oil. By appropriate controlling, thermal
efficiencies of 80 to 90% can be achieved [21].
52.4.1.4 Exhaust System
A large amount of vapor is generated by the fryer
and contains droplets of oil, volatile products
formed through oil degradation, and gases given
off by the food. Therefore, exhaust systems are in-
stalled in industrial fryers to collect and dispose the
hot gases in a safe and sanitary manner. The fryer
may be completely enclosed in the exhaust system, or
an overhead hood may be used. The exhaust gases
are not emitted directly to the environment. Several
oil and heat recovery systems are used, as mentioned
above.
Oil droplets entrained in the exhaust vapor are
usually separated by cyclones. Water spray is mixed
with the hot gases as they enter the centrifugal
blower, where violent turbulence disperses the water
and throws the oil and water droplets to the blower
walls by centrifugal force. Separation is completed in
a tangential entry centrifugal separator that follows
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
the blowers. Volatile organic compounds are directed
to the burner used to heat the oil, as already men-
tioned, or to a combustion chamber if such a burner is
not used.
52.4.1.5 Recirculation of the Oil and Oil Turnover
Industrial fryers are equipped with pumps for con-
tinuous recirculation of the oil through external heat-
ers and filters. Fresh oil (makeup oil) is added
automatically to replace the oil absorbed by the
food and maintain the desired level in the fryer.
Oil turnover is usually expressed as the number of
hours required for the fresh oil added during frying to
equal the total quantity of oil in the frying system,
and is calculated as:
Oil turnover ¼
total weight of oil in the frying system, kg
(% oil in product)(fryer output, kg=h)
Industrial fryers commonly have oil turnover rates
ranging from 5 to 10 h, with some fryers ranging a
few hours higher [3]. After one turnover, one half of
the original oil remains in the frying system and is
further halved with each subsequent turnover. Usu-
ally equilibrium in the oil analytical values is achieved
after four turnovers and reflects blending of the fryer
and fresh oil at a constant rate. A low value of oil
turnover indicates a reduced stress of the oil during
processing and is an important consideration in fryer
selection together with the type of oil, the fried prod-
uct, and the operating conditions. Some frying sys-
tems operate successfully with an oil turnover rate of
12 h, while others, involving different products and
fryers, require a turnover rate <7 h [3].
52.4.1.6 Filtration Systems
Screens and filters are used to remove solid particles
and to extend the life of the frying oil. Screens, lo-
cated ahead of the oil circulation pumps, to remove
large particulates and to protect heat exchanger tube
bundles from becoming clogged, have been widely
used in industrial frying systems. These basic crumb-
removal screens do not remove small particles from
the oil. The particles that sink to the bottom may be
carried out of the tank by a screw conveyor or special
augers [41,51]. The discharged material is pumped
together with surface oil to filters. The particles that
remain in suspension are effectively removed by more
complex multistage filters [68].
Passive filtration with possible addition of an inert
filter aid such as diatomaceous earth has been a com-
mon practice in frying industry for several years
[8,74]. Passive filtration may be defined as the oper-
ation or removal of particulates with an inert filter
medium. However, within the last 15 y demands for
better quality along with the augmenting use of vege-
table oils, have created the need for filter absorbents,
which aid in the removal of degradation products.
This type of filtration is designated as active filtration.
In processing of foods that absorb a significant
amount of oil, e.g., potato chips or doughnuts, the
oil turnover value is low enough, and the oil quality
never deteriorates to the point where the oil must be
discarded. Passive filtration is sufficient for this type
of operation. On the contrary for high values of turn-
over, degradation products may accumulate and ac-
tive filtration may help in slowing the rate of oil
decomposition.
Many natural and synthetic absorbents have been
promoted for use in active filtration of frying oils [72].
