JR-PHYSICS UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

FORMULAS a m ean
Relative error= a mean
1. The numerical value obtained on measuring a
physical quantity is inversely proportional to the 5. Percentage error:
magnitude of the unit chosen.
 a 
1
 a   mean 100 %
n   nU = constant  amean 
U
Relative error and percentage error give a measure
 n1U  n2U
1 2
of accuracy i.e. if percentage error increases
Where n1 and n2 are the numerical values and accuracy decreases.
U1 and U 2 are the units of same physical quantity 6. Combination of Errors:
in different systems. a) Error due to addition
2. Some important conversions: If Z  A  B ;
5 Z  A  B (Max. possible error)
1kmph  ms 1 Z  Z   A  B    A  B 
18
1 newton=105 dyne A  B
Relative error=
1 joule= 10 erg 7 A B
1 calorie=4.18 J A  B
1eV= 1.6  1019 J Percentage error=  100
A B
1gcm 3  1000kgm 3 b) Error due to subtraction
If Z=A-B
1 lit=1000cm3  10 3 m 3
Z  A  B (Max. possible error )
1KWH  36  105 J
Z  Z   A  B    A  B 
1 HP=746 W
1 degree=0.017 rad A  B
1 1 Relative error =
1cal g  4180JKg A B
1kgwt= 9.8 N A  B
Percentage error =  100
1 telsa= 104 gauss A B
1Am 1  4  103 oersted c) Error due to Multiplication:
1 weber=108 maxwell Z A B
If Z = AB then  
3. Mean absolute error: Z A B
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is Z
considered as the mean absolute error of the is called fractional error or relative error..
Z
physical quantity concerned. Percentage error
a1  a2      an 1 n Z  A   B 
amean 
n
  ai
n i1  100    100    100 
Z  A   B 
The mean absolute error is always positive.
A
4. Relative error: d) Error due to division: if Z 
B
The relative error of a measured physical quantity
is the ratio of the mean absolute error to the mean Z A B
Maximum possible relative error  
value of the quantity measured. Z A B

NARAYANA GROUP 1
 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS JR-PHYSICS

Max. percentage error in division

A B
  100   100
A B
Z A
e)Error due to Power: If Z= An ; n
Z A
A p Bq
In more general form : If Z 
Cr
then maximum fractional error in Z is
Z A B C
p q r
Z A B C
Maximum Percentage error in Z is
Z A B C
 100  p  100  q  100  r  100
Z A B C
Note:
i) If a measured quanity has n significant figures
then reliable digits in it are (n – 1).
ii) For a given set of ‘n’ measurements, random
1
error is proportional to   .
n

2 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS ELEMENTS OF VECTORS

ELEMENTS OF VECTORS
FORMULAS
R R R
cosα = x , cosβ = y and cosγ = z
1. Unit Vector : R R R

The unit vector along R is given by i.e cos 2 α + cos2β + cos 2 γ = 1

R xiˆ + yj+zk
ˆ ˆ If l  cos  , m  cos  and n  cos  ,
R̂ =  =
R x2 + y2 +z2 then l 2  m 2  n 2  1 .
Now, sin 2 α+ sin 2β+ sin 2 γ=2
4. Parallelogram Law of vectors
2. Resolution of a Vector into
Components in two Dimensions P

y
R
Q Q (Q sin )

B P O D
P
R  
Ry= R sin  If P and Q are two vectors with angle 
 A
x between them, then the resultant vector
O   
R  P Q .
 Magnitude of resultant :
 
The projection of R along x-axis is called 
R = P 2 +Q 2 + 2PQcosθ
horizontal component (Rx) R x =Rcosθ
 Direction of resultant :
 
The projection of R along y-axis is called vertical  Qsinθ 
α = tan -1  
 w.r.t P
 P + Qcosθ 
component (Ry) R y =Rsinθ
  Psinθ  
Magnitude of the resultant R = R x 2 + R y 2 β = tan -1   w.r.t Q
 Q + Pcosθ 
Direction of the resultant with x-axis is 5. Special Cases
 
R  a) If P and Q are in the same direction i.e.
  tan  y 
1
  
 Rx 
θ=00 then R = P + Q
3. Resolution in 3D Space  
b) If P and Q are in opposite direction i.e.
   
Position vector R  Rx i  R y j  Rz k θ=1800 then R = P  Q ; for P > Q
  
Magnitude of position vector R is c) If P and Q are perpendicular to each other

R  Rx2  Ry2  Rz2 i.e. θ=900 then R = P 2 +Q 2

 
If the position vector R makes angles α, β, γ    θ θ
d) If P  Q then R = 2Pcos & α = = .
wit h x,y and z axes respect ively, t hen 2 2
cosα, cosβ, cosγ are called direction cosines.

NARAYANA GROUP 3
 ELEMENTS OF VECTORS JR-PHYSICS

 
e) If two vectors P and Q represents adjacent 8. Tangent Law:
sides of a parallelogram both in magnitude and O
direction then the two diagonals of parallelogram 
T l
are represented as 2
l x 2
       x
F
d1  P  Q , d2  P  Q
mg
 1    1   A simple pendulum having a bob of mass `m’ is
 
P  d1  d 2 ; Q  d1  d 2
2 2
  suspended from a rigid support and it is pulled by
    a horizontal force `F’ . The string makes an angle
f) P, Q are two sides and R , S are two
 with the vertical as shown in figure.
diagonals of a parallelogram then T sin  =F ................(1)
R2  S 2  2  P2  Q2  T cos  = mg .................(2)

g) The unit vector parallel to the resultant of P
  mg mgl
 P Q T 
 n    cos  l 2  x2
and Q is given by P Q
6. Law of equilibrium of forces: From equation (1) and (2
If three forces represents the three sides of a
triangle taken in order then their resultant is zero. F x
Tan   F  mgTan  mg
If such forces acts on a particle simultaneously mg l  x2
2

then they keep that particle in equilibrium. 2

T  F 2   mg 
9. Applications of Polygon Law
If 'n' equal forces act on a body such that each
F3 F2
2
force makes an angle with the previous one
n
then they form a closed polygon. So the resultant is
O A zero.
F1
    If each force of magnitude 'F' makes an angle 
F1  F2  F3  0 with previous one, then
7. Lami’s theorem
a) the resultant is zero, if the number of forces is
If a body is in equilibrium under the action of
three coplanar concurrent forces P,Q,R at angles 2
n=
 ,  ,  as shown in the figure. 
2
b) If the number of forces are n =  1 , then
P Q R 
 
sin  sin  sin  the resultant force is ‘F’.
P 10. Subtraction of Vectors:
Q  
The magnitude of P  Q is
S  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos 
     
Note: If P  Q then P  Q  2 P sin   .
2
11. Applications
a) When a particle is performing uniform circular
motion with a constant speed v, then the
magnitude of change in velocity when it describes
R θ
Δv = 2vsin   .
an angle  at the centre is NARAYANA
4 GROUP
2
 JR-PHYSICS ELEMENTS OF VECTORS

  
b) If velocity of a particle changes from vi to  V AB  V BA = VB  VA

vf in time ‘t’ then the acceleration of the particle 5) Two trains of lengths l1 and l2 are moving on
 
 v -v parallel tracks with speeds v1 and v2 (v1 > v2 )
is given by a = f i .
t w.r.t ground. The time taken to cross each
12. Displacement vector in two other
when they move in same direction is
dimensional Plane S l l
t1 = rel = 1 2
Y Vrel v1 - v2
when they move in opposite direction is
S l l
A
B t2 = rel = 1 2
r1 Vrel v1 + v2
15. Rain umbrella Concept
r2
X
   O 
AB  r 2  r1.  AB   x2  x1  iˆ   y2  y1  ˆj VR 
Application : Condition for collision V RM
VR
Two particles 1 and 2 move with constant
 
velocities v1 and v2 . At ‘t = 0’ their position  V M
 
vectors are r1 and r2 .If particles collide at the VM VM
point `P’ after time `t’.
Y V RM  VR  VM
S2 = V2 t
P
The magnitude of velocity of rain relative to man is
1

r2 r S2 = V1 t
VRM  VR2  VM2
2
r1 If  is the angle made by the umbrella with
 O   X
r1 + v1t = r 2 + v 2 t horizontal, then, tan   VR
VM
13. Change in velocity

V = Vf - Vi . If  is the angle made by the umbrella with

V = Vf 2 +Vi 2 -2Vf Vi cosθ vertical, then, ta n   V M
14. Relative Velocity VR
1) The relative velocity of body 'A' w.r.t. 'B' is given 16. Motion of a Boat in the River
  
by VAB = VA -VB 1) Down stream(   00 ):
2) The relative velocity of body 'B' w.r.t. 'A' is given
  
by VBA = VB -VA VBR
3) For two bodies moving in same direction, VR
magnitude of relative velocity is equal to the
difference of magnitudes of their velocities. Resultant velocity of the boat = VBR  VR
(θ = 00 , cos 0 = 1) The time taken for the boat to move a distance
  `d’ along the direction of flow of water is.
 VAB =VA -VB , VBA =VB  VA
d
4) For two bodies moving in opposite directions, t1 
magnitude of relative velocity is equal to the sum VBR  VR .............(1)
of the magnitudes of their velocities. 2) Up stream (   1800 ) :
(  1800 ; cos 1800  -1)
Resultant velocity of the boat = VBR  VR
The time taken for the boat to move a distance
NARAYANA GROUP 5
 ELEMENTS OF VECTORS JR-PHYSICS

`d’ opposite to the direction of flow of water is.  

d) Angle between two vectors P and Q is given
d  
t2  P .Q
VBR  VR .......................(2) by the relation cos q  .
PQ
17. Motion of a Boat crossing the river in shortest  
e) The component of P along Q .
path:  
 P.Q
V B WG
= P cos q  
Q
 
f) The component of Q along P
  
 V BG
d V BW P.Q
q = Q cos q  
P
 
A
900 
g) Vector component of P along Q is P.Q

 Q
.
 

The angle made by the boat with normal to the
  P
h) Vector component of Q along P is Q . P .
 
VWG . i) iˆ.iˆ  ˆj. ˆj  kˆ.kˆ  1 , iˆ. ˆj  ˆj .kˆ  kˆ.iˆ  0 .
flow of water is Sin  =
VBW 
(b) The angle between the direction of motion of j) If P  Px ˆi  Py ˆj  Pz kˆ and
  
boat and the direction of river Q  Qx iˆ  Qy ˆj  Qz kˆ ,then P.Q  PxQx  PyQy  PzQz
flow = 90 + 
k) Examples of dot product :
(c) Resultant velocity V  VBW 2 2
 VWG  
(d) Time taken to cross the river Work W = F .S
d  
t Power P = F .V
2
VBW  VWG
2 where d is the width of the river  
Magnetic Flux f  B.A
d
(or) 20. Vector or cross product:
VBW cos q .  
The cross product of two vectors P and Q is
18. To cross the river in the shortest time :   

given by PQ  PQsin q n
B V WG C
Where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to
 
the plane containing P and Q .

V BW 
d V BG a) It is a vector.
q
b) Direction is given by right hand screw rule.
A   
d c) P Q  O when q  00 (Parallel Vectors)
(a) Time taken to cross the river t =
VBW .  
d) P  Q = PQ when  = 900
(b) Resultant velocity VBG  VBW
2
 VWG
2
(Perpendicular Vectors)
(c) The boat reaches the other bank at an angle ,
VWG e) iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0 ;
Tan  = V .
BW
 d  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  iˆ, kˆ  iˆ  ˆj
(d) The drift (x) = VWG.t  VWG  
 VBW  f) If P  Px iˆ  Py ˆj  Pz kˆ
19. Scalar or dot product 
  Q  Q iˆ  Q ˆj  Q kˆ
x y z
The dot product of two vectors P and Q is given
 
by P .Q  PQ cos q . iˆ ˆj kˆ
a) It is a Scalar
 
  then P Q  Px Py Pz
b) P .Q  0 when =900 (Perpendicular Vectors)
  Qx Qy Qz
c) P .Q  PQ when  = 00 (Parallel Vectors)
6 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS ELEMENTS OF VECTORS

  Py Qz  Pz Q y  iˆ   PxQz  Pz Q x  ˆj   Px Q y  Py Qx  kˆ
 
g) Unit
 vector
 normal to both P and Q is
P Q
n    .
P Q
 
h) If two vectors P and Q are parallel
Px Py P  
  z  cons tan t or P  Q  0
QX Qy Qz
 
i) If P and Q represents the sides of a
parallelogram then the area of the parallelogram is
 
P Q
 
j) If d1 and d2 represents the diagonals of a
parallelogram then the area of the parallelogram is
1  
d1  d 2
2
 
k) If A and B represents the sides of a triangle
1  
then the area of the triangle is A B
2
     
l) A, B and C are coplanar, if A B C  0 .  
m) Examples of cross product :
  
i) Angular momentum L  r  P
  
ii) Linear velocity V    r
  
iii) Torque   r  F
  
iv) Torque on a magnet   M  B
  
v) Force on a conductor F  i  l  B 
 

 
vi) Force on a charge F  q V  B 
 
  
vii) Torque on a coil   i  A B 
 

NARAYANA GROUP 7
 KINEMATICS JR-PHYSICS

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

FORMULAS
SYNOPSIS 3. Applications
i) If a particle starts from rest and moves with
1. HORIZONTAL MOTION uniform acceleration 'a' such that it travels distances
Distance sm and sn in the mth and nth sec then
i) Speed 
time sm  sn
 d s a
ii) Velocity V  mn
dt ii) A particle starts from rest and moves along a
Total distance
iii) Average speed  straight line with uniform acceleration. If 's' is the
time
distance travelled in n seconds and sn is the distance
Net displacement travelled in the nth second then
iv) Average velocity 
time sn  2n  1
v) If a body moving along a straight line suffers 
  s n2
displacements s1 in time t1, s2 in time t2........sn in time iii) Moving with uniform acceleration, a body
   crosses a point 'x' with a velocity 'u' and another
 s1  s2  ....  sn point ‘y’ with a velocity ‘v’. Then it will cross
tn , then  V   the
t1  t2  ....  tn  mid point of ‘x’ andv ‘y’ with velocity 
vi) If an object travels first half of the total journey u 1
v y
x
with a speed v1 and next half with a speed v2 S S
then its average speed is 2
v u 2

2v1v 2 v1  .
v avg = 2
v1 + v 2 iv) If a bullet loses (1/n)th of its velocity while
vii) If a body travels first 1/3 rd of the distance passing through a plank, then the minimum no.
with a speed v1 and second 1/3rd of the distance of such planks required to just stop the bullet is .
with a speed v2 and last 1/3rd of the distance n2
with a speed v3, then the average speed m
2n  1
3v1v2 v3
vavg  1
v1v2  v2 v3  v3 v1 v) The velocity of a bullet becomes of the
n
viii) If an object travels with speeds v1, v2, v3 initial velocity while penetrating a plank. The
etc., during time intervals t1, t2, t3 etc., number of such planks required to stop the bullet.
v1t1  v2 t 2  v3t 3  ....
then its average speed  t  t  t  .... n2
m 2
1 2 3 n 1
ix) Acceleration :- The rate of change of velocity
 1
 v vi) A bullet loses of its velocity while
is known as acceleration a  . n
t penetrating a distance x into the target. The
2. Equations of motion for a body moving with further distance travelled before coming to rest.
constant acceleration along a straight line.   n  1 2 
y  x 
 u  v  2n 
i) V = u + at ii) s   t  
 2  th
1
1 2 vii) If the velocity of a body becomes   of
iii) s  ut  at iv) v2 = u2 + 2as n
2
its initial velocity after a displacement of ‘x’ then
v) s  u  a  n  1  it will come to rest after a further displacement
n   x
2
of y  2
n 1

8 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS KINEMATICS

viii) If the particles are located at the sides of n f) Ratio of distances fallen in successive equal
sided symmetrical polygon with each side a and intervals of time is 1: 3 : 5 : 7 ....... (2n-1)
each particle moves towards the other, then time g) Ratio of distances fallen in 1s, 2s, 3s .........ns
after which they meet is is 1 : 4 : 9 .......... n2.
Initial separation h) Ratio of the time taken to fall successive equal
T
Re lative velocity of approach distances is 1:( 2 1):( 3  2):( 4  3):.....
a ii) A freely falling body passes through two points
T
   A and B in time intervals of t1 and t2 from the
v  v cos   start, then the distance between the two points A
 n 
g 2 2
T
a and B is
2

t2  t1 
    
v 1  cos    iii) A stone is dropped into a well of depth 'h', the
  n  sound of splash is heard after a time of
a
and T  2h h
 t 
2v sin 2   g Vsound
n
Shortcut to solve the problems iv) Afreely falling body passes through two points
A and B at distances h1 and h2 from the start,
2a then the time taken by it to move from A to B is
For Triangle n = 3  T  ;
3v
2h 2 2h 1 2
For Square n = 4  T 
a t=
g

g

g
 h 2  h1 
v
v) Two bodies are dropped from heights h1 and
2a h2 simultaneously. Then after any time the
For hexagon, n = 6  T 
v distance between them is equal to (h2~ h1).
4. VERTICAL MOTION vi) A stone is dropped into a river from the bridge
If a particle is thrown vertically downwards with and after ‘x’ seconds another stone is projected
a velocity u, the equations of motion can be written down into the river from the same point with a
as velocity of ‘u’. If both the stones reach the water
i ) V = u + gt ii ) v2- u2 = 2gh
simultaneously, then S1 t   S 2 t  x 
1 g
iii ) h = ut + gt2 iv ) Sn = u + (2n-1) 1 2 1 2
2 2 gt  u  t  x   g  t  x 
5. FREELY FALLING BODY 2 2
i) If a particle is dropped from a certain height h. vii) A body dropped freely from a multistoried
a = +g and u = 0 building can reach the ground in t1 sec. It is
a) Velocity attained after falling for a time t is V stopped in its path after t2 sec and again dropped
= gt freely from the point. The further time taken by it
1 to reach the ground is t 3  t12  t 2 2 .
b) Distance fallen in a time ‘t’ is h = gt2
2
2h H1 t2 H2
c) Time taken to fall a distance h is t 
g
d) Velocity attained after falling a distance h is
t1 H3 t3=?
V  2gh
e) Distance travelled in the nth sec, is We know that H1 = H2 + H3
g
Sn= (2n-1)
2
NARAYANA GROUP 9
 KINEMATICS JR-PHYSICS

1 2 1 2 1 2 mV
 gt1  gt 2  gt 3 iii) Time of descent td 
2 2 2 mg  R
iv) ta  td
 t12  t 2 2  t 32  t3  t12  t 22 g) A body projected vertically upwards from the
6. VERTICALLY PROJECTED BODY ground is at the same height h from the ground as
If a particle is projected vertically up with a velocity two instants of time t1 and t2 (both measured from
u, acceleration is a = – g the instant of projection) Then
1
a) Equations of motion are i) h = gt1 t2
2
1 2 g
i) v = u - gt ii) h = ut -
2
gt ii) Velocity of projection u =  t1  t2 
2
iii) The maximum height reached by the body
g
v2 u2
iii) - = -2gh iv) Sn = u- (2n-1) 1 2
2  g  t1  t2 
b) i) velocity at the highest point is zero. 8
ii) velocity and acceleration are in opposite h) An elevator is accelerating upwards with an
directions. acceleration a. If a person inside the elevator throws
a particle vertically up with a velocity u relative to
u2 the elevator, time of flight is
iii) Maximum Height Hmax =
2g 2u
t
iv )Time of ascent, ta = u/g ga
v ) Time of flight, T = 2 u/g In the above case if elevator accelerates down,
vi ) time of ascent = time of descent 2u
time of flight is t  g  a
gT 2
vii) H max  i) A body is dropped from the top edge of a tower
8
of height ‘h’ and at the same time another body
viii )Speed at any point in ascent = speed at
is projected vertically up from the foot of the
same point in descent
tower with a velocity ‘u’.
c) If body rises through a height 'h' in nth second,
then in (n – 1)th sec it will rise through a height u=0
(h + g) and in (n + 1)th second it will rise through
a height (h – g).
h
d) If velocity of body in nth second is ‘v’ then in (n
– 1)th second it is (v + g) and that in (n + 1)s it a) The separation between them after ‘t’ seconds
is (v – g) while ascending,
e) Irrespective of velocity of projection, all the
is =  h  ut 
h
g b) The time after which they meet t 
bodies pass through a height in the last u
2
second of ascent. c) The height at which they meet above the
f) A body is projected vertically up with a velocity  gh 2 
of ‘u’ from ground in the presence of constant air ground =  h  
 2u 2 
resistance ‘R’. If it reaches the ground with a
velocity ‘V’, then d) The time after which their velocities are equal
i) Height of ascent = Height of descent u
in magnitudes is t 
2g
mu
ii) Time of ascent ta 
mg  R