Processors concern free fatty acids as one of the main
degradation products that they want to keep at a low
level and evaluate absorbents relevantly. Natural
absorbents in combination with diatomaceous earth
were judged effective to control free fatty acids, off-
flavors, smoke, and foaming, without negatively
affecting the flavor of the oil [8]. Nevertheless, an
increased concern of producers is observed about
the level of total polar compounds, oxidized com-
pounds and polymers in fried oil and consequently
in fried food. The different absorbents have different
selectivity towards each group of degradation prod-
ucts. Alumina absorbs free fatty acids, while it is
almost inert for other polar compounds [73]. Silica
and active silica are effective in absorbing free fatty
acids and mono- and di-glycerides, and less effective
for other polar compounds [42,72]. Activated carbon
is effective in removing saturated and unsaturated
carbonyl compounds [42]. Synthetic magnesium sili-
cate absorbs more polymeric substances and other
polar compounds than silica absorbents [73]. Mix-
tures of activated carbon and activated silica were
effective in removing cholesterol oxidation products
too [74]. Also, mixtures of commercial absorbents,
based on calcium silicate, magnesium silicate, and
porous rhyolite removed free fatty acids and polar
compounds and improved the stability of the frying
oil [40].
Filtration can be distinguished in two types: (1)
absolute and (2) depth. In absolute filtration a steel or
plastic screen, cartridge, or paper filter removes par-
ticles from the oil. These filters have certain porosity
and most of them retain particles down to 5 mm,
when used for passive filtration [72]. If diatomaceous
earth or other absorbents are used, they are mixed
with the oil in the fryer at the end of the day and/or
shift and the suspension is pumped through the filter
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
and circulated through the filter and back into the
fryer until a filter bed is established and the fryer is
free of fines and particulates. Filter media suppliers
recommend a dose between 0.1 and 2.0%, by weight
on the frying medium [8].
In depth filtration a thick layer of porous material
with irregular channels is used. A depth filter can be a
pad made of thick nonwoven fabric, or a cake of filter
aid type. Depth filters may retain particles down to
about 1 mm [72] and do not blind as easily as absolute
filters because they have a greater filtering area.
Diatomaceous earth, or perlite is used as inert
powders in depth filters. Active absorbents are also
incorporated in filter pads, e.g., bonded on refined
cellulose fibers [74].
52.4.2 PROCESS TEMPERATURE AND TIME
The necessary frying time for the product to obtain
surface color, crispness, and organoleptic quality de-
pends greatly on oil temperature. It seems that there is
no optimum time–temperature combination for each
product and depends on the size and configuration of
the product and its ingredients.
For potato chips the use of two different frying
temperatures provides an example of how tempera-
ture can affect product attributes. If potato slices are
fried at 1858C, a frying cycle of approximately 3 min
is required and a delicate texture and a thin crust are
obtained. If a temperature of 1678C is used, the frying
cycle is extended to about 7 min and the chips have a
harder texture and a thicker and firmer crust. In
general the lower the temperature and the longer the
process time, the slower the cooking rate of the prod-
uct, the firmer the crust and texture, and the higher
the oil absorbed by the product. Products, e.g., fabri-
cated chips or various snacks, made from dough with
low moisture content (i.e., 40%) are often fried at
higher temperature (200 to 2058C) for a very short
time amounting to a few seconds. Under these condi-
tions a small quantity of oil is absorbed in the prod-
ucts and an additional amount is sprayed on them at
the exit of the fryer, if higher oil content is desired.
Tortilla chips, which also have moisture content
around 40% before frying, are fried at approximately
1908C for 60 s and the oil content of the product
amounts to about 20% [35].
For products that expand during frying, e.g.,
doughnuts, the frying temperature is critical for max-
imum expansion. Temperatures in the range of 190 to
2028C have been recommended for yeast-leavened
doughnuts [41]. Higher temperatures within this
range may encourage greater expansion, but excessive
temperatures firm up the skin too fast so that max-
imum expansion cannot occur. Frying at temperatures
that are too low allows too much fat to penetrate the
crust before the interior is cooked. Optimum frying
times in the above-mentioned temperature range are
110 to 120 s for round doughnuts weighing 1.5 oz.
Other products, e.g., pies, may present bursting
problems before they are sufficiently cooked, if not
fried properly. Some times temperature combinations
have been proposed for various sizes of pies ranging
from 1808C for 225 s for smaller pies to 1958C for
255 s for larger ones [41].
Par-fried french fries are usually subjected to a
fast frying for approximately 30 s at 175 to 1858C.
A partial drying of the raw material may be applied
after blanching, to adjust the solid content and to add
to the crispness of the final product.
A temperature variation along the fryer has been
increasingly recognized as offering certain advantages
for some products. A higher temperature may be
applied at the entry zone of the fryer. Another such
zone may be needed in the area where pieces are
turned over, in doughnuts fryers.
52.4.3 FRYER OPERATION AND CONTROL
The highest quality and most consistent products are
produced when fryers are operated at full capacity on
a continuous basis, stopping production only for
schedule maintenance and cleaning at the end of
each week. However for business and staffing reasons
many business use a daily schedule, therefore, appro-
priate oil and fryer management programs must be
carefully developed and utilized to produce a com-
petitive product.
At fryer start-up, preheating of the oil at 1008C is
usually required and maintaining at that temperature
until moisture is completely removed. Heating to pro-
cess temperature and starting production must follow
immediately in order to minimize oil degradation.
Any interruption in production, when the oil is circu-
lated at frying temperature, creates a high-risk period
for the oil and finished product. According to Banks
[3] in industrial operations, increased consumer com-
plaints are correlated with product made following
interruptions in production exceeding 20 min. Each
interruption should be managed as a potential prob-
lem. When it is apparent that an interruption will last
longer than a few minutes, a partial fryer shutdown
should be initiated by stopping the addition of
makeup oil and heating, while continuing oil circula-
tion. After the last product is removed from the fryer,
the conveyor system should also be stopped to min-
imize oil aeration. The same steps are followed at the
end of production. The proper time to stop heating is
determined so that the oil is at the minimum frying
temperature as the last product leaves the fryer. Oil
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
circulation is not stopped until the temperature
reaches the allowed limit, which is usually defined by
the manufacturer. If production is restarted the fol-
lowing day, the oil is left in the fryer; otherwise it is
better to be transferred to a storage tank in order to
minimize oxidative degradation.
Contemporary industrial fryers are computer con-
trolled. In the absence of computer control a set of
systematic operating procedures is developed. Energy
requirements and operating parameters are deter-
mined for the full range of variations in raw material
type and feed rate, and translated into fryer settings.
During production, operating parameters can be
adjusted to the predetermined settings as changes in
raw material occur.
52.4.4 FRYING MEDIUM
The products used for frying range from nonhydro-
genated refined fats and oils to hydrogenated prod-
ucts specifically designed for frying. The selection of
an oil or fat is influenced by many factors as the
inherent stability to oxidation, the fried product and
especially its flavor and eating characteristics, the
cost, the fryer design, and the historical usage.
Quite often the most important factor, apart from
cost, is the inherent stability to oxidation since it
affects the quality and shelf life of the finished prod-
uct. The inherent stability of a frying oil decreases
with increasing content of polyunsaturated fatty acids
and can be calculated as described in Section 3.2.6.
This is the reason why cottonseed oil is considered the
first vegetable oil for deep frying and why several fats,
e.g., palm kernel, are used in mixtures specially pre-
pared for frying. Olive oil also has a good inherent
oxidative stability, due to high content in oleic acid,
which is monounsaturated and low content in poly-
unsaturated fatty acids, but it may have a smoking
problem due to its nontriglyceride constituents
[17,18].
Pourable frying oils are popular because of their
convenience in handling. They range from clear to
opaque fluids at room temperature. Refined,
bleached, and deodorized (RBD) vegetable oils, e.g.,
soybean, cottonseed, corn, and canola may be used,
but they are not stable to oxidation. Therefore, par-
tially hydrogenated vegetable oils are preferred and
they are frequently used in blends that may contain a
small amount of solid fat. Also new varieties of oils
with low content of linolenic acid and high content of
oleic acid are promoted for use in frying [44,10]. Clear
liquid frying oils are also made by fractionation of
hydrogenated oils. Cottonseed oil, hydrogenated
soybean or canola oil, and palm olein are mostly
used in liquid frying oil formulations.
 A wide variety of plastic or solid frying fats, e.g.,
RBD palm, palm stearine, coconut, palm kernel, lard,
and tallow are also used in frying. They are mainly
blended with RBD oils, hydrogenated oils, or with
each other to prepare heavy-duty shortenings. Lauric
acid oils (e.g., palm kernel and coconut) can be
blended only with each other and not with fats and
oils containing longer fatty acids, because in the last
case an early onset of excessive foaming is observed
[17,18]. Although solid fats and hydrogenated oils
generally present a higher oxidative stability their
use may be limited by the sensorial characteristics
they impart in fried foods. A shortening with high
solid content and elevated melting point creates a
waxy surface of the product and an unpleasant
mouthfeel. On the other hand, a greasy surface may
be created with a shortening of very low solid fat
content. Another cause that has limited or even ex-
cluded animal fats from frying blends is their content
in saturated fat and cholesterol, which were linked to
increased risks of coronary disease. Consequently
consumers concern has forced the industry and
food-service processors to switch to all vegetable
blends containing partially hydrogenated oils [8].