10 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS KINEMATICS

7. PROJECTION FROM THE TOP OF A

TOWER :
i) If a body is projected
vertically up from the
top of a tower of height h
with a velocity u and takes
't' seconds to reach the
ground then height of tower
1
h = - ut + gt2
2
(a) Time taken by the body to reach the ground
u  u 2  2 gh
t=
g
(b) The velocity of the body at the foot of the
tower v =
u 2  2gh
(c) Velocity of the body after ‘t’ sec. is
v  u  gt
ii) If an object is dropped from a balloon rising up
with a velocity u at a height h.
a) Equation of motion relative to earth is
1
h = - ut + gt2
2
b) Distance between the object and balloon after
1 2
a time of ;t;, after drop is X   h  ut   gt
2
iii) If a body is projected vertically up with a velocity
u from a tower and it reaches the ground with a
velocity nu., then the height of the tower is
u2
h  (n 2  1)
2g
iv) A particle projected vertically up from the top
of a tower takes t1s to reach the ground. Another
particle thrown downwards with the same velocity
from the top of the tower takes. t2 seconds to reach
the ground.
a) In the first and second case body reaches the
ground with the same velocity
b) If the particle is dropped from the top of the tower,
then time taken by it to reach the ground is
t  t 1t 2
1
c) height of the tower is h = gt t
2 12
g
d) Velocity of projection is u = (t1-t2)
2
NARAYANA GROUP 11
 KINEMATICS JR-PHYSICS

MOTION IN A PLANE
FORMULAS
SYNOPSIS h) If y  Ax  Bx 2 represents equation of a
projectile then
1. OBLIQUE PROJECTION
i) Angle of projection  = tan-1(A)
y  
g 1  A2 
ii) Initial velocity u 
u 2B
(R/2, H)
u cos θ A
iii) Range of the projectile R =
B
H max
θ (R, 0) A2
(0, 0) x iv) Maximum height H =
R 4B
a) Horizontal component of velocity 2A2
v) Time of flight  T  
u x  u cos  Bg
b) Initial vertical component of velocity i) If horizontal and vertical displacement of
u y  u sin  project ile are respectively x  at and
2 2 y  bt  ct 2 then
c) Velocity of projection u  ux  u y
b
i) angle of projection   tan 1  
a
 uy 
d) Angle of projection  = tan-1   ii) velocity of projection u  a 2  b 2
 ux  iii) acceleration of projectile = 2c
 
e) Initial velocity vector is u  u x i  u y j

b2
iv) maximum height reached =
4c
f) Velocity after time “t” : ab
i) ax = 0; ay = -g v) horizontal range =
c
ii) horizontal component of velocity through out the
j) Velocity of the projectile when it moves
motion is constant, u x  u cos 
perpendicular to its initial velocity is ucot  . Time
iii) Vertical component of velocity changes with time taken for the velocity to become perpendicular to
u
vy = u sin  – gt the initial velocity is g sin 
2 2
iv) Velocity of the particle v  vx  vy k) Position of the projectile after time ‘t’ :
v) direction of motion w.r.t. to horizontal. If x and y represent the horizontal and vertical
 vy  displacements with respect to the point of projection
 = tan-1  v  ‘t’ seconds after projection
 x
g) At highest point is i) x = (u cos  ) t
i) u Cos  in the horizontal direction.
1 2
ii) Vertical component of velocity vy = 0 ii) y = (u sin  ) t - gt
2
iii) Velocity and acceleration are perpendicular to
iii) Equation of trajectory is
each other at the highest point.
iii) Change in velocity till it reaches highest point = 1 x2
Y  (tan )x  g 2
u sin  2 u cos2 
iv) Change in velocity for complete trajectory = 2 u g
sin  iv) A = tan  ; B =
2u Cos2 
2

12 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS KINEMATICS

A2 A H A ii) 1) If T1 and T2 are the times of flight then

H  ; Range R  and 
4B B R 4 T1 2R
a) T  tan  b) T1T2  T T R
2 g  1 2
l) Height, range and time of flight
iii)If H1 and H 2 are maximum heights then

u 2 sin2 
H1 2 u2
i) Maximum height attained H = a) H  tan  b) H1  H 2 
2g 2 2g

ii) Maximum height attained is maximum when  c) R  4 H1 H 2 d) Rmax  2  H1  H 2 

= 90° (body projected vertically up)
p) If R = Hmax ; then  = tan-1 (4) = 76°
U sin  2H q) The projectile crosses the points A, D in time
iii) Time of ascent ta = 
g g
interval t1 seconds and B,C in time interval
2U sin  2H 8h
iv) Time of flight tf = 2 2 2
t2 seconds then t1  t2 
g g g
 2u y  u 2 sin 2 (h is the distance between BC and AD)
v) Range R = u x  
 g  g
1 2
vi) R tan   4H  gT ,T is time of flight.
2
B C
vii)If projected from level ground range is h
maximum when angle of projection  = 45°. D
A
2
u r) A projectile is fired with a speed u at an angle
viii) Rmax.= ;  = 45° (with the level ground)
g  with the horizontal. Its speed when its
2u
ix) Time of flight T  direction of motion makes an angle  with the
g horizontal. v = u cos  sec 
gT 2 s) velocity of a projectile at half of maximum
x) R
2 1  cos 2 
m) In terms of range, equation of trajectory is height = u
2
 x t) A particle is projected with a velocity
y  x tan θ 1   
 R u  ai  b j then the radius of curvature of the
n) At maximum height, trajectory of the particle at the
3/2
1 1 a 2
+b2 
KE  mu x2  mu 2 cos 2 θ i) point of projection is r=
2 2 ga
1
PE  mgH max  mu 2 sin 2 θ a 2
2 ii) Highest point is r=
1 2 g
T .E  mu iii) Expression for radius of curvature is
2
At θ  45 , KE = PE  velocity 2
r
o) Complementary angles of projection : normalacceleration
i) For a given velocity of projection for range is equal
angles of projection are  and (90-  ).

NARAYANA GROUP 13
 KINEMATICS JR-PHYSICS

g)  is the angle with which body reaches

u 2 cos2 
r the ground
g cos3  Case (i) : If the body is projected at an angle 

α is angle made by v with horizontal in upward direction from the top of the tower,then
u
2. HORIZONTAL PROJECTILE MOTION : 

x
a) The time taken by projectile to reach same
a) Velocity after time t : 2u sin 
level as point of projection is T 
i) horizontal component of velocity vx = u g
( horizontal component of velocity is b) The time taken by projectile to reach ground
constant) 1 2
is calculated from h   u sin   t  gt
ii) vertical component Vy = gt = 2gy 2
c) The horizontal distance from foot of the tower
(y = distance fallen) where the projectile lands is given by
iii) Net velocity V  Vx 2  Vy 2
x  u cos  t
d) The velocity with which it strikes the ground
iv) Direction of motion or angle made by velocity
vector with the horizontal is
v  u 2  2 gh
e) The angle at which it strikes the ground
 Vy  1  gt 
  tan1    tan  
 Vx  u  -usinθ + gt 
α = tan -1 
b) Velocity on reaching the ground is  ucosθ 
 u 2 sin 2 θ + 2gh 
V  u 2  2gh (or) α = tan -1
 
 ucosθ 
2h
c) Time of flight t  Case (ii) : If the body is projected at angle 
g
It is independent of the velocity of projection
from top of the tower in the downward direction,
then
d) Position of the projectile after time t :

i) Horizontal displacement after time t. x = ut, u
1
ii )Height fallen in time “t” y = gt2 h
2

gx 2
e) Equation of path : y  x
2u 2 a) The time taken by projectile to reach ground
f) If  is angle of elevation of point of projection 1 2
from the point where body hits the ground then is calculated from h   u sin   t  gt
2
h gt 2 /2 gt b) The horizontal distance from foot of the
tanα = = = tower where the projectile lands is given by
R ut 2u
x  u cos  t
tanθ
 tanα =
2
14 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS KINEMATICS

c) The velocity with which it strikes the ground

2  h1  h2 
2
v  u  2 gh i) Time taken t 
g
d) The angle at which it strikes the ground ii) Horizontal distance travelled d  ut
 u 2 sin 2   2 gh  j) A ball rolls off from the top of a stair case with
  tan 1   a horizontal velocity u. If each step has a height
 u cos   ‘h’ and width “b” then the ball will just hit the nth
h) Two bodies are projected horizontally from step, directly if n equal to
top of the tower of height h in opposite directions 1 2
with velocities u1 and u2 then nb = ut and nh = gt
2
i) The time after which their velocity vectors
are making an angle  with each other u
u1u2 
t cot h b
g 2 1
ii) The distance between them when their
velocity vectors are making an angle  with 2
u1u 2  n
each other x   u1  u2  cot
g 2
R
iii) The time after which their position vectors
are making an angle  with each other
2hu 2
2 u1u2  n=
 cot gb 2
g 2 k) From the top of the tower of height h , one
iv) The distance between them when their stone is thrown towards east with velocity u 1
displacement vectors are making an angle  and another is thrown towards north with velocity
with each other is u 2 . The distance between them after striking the
2 u1u2 ground,

x   u1  u2  cot
g 2 2h
d  t u12  u22 , t  g
i) Two tall towers having heights h1 and h2 are
separated by a distance d. A person throws a ball
horizontally with velocity u from the top of the
first tower to reach the top of the second tower
then
u

h1  h2 
h1

h2

NARAYANA GROUP 15
 NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION JR-PHYSICS

NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION

FORMULAS  
   mv2  iˆ   mv1  iˆ ,
1. Momentum 
P  m v2  v1  , along the normal and away
The linear momentum of a particle is the product of
  from the wall.
its mass and velocity. P  m V
Case (iii) : A body of mass ‘m’ moving with speed
2. Change in momentum of a body in different ‘ v ’ hits a rigid wall at an angle of incidence q and
cases rebounds with same speed ‘ v ’
   
Change in momentum of body = P  Pf  Pi P is along the normal,away from the wall

 P x   mv cos  i  mv cos  i
Where Pi  initial momentum 
 P y  mv sin  j  mv sin  j
Pf  final momentum   
 P   P x   P y  2mv cos   i 
   
P  mv f  mvi  P  2mv cos q
  
P  Pf  Pi  Pf2  Pi 2  2 Pf Pi cos q
mvsinθ
  mv
where q = angle between Pf and Pi
P  
Case (i) : If it hits a wall and comes to rest, mvcosθ mvcosθ 

Change in momentum of the body
mvsinθ
mv

m
v
Case(iv) : In the above case if q is the angle

made with wall then  P  2 mv sin q , along
the normal and away from the wall.
   3. Newton's II Law

 P  Pf  Pi  0  mv  iˆ According to Newton II law of motion, the rate of
  change of linear momentum of a particle is equal to
 mviˆ ; P  mv , along the normal and the net force on the particle.
away from the wall.

d 
Case (ii) : If the body hits a rigid wall normally

F
dp
dt

dt
m  
with speed v1 and rebounds with speed v2 then 
 m d   d m
F  
  1800 , dt dt
4. Applications
 
a) If u and v are the initial and final velocities of
m v1
particle of mass m and average force acting on the
particle in a time interval ‘t’ is
v2
  
 P m v  m u
F 
   t t
 P  P f  Pi

16 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION

b) If a particle of mass m, strikes a rigid surface Rate of change of momentum of bullets =Weight of the plate
normally, and rebounds with the same speed v, the
 2 mnu = Mg
change in linear momentum of the particle is 2 mV. If
h) The force needed to stop a body moving with a
t is time of contact then force on particle is
speed u in a distance S is
2mV mu 2
F= F
t 2S
c) If a particle of mass m, strikes a rigid surface
with a speed v, with the direction of motion making Stopping distance S  u2 (If F = constant)
an angle , with the normal to the surface and 5. Impulse
   
rebounds with the same speed at the same angle, Impulse, J = FAV  t = m v  m u
the magnitude of the change in momentum of the Incase of variable force
particle is 2mV Cos perpendicular and away from t2
the wall. If t is time of contact then force on particle    

2mVcos 
is F =
t *
d) From a nozzle of area of crosssection A, liquid of
density d, issues out with a velocity ‘v’ horizontally
and strikes a vertical wall then
i) If water does not bounce back i.e it falls dead or
drops dead after striking the wall, then the force
exerted on the wall is F = Av2d
ii) If water bounces back with the same speed then
force exerted on the wall is
F = 2Av2d
iii) If water rebounces with velocity v1, then the
force excrted on the wall is
F = Adv(v + v1)
iv) In the above case if water strikes the surface at
angle  with the normal and reflects with the same
speed and at the same angle, force exerted on the
wall is 2dAv2 Cos.
e) If gravel is dropped on a conveyor belt at the
dm
rate of , extra force required to keep the belt
dt
moving with velocity u is
 dm 
F=u  
 dt 
f) If a gun fires n bullets per second each with
velocity u and m is mass of the bullet, the force
required to hold the gun in its position is
F= nm u.
g) A metallic plate of mass ‘M is kept held in mid
air by firing ‘n’ bullets/second each of mass ‘m’
from below with speed u and if the bullets rebound
with same speed after striking the plate, then,
J= 
t1
F dt  m v  m u
The area under F – t graph gives impulse.

 
* If force F1 acts on a body for time t1, F2 for t2, F3
for t3 , ...... then total change in momentum is equal
  
to F1t1+ F2 t2  F3t3  .....
6. Single Object connected to a string
* A block of mass m hangs at the end of a massless
string. When the block accelerates in the upward
direction or decelerates in downward direction, the
tension in string is T = m (g+a).
* When the block is accelerated in the downward
direction or decelerates in upward direction T= m(g-
a).
* When the block is moved up or down with uniform
speed the tension T = mg.
7. Lift problem
a) If elevator accelerates up :
Apparent weight N = m(g + a)
Tension in the cable T = (M elevator + Mman) (g+a).
b) If elevator accelerates downward :
Apparent weight N = m(g-a)
Tension in the cable T = (Melevator + Mman) (g-a)
Note : Same is the case if elevator moving upward
is decelerated
c) If elevator falls freely (cable breaks) :
N=0 i.e apparent weight of a body in a free fall=0
d) If elevator moves up or down with uniform
velocity :

NARAYANA GROUP 17
 NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION JR-PHYSICS

Apparent weight = N = mg  
P3 makes an angle with P2
Tension in the cable T = (Melevator + Mman) g 2
8. Law of conservation of momentum ROCKET PROPULSION :
RECOIL OF GUN: * Velocity of a rocket at any instant of time is given by

   m1 v1 m0
m1v1  m2 v2  0  v 2  m v  u0  vr log e
2 m
Negative sign shows that as bullet moves in for- m0 = mass of the rocket at t = 0
ward direction the gun moves in backward direc- v0 = velocity of the rocket at t = 0
tion i.e. the gun recoils. m = mass of the rocket at any instant of time

i) If ' v ' is the muzzle velocity of bullet (velocity v = velocity of the rocket at any instant of time
 vr = velocity of the exhaust gases relative to the
m1v
of bullet w.r.t. gun) the velocity of gun V  . rocket
m1  m2
2
a) If the rocket is to moveup with constant speed
ii) KE  P . As p = constant, the bullet has over coming its weight then
2m
greater kinetic energy than the gun.  dm 
K .E. gun m Thrust on the rocket =   u = Mg
 1 dt 
K.E. bullet m2
b) If the rocket moves up with constant
EXPLOSIONS: acceleration ‘a’. then
i) If a stationary shell breaks into two fragments,  dm 
they will move in opposite directions, with veloci- Thrust on the rocket =  u = Mg + Ma
dt 
ties in the inverse ratio of their masses. 9. Applications of pseudoforce
V1  m2
 * An object kept on a smooth inclined plane can be
V2 m1 kept stationary relative to the incline by giving a
ii) In the above case, the Kinetic energy of the horizontal acceleration of g tan as shown.
two fragments is inversely propotional to their
masses.
K.E1 m 2

K.E 2 m 1
iii) If a stationary body breaks into three parts
out of which the first two parts move at right angles Normal reaction acting on object is N = mg sec 
to each other with momenta p1 and p2 respectively,
then the momentum of third part is determined as (M + m) g tan  (M is mass of wedge) is the force
follows to be applied on the wedge.
1
2 2 Note :If inclination is given as 1 in x, sin  
p3  p1  p2 and direction of p3 is given by x
1
P2 tan q  xq 1
x 2 1
| 2 2
P  P  P21

g
 Acceleration a  g tan q 
p  
2
tan   2 

p1 

P1
x 2 1
2 * Acceleratomer (A pendulum is suspended from the
P3
roof a moving car.)
 
P3 makes an angle with P1
2 
ma
a

mg (acceleration)

18 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION

a) If the car is moving with uniform velocity, the

position of the bob does not change F
b) If the car moves with acceleration or retardation,
m1 m2 m3
the bob moves in opposite direction to that of
acceleration.
Representation of action and reaction forces.
The forces acting on the bob are, weight mg, tension
in the string T and pseudo force ma. reaction Action reaction Action
 
For the equilibrium of bob, 

F T1 T1 m T2 T2 m
tan   ma / mg m1 2 3

 tan  = a/g
T = m a2  g2 The contact force between m1 and m2 is T1 and
that between m2 and m3 is T2.
c) In the above case if the car is moving along a
F
horizontal circular track, pseudo force is mr  2 a
m1  m2  m3
ma mr 2 2
and tan  =  or r = g tan q
mg mg (m2  m3 )F m3F
v2 T1  ; T2 
  g tan m1  m2  m3 m1  m2  m3
r
If the force F acts on the body of mass m3.
Here mr 2 is centrifugal force.
* An object of mass m is kept on a wedge of mass m1F (m1  m2 )F
T1  ; T2 
M. The wedge is moved with an acceleration ‘a’ m1  m2  m3 m1  m2  m3
such that the object moves down like a freely falling 11. Motion of bodies connected by strings
body. (no friction)

Here a = g cot  .
10. Motions of Bodies in contact
F
m1 m2 F m1 F
a and T 
m1  m2 m1  m2
Acceleration produced in the system.
a) Acceleration produced in both bodies
F Force
a 
m1  m2 Total mass
Force required to produce m1F
F1 =
m1  m2
an acceleration 'a' in m1 F
a=
m2 F m1  m2  m3
The contact force on F2 =
m1  m2 Tension produced in the first string
b) When three bodies are lying in contact on a hori- m1F
T1 = m1a =
zontal smooth table : m1  m 2  m 3
when the force acts on a body of mass m1. Tension produced in second string

NARAYANA GROUP 19
 NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION JR-PHYSICS

(m1  m2 )F  M
m 2 2m1  
T2 =
m1  m2  m3 ( F - T2 = m3a) T2   2
g
M
m1  m2 
Tension produced in the third string 2
T3 = F m1 g m1m2 g
13. a = m  m ; and T =
m1  m2
12 ATWOOD’S MACHINE 1 2

m  m2
a 1 g
m1  m2 ;
2m1m2
and T = g
m1  m2
The reaction at the pulley
If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the
table and mass is  , then
4m1m2
R = 2T = g  m  m 2 
m1  m2 a  1 m m (1   )g
 g; T  1 2
a) If the pulley begins to move with acceleration m
 1  m 2  m1  m 2
 14. Acceleration and Tension in the string when bodies
a then are connected as shown in the figure if
i) If the pulley accelerates upward , then M1 > M3.
 M  M2   2M1M2  T2 T1
anet   1  (g  a) and Tnet   ( g  a) M2
 M1  M2   M1  M2 
ii) If the pulley accelerates downward, then
T2 T1
 M  M2 
anet   1  ( g  a ) and a M3 M1 a
 M1  M 2 
 2M 1M 2 
Tnet    ( g  a) M 1 g  T1  M 1a ; T1  T2  M 2 a
 M1  M 2 
Thrust on the pulley when it comes downward with T2  M 3 g  M 3a

4 M1 M 2 a
 M1  M 3  g
acceleration ‘a’ is T   M  M  ( g  a)  M1  M 2  M 3 
1 2

b) In the above case, if the pulley is not massless M 3 g (2M 1  M 2 )