Erickson [17,18] presents the properties of some oils
and blends that are suitable as frying media in differ-
ent applications.
Apart from the properties of the bulk oil, its frying
performance is evaluated by frying tests and analyt-
ical measurements when the frying system has
reached steady-state conditions. The fresh oil placed
in the fryer is free of degradation products and may
contain some antioxidant additives, therefore, analyt-
ical measurements conducted before the system
reaches equilibrium lead to misleading results. In
most industrial frying operations, the status of the
oil approaches equilibrium after four oil turnovers.
The analytical values recorded usually include color,
flavor, viscosity, and free fatty acids. If analytical
laboratory facilities are available measurements
more representative of the oxidative status of the oil
are executed, e.g., polar compounds content, anisi-
dine value, polymers, oxidized triglycerides, and con-
jugated dienes. Especially the polar compounds
content determination is practiced by many industries
because an upper limit is allowed by the legislation of
several countries [22].
The storage of the bulk oil is another very import-
ant factor, which affects its quality. The storage tank
must be sized properly to assure rapid oil turnover
and frequent fresh oil supplies, e.g., on a one- or two-
week basis. Peroxide value (PV) determination can be
conveniently used to monitor storage oil quality. PV
on receipt should be bellow 1.0 meq/kg, preferably
bellow 0.5. By avoiding temperature increase, aer-
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
ation, and contamination, PV should be maintained
below 1.0 and 2.0 meq/kg at the end of first and
second week, respectively. Longer storage times may
require additional protection by nitrogen to depress
oxidation.
52.5 PRODUCT QUALITY AND SHELF LIFE
The sensorial attributes of a fried product, i.e., flavor,
color, and crispness, depend on the raw material, the
frying medium, and the frying conditions. The frying
medium is absorbed in the products and, therefore, is
an important ingredient of some of them, especially
chips and other snacks. Consequently, the nutritional
quality of the fried product depends on the quality of
the fried oil. The compounds produced through the
oil deterioration occurring during frying, are uni-
formly distributed in the oil remaining in the fryer
and in the oil absorbed by the food [28]. If the oil has
deteriorated extensively a product of unacceptable
quality will be produced.
During storage, the quality of the fried snacks
mainly depends on the deterioration of the absorbed
oil, which continues under storage. This deterioration
is accompanied by the formation of off-odors, and
products that may cause some health problems. The
oils undergo oxidative and hydrolytic alteration
under storage, similar to the ones occurring during
frying, although the reaction rates are much slower.
Hydrolytic alterations are caused by lipase enzymes in
the presence of moisture. Therefore, preservation of
foods from hydrolytic rancidity can be achieved by
the control of processing conditions, in order to in-
activate enzymes, and to maintain low moisture dur-
ing storage. Oxidative alterations during storage are
the most important of the two mechanisms, with
respect to food acceptability. These alterations are
caused by oxygen attack and are accelerated by tem-
perature increase and presence of light. Preservation
from oxidative rancidity can be achieved by storage at
lower temperature, elimination of oxygen and light,
or addition of antioxidants. Several synthetic and
natural antioxidants have been added either to the
frying oil or to the final fried product. It should be
reminded that the oils that contain higher amounts of
unsaturated fatty acids deteriorate faster and, there-
fore, need a higher protection against oxidation.