T2 
rather has finite mass M and radius R, then tensions M1  M 2  M 3 ;
in two segment strings are different, say T1 and T2.
Then equations of motion. M 1 g (2M 3  M 2 )
T1 
 
M1  M 2  M 3
 m1  m 2 
a
M g 15. When the two masses m1 and m2 are hanging as
 m1  m 2   shown in the figure and m2 > m1.
 2 
For the mass m1, T - m1g sin  = m1a
 M
m1 2m 2   For the mass m2, m2g-T = m2a
 2
T1  g
M ;
m1  m 2 
2

20 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION

solving these equations, we get

m  m1 sin  m m g (1  sin  )
a 2 g ;T  1 2
m1  m 2 m1  m 2

T = m2 (g - a) ; F  2 T co s
9 0 0
 
2
16. If in the system shown in the figure, m1 > m2, the
acceleration ‘a’ of the system is given by

a
 m1 sin   m 2 sin   g
m1  m 2
and the tension in the string is given by
m1 m 2  sin   sin  
T g; T = m2 (g - a)
m1  m 2

(90 0   )
F  2T cos
2

17. A force F is applied on the massless pulley as

shown in the figure and string is connected to the
block on smooth horizontal surface. Then

T T

T T F
m

F= 2T and T  mablock
If the block moves a distance ‘x’ the pulley moves
x/2 (Total length of the string remains constant)
a
Therefore acceleration of the pulley = block
2
T F /2 F
=   .
2m 2 m 4 m
18. MASSES CONNECTED BY SPRINGS
m2 m1

a2 a1

F = m1a1 + m2a2

NARAYANA GROUP 21
 FRICTION JR-PHYSICS

FRICTION
SYNOPSIS f) If the block slides with an acceleration under
FORMULAS the influence of an external force F, the
1. Laws of Friction: F  fk
 Friction is directly proportional to the normal acceleration of the block is a
m
reaction acting on the body. g) If the block slides with uniform velocity, the
 The law of static friction may thus be written as
applied force is F  f k
f s   s N . Where the dimensionless constant  s
4. Sliding block on a horizontal surface comming
is called the coefficient of static friction and N is
to rest : s
the magnitude of the normal force. v=0
u
 fs max  fl  sN ; f l  Limiting friction fk m

fk
 Coefficient of kinetic friction ( μ k) = .
N
fR
 Coefficient of rolling friction   R   a) The acceleration of the block is a  k g
N
Note : μ S > μ K > μ R b) Distance travelled by the block before comming
2. Net contact force & Angle of Friction: u2
to rest is S  2 g
k

R N
c) time taken by the block to come to rest
 u
is t 
mk g
5. Pulling a block or roller
f mg
N
F sin F

R f 2  N2 F cos 
f
f
When the block is static tan   ;   s mg
N
s N
tan s   s a) If the pulling force is such that F cos q < fs, the
N
block will be at rest and the force of friction between
3. Block on a rough fixed horizontal surface
block and the surface is f  F cos 
a) If applied force F = 0, the force of friction is zero.
F (Applied b) The normal force is N  mg  F sin 
force
m c) Force needed to just slide the body is
f
 s mg mg sin 
F 
b) If applied force F < fs, the block does not move cos    s sin  cos(   )

and the force of friction is f  F where f is the angle of friction between the
c) If applied force F = fs block just slides and two surfaces.
frictional force fs   s N d) The minimum possible force among all directions
required to just move the body is
d) If we continue to apply a force F = fs, the block
mg m
Fmin  mg sin f or Fmin  1  m 2
s
slides with an acceleration given by
s
a   s  k  g
e) Once the block slides, force of friction on the
block is kinetic frictional force (fk) = mk mg
22 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS FRICTION

6. Pushing a block or Roller : g

a 
a) If the pushing force is such that F cosq < fs, the 
block will be rest and the force of friction between 11. Block in a lorry :
the block and the surface is f  F cos  psedo ma observer a
N
force m f

f Fcos 


mg
F(pushing force)
Fsin 
a) The maximum acceleration of the lorry for
which block begins to slide on the floor of the
b) The normal force is N  mg  F sin 
lorry is a  s g
c) Force needed to just slide the body is
 sm g m g sin 
b) If a < ms g block does not slide and friction
F  
co s    s sin  c o s(    ) force on the block is f = ma
c) If a  ms g block slips or slides on the floor..
7. When a man is walking the direction of
The acceleration (a) of the block relative to
frictional force is in the same direction of motion 1
lorry is a  a  k g
8. Chain problem
d) In the above case, acceleration of the block
A chain of uniform length ‘L’ is placed on a rough
horizontal table. The coefficient of friction between the relative to earth is  kg (or) (a –a| )
chain and table is  then the maximum fractional length e) If  is the distance of the block from rear side
of chain that can be hung freely from the edge of the table of the truck, time taken by the block to cover

is =
1  2
Minimum fractional length of chain that can be on
a distance  . t = a - μ g
k
1
the table is 12. Car moving on an unbanked circular road :
1
9. Block pressed against a vertical wall : a) Maximum speed with which curve can be
a) A body of mass ‘m’ is pressed against a vertical negotiated without skidding is
wall with a horizontal force ‘F’. If the coefficient Vmax  s rg
of static friction is  s, then block will be about
b) The maximum angular velocity is
to slide down if  s F  mg  sg
 max 
b) If  s F >mg, friction developed is mg only.. r
c) If a book is pressed between two hands, each 13. An insect is crawling in a hemispherical bowl of
hand with a force F, then the book will be ready radius ‘r’. Maximum height upto which it can
to slide if 2F  mg
fs
crawl is
a fs=s N
O
ma N

10. Block infront of lorry N
mg r r sin 
P
The minimum acceleration with which the truck h 
should travel, so that the body may not slide down is
mg cos 
mg sin 
mg
NARAYANA GROUP 23
 FRICTION JR-PHYSICS

 cient of static friction between the two blocks.

1 
h = r 1- cos    r  1   c) If a <  s g blocks move together and applied
 s  1 
2
force is F = (mB+mu) a

Maximum angular displacement upto which it can d) If a < s g frictional force between the two
crawl is ‘ θ ’. Then  s  tan  blocks f = mua
e) The maximum applied force for which both
14. Connected Bodies :
blocks move together is Fmax= sg (mu+mB)
 A block of mass m1 placed on a rough horizontal
surface, is connected to block of mass m2 by a f) If F>Fmax block slip relative to each other and have
string which passes over a smooth pulley.The different accelerations.The acceleration of the
coefficient of frictionbetween m1 and the table is upper block is au = k g and lower block is
. F  kmug
aL 
a mB
N Case – II : (Upper block pulled and there is no friction
T
between lower block and the horizontal surface)
mu F

m1g T a f f
mB

a) When the upper block is pulled, lower block is

m2g accelerated by the force of friction acting upon
For body of mass m2 it
b) The maximum acceleration of the system of
two blocks for them to move together without
m2 g  T  m2 a ————— (i) mu
slipping is amax =  s g
For body of mass m1 mB
T  f k  m1a  T  k N  m1a —— (ii) (  s =coefficient of static friction between the
Solving Eqs (i) and (ii), we get two blocks)
c) If a<amax frictional force between the two blocks
 m  k m1  m1m2 g is f = mBa
a 2 g; T  (1   )
 m1  m2  m1  m2 d) If a < amax, then applied force on the upper block
is F = (mB+mu) a
15. Block on Block : e) The maximum force for which both blocks
Case I : (lower block pulled and there is no friction move together is
between lower block and the horizontal surface)
mu
mu Fmax =  s g  mu  mB 
f mB
f
mB f) If F> Fmax blocks slide relative to each other
F and here have different accelerations. The
acceleration of the lower block is
a) When the lower block is pulled upper block is
mu
accelerated by the force of friction acting upon aL  k g
mB
it.
and the acceleration of the upper block is
b) The maximum acceleration of the system of
two blocks for them to move together without au 
F  kmug
slipping is a =  sg , where  s is the coeffi- mu

24 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS FRICTION

16. Block on a smooth inclined plane

a) If  is the angle of repose then  s  tan 
N
b) If q  a the block is at rest. The force of
mg
sin

friction f < fs and is equal to
a) N  mg cos  
 f = mg sin ; [mg sin < fs]
mg cos mg
c) If q  a then the block is in limiting equilibrium.
b) acceleration of sliding block(a = g sin q) The force of friction is
c) If l is the length of the inclined plane and
h is the height. The time taken to slide down f = fs = s mg cos  ; [mg sin = fL ]
starting from rest from the top is
d) If the inclination is maintained at q  a the
2l 1 2h block will eventually slide down with an
t 
g sin  sin  g
d) Sliding block takes more time to reach the bottom ag
 s  k 
acceleration equal to
than to fall freely from the top of the incline. 1   s2
e) Velocity of the block at the bottom of the inclined e) If the block slides down the inclined plane with
plane is
uniform velocity  k  tan 
V  2 gl sin   2 gh
f) If    , the block slides down with an
same as the speed attained if block falls freely acceleration given by a = g [sin  -  k cos  ];
from the top of the inclined plane. g) Velocity at the bottom of the plane is
f) If a block is projected up the plane with a
velocity u, the acceleration of the block is V  2gl  sin    k cos   2gh 1   k cot  

a   g sin  18. Body projected up a rough inclined plane:

g) Distance travelled up the plane before its
If a body is projected with an initial velocity ‘u’to
slide up the plane, the kinetic frictional force acts
u2 down the plane and the body suffers retardation
velocity becomes zero is S 
2 g sin  due to a resultant force
u FR =(mg sin  +fk )
h) time of ascent is t  g sin   acceleration a = - g(sin θ + μ k cos θ )
 Time taken to stop after travelling a distance l along
 The time taken by a body to slide down on a
rough inclined plane is ‘n’ times the time taken 2l
the plane, t = g (sin    k cos  )
by it to slide down on a smooth inclined plane
of same inclination and length then coefficient 19. a) A body is released from rest from the top of an
of friction is... inclined plane of length ‘L’ and angle of inclination
L
 1 ‘  ’. The top of plane of length  n  1 is
 k  Tan 1  2  n
 n  smooth and the remaining part is rough. If the
17. Block on a rough inclined plane body comes to rest on reaching the bottom of the
plane then find the value of coefficient of friction
N of rough surface
f
mg  n 
s in   Tan  
  n  1
 b) A body is pushed down with velocity ‘u’ from
 the top of an inclined plane of length ‘L’ and angle
of inclination ‘  ’. The top of plane of length
mg cos mg
NARAYANA GROUP 25
 FRICTION JR-PHYSICS