Another important quality defect of fried snacks is
the reduction of crispness during storage due to ab-
sorption of moisture. In addition, moisture gain accel-
erates rancidity. Data concerning the effect of water
activity (aw) on oxidation rate are presented by Labusa
[39]. As aw increases above the monolayer, the reaction
is slowed up to the value where intermediate moisture
foods begin (i.e., approximately 0.4). A further mois- E/R activation energy/gas constant, K
ture increase tends to increase the rate of oxidation. F fat content, kg/kg wb
Data on water activity that results in loss of crispness h convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 8C
to an extent where the chips are perceived as not hfg latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg
acceptable are not available, but Labusa comments Kc rate constant of the mass lumped capacity of
that it probably occurs at an aw of 0.4 to 0.5. the core, s1
Potato chips are fried to a final moisture level of Ke rate constant of the mass lumped capacity of
3% or less, which accounts to an aw of about 0.2. the edge, s1
Tortilla chips, corn chips, and other snacks have a KoX parameter in Equation 52.19
final moisture content of <3%. From a study on KoY parameter in Equation 52.20
potato chips a moisture content of 3.57% was the KX rate constant in Equation 52.19 min1
point at which a taste panel rejected the chips because KY rate constant of oil uptake min1
of their texture deterioration [39]. Moisture absorp- KXb parameter in Equation 52.19
tion and the consequent deteriorative changes can be KXC parameter in Equation 52.19
prevented by the use of packaging materials with KXT parameter in Equation 52.19
appropriate moisture barrier properties. In this case KYb parameter in Equation 52.20
the shelf life of the products can be extended to sev- KYC parameter in Equation 52.20
eral months. If the packaging material is not trans- KYT parameter in Equation 52.20
mitted by light and if the air inside the packaging is k thermal conductivity, W/m2 K
replaced by an inert gas, e.g., nitrogen, a considerably ko frequency factor, g potato/g potato solids, min
longer shelf life can be obtained. k1 coefficient in Equation 52.13, N1
Fried nuts are subjected to deterioration, similar k2 coefficient in Equation 52.13 (g oil–g potato/g
to potato chips. Their shelf life can be extended by the potato solids–g water, min)
use of appropriate packaging too. Long-term storage L potato strip thickness, m
up to 1 to 2 y can be achieved by vacuum or inert gas M moisture, g water/g potato
packaging, while it can be extended to 3 y by storage m moisture, gr
0
under refrigeration. Of particular concern with nuts, M moisture content, wt %
especially peanuts, is the potential presence of afla- MÐ moisture loss (% initial weight)
toxins. Aflatoxins are carcinogenic compounds, Mo initial moisture, gr
which are produced by certain fungi. If they are pre- Mw moisture content (% dry basis)
sent in the raw material, they are hardly destroyed by mo initial moisture content, gr
roasting and frying; therefore, inspection of the raw Nix flux of species i in x-direction (kg m2 s1)
material is obligatory. Prevention of the formation of O oil content, wt %
these toxic compounds during storage relies on the Oe oil content at equilibrium, wt %
prevention of the development of fungi, which can be S concentration of oil, g oil/g potato solids
achieved by the elimination of moisture migration to T temperature of frying oil, 8C
the product. t frying time, s (min in Equation 52.19 and
Equation 52.20)
TX texture, N
NOMENCLATURE W final moisture content, kg/kg wb
X moisture content, kg/kg db
x variable distance across the thickness of the
b thickness of slice, mm chip, m
C concentration of hydrogenated oil in total oil (%) Xb parameter in Equation 52.19
C1 constant in Equation 52.7, kg/kg Xc parameter in Equation 52.19
C2 constant in Equation 52.7, kg/(kg s) Xe moisture content in equilibrium, kg/kg db
C3 constant in Equation 52.7, kg/(kg 8C) Xo initial moisture content, kg/kg db
C4 constant in Equation 52.7, kg/kg Xoe parameter in Equation 52.19
C5 constant in Equation 52.7, kg/kg XT parameter in Equation 52.19
C6 constant in Equation 52.7, kg mm/kg Y oil content, kg/kg db
cp specific heat (kJ kg1 K1) Yb parameter in Equation 52.20
D diffusion coefficient, m2/min YC parameter in Equation 52.20
D mass diffusivity, m2/s Ye oil content at infinite process time, kg/kg db
Do frequency factor, m2/min Yoe parameter in Equation 52.20
DMr initial dry matter content of potato, kg/kg wb YT parameter in Equation 52.20

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Greek Symbols
a fraction of the total water contained in the core
in the raw material in Equation 52.11
a thermal diffusivity, m2/s
volume fraction of species i (m3i m3
«i t )
Q tortilla chip temperature, 8C
r density, kg/m3
t residence time, min
Subscripts
b liquid water
g water vapor
s solid
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