L
 n  1 is rough and the remaining part is smooth.
n
If the body reaches the bottom of the plane with a
velocity equal to the initial velocity ‘u’, then the
value of coefficient of friction of rough plane
is  K  n  tan  

26 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS WORK POWER ENERGY

WORK POWER ENERGY

F
FORMULAS
1. Work done by a constant force 
mg

If a constant force F displacesa body by S , then
h
work done by the force W  F . S m
2. Work Done by a Variable Force
In terms of rectangular component Work done by the gravitational force is
 
F  Fx iˆ  Fy ˆj  Fz kˆ , ds  dxiˆ  dyjˆ  dzkˆ
B
Wg  mgh
W   ( Fx iˆ  Fy ˆj  Fz kˆ ).(dxiˆ  dyjˆ  dzkˆ )
A
B B B  Work done by tension in the string when the body
or  W   ( Fx dx   Fy dy   Fz dz moves upward through a distance 'h' is
A A A
3. Applications
 If a force is changing linearly from F1 to F2 over W= m (g + a)h
a displacement S then work done is
 F  F2  ^T
W  1 S a
 2 
 If a force displaces the particle from its initial
 
position ri to final position rf then displacement mg
  
vector is S  rf  ri . In the above case if the body moves downward
y with acceleration 'a' then workdone by the ten-
F sion in the string is W= - m (g - a)h .
S
rf
 a). A body of mass 'm' is placed on a friction less
ri horizontal surface. A force F acts on the body parallel
X to the surface, such that it moves with an acceleration
    
W  F .S  F . rf  ri   'a'. The workdone by the force acting on the body when
its displacement is S, is given by W = FS = mas .
 A uniform solid cylinder of mass m, length l and
radius r is lying on ground with curved surface in b). If body moves with uniform velocity on a hori-
contact with ground. If it is turned such that its zontal frictionless surface. The workdone on
circular face is in contact with ground then work the body is W = 0.
done by applied force is c). If frictional force is considered between the body
and the surface then the workdone by the force
to move the body with uniform velocity is
W= f s=  K mgs .
l

l/2 d). In the above case if the body moves with uni-
r form acceleration a workdone by the force is
W= f+ma  s   K mg  ma  s
l   l 
W  mgh  mg   r  h  r  A body of mass 'm' and of density 'd1' lies in a
2   2 
non viscous liquid of density 'd2'. The minimum
 The minimum workdone by the lifting force is
WF = Fh = + mgh workdone to lift the body with uniform velocity

NARAYANA GROUP 27
 WORK POWER ENERGY JR-PHYSICS

 d 
W  mgh 1  2 
L
Wg mg (1cosq) θ
through a height 'h' in the liquid is  d1  2
G2
h G1
B

F h
 A ladder of mass 'm' and length '  ' resting on a
level floor is lifted and held against a wall at an angle
mg
 A bucket full of water of total mass 'M' is lifted ' q ' with the floor..
up with uniform velocity using a uniform rope of mass
'm' and length '  '
G

l/2
l/2
c
T
h
θ

Work done by the gravitational force is

Mg
Work done by the lifting force in lifting the bucket
full of water by means of the rope is
W  Mgl  mg l
2 2
 A pendulum of length 'L' carries a bob of mass 'm'
. The bob is pulled aside through an angle q with the
lower vertical by a horizontal force F.
Work done by the gravitational force
Wg = –mgh
Where 'h' is the height gained by centre of
 h
gravity. h  sin  Since sin   l
2 2
 Wg  mg l sin q
 A uniform chain of mass 'm' and length '  ' is sus-
pended vertically. The lower end of the chain is lifted upto
the point of suspension.
Work done by gravitational force is Wg = – mgh.

θ
L G2
l/4
F
h l/4

mg G1

Wg  mgL 1 cos  

Where 'h' is the height gained by center of gravity of
Work done by the horizontal force F is the lower half of chain, with respect to its initial posi-
tion G1.
W  FL sin 
h = l / 4l / 4  l / 2
 A uniform rod of mass'm' and length 'L' is sus- Work done by the gravitational force is
pended vertically. If it is pulled aside through an angle m l mg 
' q ' to lower vertical, Wg =  g .  Wg   4
2 2
work done by gravitational force  A uniform chain of mass 'm' and length 'L' rests on a
1th
table, having n part of its length hanging down from the
28 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS WORK POWER ENERGY

N
edge of table. The work done by the pulling force to bring fk
m
the hanging part of chain on to the table is W = g .h
n
F  θ θ
cos
 h = L/2n m
gs
in
θ
mg mg
G

 Net work done by the resultant force on

the body, W  FR .
Where 'h' is the height gained by C.G. of hanging
chain with respect to the edge of table. W  m g s in    K m g c o s   

m L 4. Kinetic Energy
W = g.  W  mgL / 2n2
n 2n
1
 Kinetic energy of the body K  2 mv .
2

 A uniform chain of mass 'm' and length 'L'rests on

1th 5. Potential Energy
a smooth horizontal table with n part of its length is
1 Potential energy of the body U  mgh.
hanging from the edge of the table. Work done in pull-
1th 6. Spring Force :
ing the chain partially, such that n part is hanging from Fs = –Kx.
2
the edge of the table is given by The constant ‘K’ is called the spring constant.
mgL  1 1 
W  S
2  n12 n 2 2 
 O m
 
 A body of mass 'm' is on a smooth inclined plane m
of inclination ' q ' to horizontal. If 'l' is the length of in- S
cline, O m
N
x1
To calculate the work done on the block by the
spring force as the block moves from undeformed
Wsin q q Wcos q
position X = 0 to X = x1
 
x1
q W
dW = F  dx. = –Kx.dx;  dW =   Kx.dx
0
Work done by gravitational force in pulling the 1
block down from top to bottom of the incline is W1  Kx12
2
* The work done by the spring force is always
W g = mg sin  
negative.
Here Work done by normal reaction is zero * If the block moves from X = x1 to X = x2, the
 A body of mass 'm' is sliding down a rough in- work done by spring force is
clined plane of inclination q to horizontal. If '  ' is the x2
1
length of incline and m is the coefficient of kinetic fric- W2 =   Kx dx  W2  K x1  x 2 
2 2

tion x1 2
Work done by gravitational force in pulling the A spring of force constant 'k' is stretched by
block down to the incline is Wg = mg sin   . a small length 'x'. Find the work done in stretching
Work done by frictional force is it further by a small length 'y'.
Wf = - fk  = - mk mg cos q .  1
W  Ky  y  2x 
2

NARAYANA GROUP 29
 WORK POWER ENERGY JR-PHYSICS

0
7. Potential energy stored in a spring : u=

1
 U f  kx12
2 h

q
8. Relation between Kinetic Energy and v
Linear Momentum iv) A body of mass 'm' starts from rest from the top
of a rough inclined plane of inclination ' q ' and length 'l'
1 m2v 2 p2
KE  mv 2    p  mv  . The velocity 'v' with which it reaches the bottom of
2 2m 2m
9. Work - Energy Theorem incline if mk is the coefficient of kinetic friction is
Statement : "The work done on a particle Wg  W f  k
by the net force is equal to the change in its kinetic 1
energy". mg sin q  mk mg cos q   mv2 0
  2
u 
F v 2 gl sin q  m k cos q 
s v) Bob of pendulum of length '  ' is projectile hori-
A B
zontally with a speed 'u' at its lowest position then the
W = Kf – Ki
speed of the bob when it makes an angle q with the
where Kf and Ki are the final and initial kinetic
energies of the particle. lower vertical is
Wg  k , Wg  k f  ki
10. Special cases in work energy theorem.
thus mgl 1 cos q   m v1  v 
1 2 2
i) A particle of mass 'm' is thrown vertically up with
2
a speed 'u' . Neglecting the air friction , the work done
by gravitational force, as particle reaches maximum θ l
height is
W g  k = Kf – Ki V1
v1  v 2  2 gl 1 cos q 
1
Wg   mu 2  k f  0
2   h
ii) A pariticle of mass 'm' falls freely from a height 'h'
V
in air medium onto the ground . If 'V' is the velocity
vi) A block of mass 'm' attached to a spring of spring
with which it reaches the ground , the work done by
constant 'k' oscillates on a smooth horizontal table .
air friction is Wf and work done by gravitational force
The other end of the spring is fixed to a wall . It has a
Wg = mgh
speed 'V' when the spring is at natural length . The dis-
1 tance it moves on table before it comes to instanta-
Wg  W f  k , m gh  W f  mv2  0
2 neous rest is
N
1
Wf  mv 2  mgh
2
F=-kx
iii) A block of mass 'm' slides down a
frictionless smooth incline of inclination ' q ' to the
horizontal . If 'h' is the height of incline , the velocity x
with which the body reaches the bottom of incline is mg
1 2
Wg  k = mgh  mv  0  v  2 gh WS . F  W g  W N   k
2
Let the mass be oscillating with amplitude x on
compressing the spring.

30 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS WORK POWER ENERGY

By the principle of conservation of linear momen-

WS.F.   1 Kx 2 ; W = mgx cos 900 = 0 tum mv = (M+m)V1
2 g
or V1=mv/M+m
WN = Nx cos 900= 0
since no work is done by gravity and normal re-
action (N)
WS . F  k f  ki

1 1 m
 kx 2  0  mv 2 or x  v.
2 2 k
m m+M h
vii) A bullet of mass 'm' moving with velocity 'v' stops
v v1
in a wooden block after penetrating through a distance m+M
x . If 'F' is the resistance offered by the block to the where V1 is the common velocity of bullet + block
bullet system
fk
By work energy theorem Wg  k f  ki
1
 M  m gh  0   M  m V1
2

2
WF  k f  ki  mv 2 1
 h  
 M  m  2 g
.
1 1 mv2
 fk x  0  mv 2 or fk  .
2 2 x
viii) A pile driver of mass 'm' is dropped from a height x) A body of mass 'm' is initially at rest . By the ap-
'h' above the ground. On reaching the ground it pierces plication of a constant force , its velocity changes to v0
through a distance 's' and then stops finally. If 'R' is the in time t0 . The kinetic energy of the body at any time 't'
resistance offered by ground, then is
u1 = 0 W  k or W = kf - ki, K  W  ma.s
f

 1 2  ma 2t 2
 ma  at  or k f 
^
air h
1    2gh
 2  2
t 
2
V0
 k f  mv0  
1
since a  t
2

(soil)
^
s 0
2  t 0 

xi) A body is projected vertically up from the ground.

2  0
When it is at a height ‘h’ above the ground, its
potential and kinetic energies are in the ratio x:y. If
Wg  WR  k f  ki
H is the maximum height reached by that body,
 h
mg (h  s)  R.s  0 or R  mg 1 


s  x h
then y  H  h (or)
Here time of penetration is given by impulse equa- h x

tion H x y
2s
t
 R  mg  t  0  m. 2 gh or 2 gh 11. POWER
ix) A bullet of mass 'm' is fired horizontally with a ve- If 'W' is the total work done by a force in a time inter-
locity 'V' which strikes a wooden block of mass 'M' val 't', then the avarage power is
suspended vertically . If the bullet is embedded in the W total work
Pav = 
block , the height 'h' to which the system would rise is t total time

NARAYANA GROUP 31
 WORK POWER ENERGY JR-PHYSICS

  a
The instantaneous power is Pinst  F.V  FVcos  F
12. Relation between average power and R
instantaneous power :
    Instantaneous power P = F. V
W ma V F V
Pav = =  P   R  maV
t 2 2
  iv) The car moves on a rough horizontal road with a
we know instantaneous power is Pinst= F .V constant speed 'V' then the inst aneo us
From the above it can be concluded that power of engine is
1 P = F.V (V constant)
Pav  . Pinst But F = f
2
P = fV (Here f = frictional force on rough hori-
13. Efficiency of Crane or Motor :
zontal surface) P =  mg. V
The ratio of output power to the input power is
called efficiency. v) A body of mass 'm' is initially at rest. By the appli-
output power p cation of constant force its velocity changes to "V 0" in
h 100 h  0 100 time ' to' then
Input power pi
100 mgh v  u  at
Total input power Pi  h  t v 0  at 0
v0
14 Applications to power : acceleration of the body is a  t
i) if a machine gun fires 'n' bullets per second such 0

that mass of each bullet is 'm' and comming out a) Find instantaneous power at an instant of time 't'
with a velocity 'v' then the power of the machine is
gun is P = F.V = (ma) (at) = m a2 t
1  2  
N  mV 2  v 
Pin s t  m  0  t  a  v 0 
P = 2   t0  
 t 0 
t
(where N bullets are fired in time 't' then n = N/t) b) Average power during the time 't' is
1
1  v0 
2 2
Pav = mnV 1
2 Pav = . pinst ; Pav  m   t
ii) A conveyor belt moves horizontally with a con- 2 2  t0 
stant speed 'v' Gravel is falling on it at a rate of vi) A motor pump is used to deliver water at
'dm/dt' then, a certain rate from a given pipe. To obtain 'n' times
Extra force required to drive the belt is water from the same pipe in the same time by what
dm
F v amout (a) force and (b) power of the motor should be
dt
b) Extra power required to drive the belt is increased.
 dm 
P = FV =  .V V
dm 2  F1 = n 2 .F
P v
dt dt
iii) A car of mass 'm' is moving on a horizontal road  P1 = n 3 .P
with constant accelerction 'a'. If R is the resistantce vii) If a pump/ crane is used to lift water/coal of mass
offered to its motion, then the instaneous power m to a height h in time ‘t’, then the power of that
of the engine when its velocity is 'v' mgh
Net force on the car is F – R = ma pump or crane is p 
t
driving force of the engine is F = R + ma
If efficiency of that crane or motor is  % , then

32 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS WORK POWER ENERGY

 mgh
p
100 t
viii) A crane lifts a body of mass ‘m’ with a constant
velocity v from the ground, its power is
P=Fv=m gv
ix) Power of lungs of a boy blowing a whistle is
1
P ( mass of air blown per sec) (velocity)2
2
x) Power of a heart pumping blood
= (pressure) (volume of blood pumped per sec)
xi) If a motor lifts water from a well of depth ‘h’ and
delivers with a velocity ‘v’ in a time t then power
1
mgh+ mv 2
of the motor P= 2
t
15. Position and velocity of an automobile
w.r.t.time:
An automobile of mass ‘m’ accelerates starting
from rest, while the engine supplies constant
power,its position and velocity changes w.r.t time
as
Velocity : As F v = P = constant
dv  dv 
i.e. m v=P  F=m 
dt  dt 
P
or  v dv=  dt on integrating we get
m
2
v P
= t+C 1
2 m
As initially the body is at rest,
ie. v = 0 at t  0  C 1  0 ;
1/2
 2Pt 
v=    v α t1/2
 m 
Position: From the above expression
1/2 1/2
 2Pt  ds  2 Pt 
v=   (or)  
 m  dt  m 
1/2 1
1
 2Pt 
dt   2 p   t 2 dt
2
 ds    m   m
integrating on both sides we get
1/ 2
 2P  2 3/2
S   . t  C2
 m  3
Now at t  0, S  0  C2  0
1/2
 8P  3/2
S   t ,  S  t 3/2
 9m 

NARAYANA GROUP 33
 COLLISIONS JR-PHYSICS

COLLISIONS
FORMULAS   2m1  
v2    u1
 m1  m2 
1. ELASTIC COLLISION IN ONE c) Fraction of KE retained by 1st body
DIMENSION (OR) PERFECTLY ELASTIC 2
K .Eret  m1  m2 
HEAD-ON COLLISION  
u1 u2
m1
v1
m2
v2
K .Ei  m1  m2 
m1 m2
d) Fraction of KE transferred from 1st body to second
Before collision
During After collision body (or) Fraction of KE lost by 1st body is
Collision
From the conservation of linear momentum KEtra 4m1m2
     2
m1  u1 - v1  = m 2  v 2 - u 2  KEi  m1  m2 
From Law of conservation of K.E e) Fraction of momentum retained by m1
1 1 1 1 P1 m1v1 m1  m2
m1u12 + m 2 u 22 = m1v12 + m 2 v22  
2 2 2 2 Pi m1u1 m1  m2
   
 u1 - u 2 = v2 - v1 f) Fraction of momentum transferred from 1st body
i.e Relative velocity of approach before collision to second body
= Relative velocity of separation after collision P2 Pi  P1 P  m  m2  2m2
 Velocities after collision are   1 1  1  1 
Pi Pi Pi m
 1  m2  m1  m2
  m -m    2m 2  
v1 =  1 2  u1 +   u2 2. Coefficient of restitution (e)
 m1 +m2   m1 +m2 
  2m1    m 2 -m1   relative velocity of separation
v2 =   u1 +   u2 after collision along the line of impact
 m1 +m 2   m1 +m 2  e
Special cases: relative velocity of approach
i) If colliding particles have equal masses before collision along the line of impact
    v 2  v1
i.e m1  m2  m ; v1 =u 2 , v 2 =u1 e
u1  u 2
ii) If two bodies are of equal masses and the second
  For a perfectly elastic collision, e = 1
body is at rest ie., m m m and u2  0 then
1 2 For a perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0
   
;
v1 =0 v 2 =u 1 For other collisions, e lies between 0 and 1
iii)A lighter particle collides with heavier particle
  a) Determination of coefficient of restitution
which is at rest m1  m 2 , u 2  0
   If a body falls from a height H1 and strikes the level
v 1 = -u 1 , v2 =0 ground with velocity of magnitude 'V1' in a time 't1'
iv) A heavier body collides with lighter body at rest seconds and rebounds with velocity of magnitude V2
 
m1  m 2 , u 2  0 ; upto a height H2 in a time t2 seconds.
   
v1 = u 1 , v 2 =2u1 Then the coefficient of restitution is given by
v2 H2 t2
v) A body of mass m1 moving with a velocity v1 e = v (or) e = H (or) e = t
1 1 1
collides elastically with a stationary mass m2 b) Equation for the height attained by a freely
a) Velocit y of first body aft er falling body after number of rebounds on the floor
  m -m  
1 2 A ball is dropped from a height H0 . The ball
collision v1 =  m +m  u1
 1 2  strikes the ground and it rebounds to a height H1. It
b) Velocity of second body after collision again falls from that height and rebounds to a height H2

34 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS COLLISIONS

and so on. 1  e  1  e 
 mu    m 2 gh 
The height to which the body rebounds after the 1  e  1  e 
th
n rebounce is given by Application
j) A body ‘A’ with a momentum ‘P’ collides with
H n  e 2n H 0 another identical stationery body ‘B’ one
dimensionally. During the collision, ‘B’ gives an
c) Application1.6: Magnitude of the velocity with
impulse ‘J’ to the body ‘A’ . Then the coefficient
which it rebounds from the ground after nth colli-
of restitution is
sion. 2J  P 2J
e  1
Vn  e n V where v  2gH 0 P P
d) k) A particle of mass m moving with a speed u strikes
a smooth horizontal surface at an angle  . The
Equation for time of asent of the body after nth
particle rebounds at an angle  with a speed v..
2H 0 The coefficient of restitution is ‘e’.
collision with ground is, tn = ent where t 
g m m
e) Total distance travelled by the ball before it
stops bouncing.

1  e2   
D  H0  2 
1  e  

f) Total time taken by the ball to stop bouncing:

u cos   v cos  .......(1)
2H 0 1 e  By def of coefficient of restitution we get
T   eu sin   v sin   (2)
g  1 e 
from (1) and (2) , tan   e tan 
g) Average speed of the ball during its entire tan 
journey is given by tan  
e
Average speed = 1  e 2  On squaring eq (1) and (2) and adding we get
h  v 2  u 2  cos 2   e 2 sin 2  
 1 e 2  gh 1 e 
2
Total distance travelled
   
Total time taken 2h  1  e  2 1 e2 v  u cos2   e 2 sin 2 
 
g  1 e  l) A ball is projected with an initial velocity ‘u’
h ) Average velocity of the ball during its entire at an angle ‘  ’ to the horizontal surface as shown
journey is given by in figure. If ‘e’ is the coefficient of restitution
between the ball and the surface, then
Average velocity =
Net displacement h gh 1  e u
 
Total time taken 2h 1  e  2 1  e
 
g  1 e  
1st 2nd 3rd
x
i) Total change in momentum before it stops is
2u sin 
i) a) Time it takes for 1st collision is T 
g

NARAYANA GROUP 35
 COLLISIONS JR-PHYSICS

b) The time interval between 1st and 2nd m1 1  e  u1  m 2  m1 

v2   u2
2 eu sin  m1  m 2  m 2  m 1 
collisions is T1   eT
g
Loss in kinetic energy of the sytem is
c) Similarly, the time interval between 2nd and 3rd
1  m1m 2 
2 e 2 u sin 
2
E k    1  e 2   u1  u2 
collisions is T2  e T 2
2  m1  m 2 
g
4. PERFECTLY INELASTIC HEAD ON
ii) a) The horizontal distance covered by the ball COLLISION
before 1st collision is
u1 u2
u 2 sin 2 v
R  u cos  T m1 m2
g
b) The horizontal distance covered by it between Before collision After collision
1st and 2nd collisions is m1u1  m 2 u2
R1  u cos eT  e R  Common velocity, v  m1  m 2
c) Similiarly, the horizontal distance covered
between 2nd and 3rd collisions is Loss of K.E K .E  of the system =
Initial total K.E – Final total K.E
R 2  u cos  e 2 T  e 2 R
m1 m 2
iii) a) The maximum height reached by the ball before  K.E   u1  u2  2
1st collision is 2  m1  m 2 
5. BALLISTIC PENDULUM
u sin   usin 
2 2 2

H  Let the bullet gets embedded in the block and the

2g 2g system rises to a height ‘h’ as shown in the figure.
b) Maximum height it reaches between 1st and 2nd
collisions is

eu sin  
2

H1   e2 H
2g
c) Similarly maximum height between 2nd and 3rd M m
h
collisions is
m u M

e usin 
2
2
mu
H2   e4H  Common velocity, v 
2g mM
mu
i.e.,  2gh
3. SEMI ELASTIC HEAD ON COLLISION mM
u1 u2 v1 v2  Velocity of the bullet,
m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2
mM mM
Beforecollision After collision
u 2gh  2g 1  cos 
Duringcollision m m
v2  v1  e  u1  u 2 

 m  em 2  m 1  e  u 2
v1   1  u1  2
 m2  m 1  m1  m 2
36 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS CENTRE OF MASS

CENTRE OF MASS
FORMULAS

POSITION OF CENTRE OF
S.No SHAPE OF THE BODY FIGURE
MASS

1 Circular ring At the centre of the ring

C

2 Circular disc At the centre of the disc

C
Thin uniform straight
3 At the geometric centre A C B
rod

4 Triangular plate At the centroid

C

At the point of intersection

5 Square plate
of the diagonals C

At the point of intersection

6 Rectangular plate
of the diagonals C

Hollow or solid
7 At the centre of the sphere
sphere C

At a height of h/3 , from the base h

8 Hollow cone
C h
3

h
Solid cone oc 
At a height of h/4 from the base h 4
9 or
Pyramid C
O

NARAYANA GROUP 37
 CENTRE OF MASS JR-PHYSICS

POSITION OF CENTRE OF
S.No SHAPEOF THEBODY FIGURE
MASS

R
2R α C
11 An arc of radius R At a distance of sin  
subtending an angle α 2 
 at its centre  
of curvature from its centre of curvature x x
O  
on the axis of symmetry 2R α
OC  sin  
α 2
 
2R
At a distance of from its R
i)A semi-circle of π
radius ‘R’ C 2R
centre on the axis of  OC=
symmetry O π

4R C
At a distance of from
ii) A quadrant of a π 2
R
circle of radius ‘R’ its centre ‘o’ on the axis of /4 4R
symmetry OC=
O π 2

4R R
At a distance of from its
3π C 4R
12 Semi-circular disc OC=
centre ‘o’ on the axis of O 3π
symmetry

3R
At a distance of from its R
13 Solid hemi-sphere 8
C 3R
centre ‘o’ on the axis of OC 
o 8
symmetry
R
Hollow hemi-sphere At a distance of from its R
14 (or) 2
C R
Hemi-spherical shell centre ‘o’ on the axis of OC 
symmetry o 2

At its centre within the

15 Horse-shoe magnet boundary limits C

38 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS CENTRE OF MASS

1. CO-ORDINATES OF CENTRE OF MASS OF Also, distance of centre of mass from origin in a plane
DISCRETE SYSTEM OF PARTICLES is
(i) For two - particle system along a line [ One -
d  x cm
2
 y cm
2
dimensionaly system]
iii) Centre of mass of a system of particles in
d
(Three dimensional) Space :
r1 r2 Then position co - ordinates of centre of mass
o m1 c m2 x (xcm,ycm,zcm) are expressed as n

m1x1  m2 x2  ......  mn xn 
x1 mi xi
xcm xcm   i 1

m1  m2  ......  mn M
x2 n

m1 y1  m2 y2  ......  mn yn 
mi yi
 m1r1  m2 r2 .......... (1) ycm   i1

m x  m2 x2 m1  m2  ......  mn M
 xcm  1 1
m1  m2 ............ (2) n

m1 z1  m2 z2  ......  mn zn 
mi zi
m2 d zcm   i 1
 r1 
m1  m2 ...................(3) m1  m2  ......  mn M
Also, distance of centre of mass from origin in space is
m1 d
Similarly r2  m  m ..............(4) d  x cm
2
 ycm
2
 z cm
2
1 2

If there are n - particles of masses m1 , m2 ,..... mn iv) Position vector of Centre of mass
situated along x - axis having co - ordinates x1,    
Let r1 , r2 , r3 ....rn be the position vectors of n-particles
x2 , .... , xn respectively, then the x-co-ordinate of their 
center of mass [xcm] is given by having masses m1, m2, .....mn respectively. If rcm is
position vector of their C.M, then
m1 x1  m 2 x 2 .....  m n x n
x cm  Y m1
m1  m 2  .....  m n
m2
ii) Centre of mass of a system of particles in   
(two dimensional) Plane : r1 r2 rc.m C.M
mn
y

m5 rn
m1 C.M. O X
(x1,y1) m2 n

m4
(xcm,ycm) (x2 ,y2)

  
m r  m2 r2  ......  mn rn  mi r1
(x3,y3)
m3
rcm  1 1  i1
x m1  m2  ......  mn M
O n Where
 
m1x1  m2 x2  ......  mn xn 
mi xi r1  x1iˆ  y1 ˆj  z1kˆ , r2  x2iˆ  y2 ˆj  z2 kˆ and
xcm   i 1

m1  m2  ......  mn M rn  xniˆ  yn ˆj  zn kˆ
n

m y  m y  ......  m y  mi yi 2. MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS

and ycm  1 1 2 2 n n
 i 1
i) Velocity of centre of mass :
m1  m2  ......  mn M
  
 m1v1  m 2 v2  .......  m n v n
vCM 
M
NARAYANA GROUP 39
 CENTRE OF MASS JR-PHYSICS

n

or v 
m v
i 1
i i 3. The acceleration of center of mass of the
CM
blocks of masses m1 and m2 (m1 > m2) in Atwood’s
M machine:
ii) For two particle system velocity of centre of 2
mass.  m  m2 
  a CM  1  g
 m v + m2 v2  m1  m 2 
vcm = 1 1
m1 + m2
a) If particles move in same direction. Then The magnitude of displacement of centre of mass in
magnitude of velocity of centre of mass from 1
parallelogram law of vectors is time ‘t’ is scm = acm t 2 .
m v + m2 v2 2
vcm = 1 1
m1 + m 2 4. Mutual forces between two bodies :
b) and if they move in opposite direction then  When two particles approach each other due to
m1v1 +m2 -v2 
their mutual interaction, then they always meet at
vcm = their centre of mass.
m1 +m2  To a system of particles m1(x1y1), m2(x2y2)
c) If they move perpendicular to each other then another particle of mass m3 is added so that
centre of mass shifts to the origin then coordinates
m1v1  + m2 v2  of third particle are
2 2

vcm = (m1 x1  m 2 x2 )   m1 y1  m2 y2 
m1 + m 2  y3 
x3 = m3 ; m3
iii) Momentum
 of centre of mass :
    In a system of two particles of masses m1 and
MvCM  p1  p2 ........  pn
m2 , when m1 is pushed towards m2 through a
iv) Acceleration of centre of mass :

n distance d then shift in m2 towards m1 without

  
m a  m 2 a 2  .......  m n a n 

mia i
altering CM position is m d .
m1
a CM  1 1 , a CM  i1 2
M M
 A boy of mass m is at one end of a flat boat of
a) When two particles of masses m1 and m2 are mass M and length l which floats stationary on
moving from a point with accelerations a1 and water. If boy moves to the other end,
i) The boat moves in opposite direction through
a2 at an angle  with each other, then the ml
acceleration of their centre of mass is given by a distance d   M  m 
ii) The displacement of boy with respect to ground
 m12a12  m22a22  2  m1a1  m2a2  cos  1  Ml
aCM  is d   M  m 
m1  m2
b) If they move in the same direction, then   0  A boy of mass m is standing on a flat boat floating
stationary on the surface of water. If the boy starts
m1a1  m 2 a2
and aCM  m  m moving on the boat with velocity Vr with respect
1 2 to boat, then
c) If they move at right angles to each other, then
 mVr
m12a12  m22 a22 i) Velocity of the boat w.r.t. ground is V  ,
M m
  900 and aCM  m1  m 2 ‘  ’ indicates boat moves in opposite direction to
d) If they move in opposite directions, then the velocity of the boy.
m1a1  m 2 a2 MVr
  180 and aCM  m  m
1
ii)Velocity of boy w.r.t. ground is V 
1 2 M m

40 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS CENTRE OF MASS

5. If two circular discs of radii r1 and r2 of same æqö

L
material are kept in contact then the distance of mass, x = C os çç ÷÷ .
4 èç 2 ø÷
centre of mass of system from centre of a disc of A

radius r1 is given by Proof:

C1

r1 r2
r22 (r1 + r2 ) L/4 C

x cm = 2 cm CM
x

r1 + r22
q/2
A B B
O L/4 C2
O

6. If two spheres of radii r1 and r2 of same

Note: If the angle between the two parts is 900 ,
material are kept in contact, then the distance of L
centre of mass of the system from centre of a then the shift in centre of mass is x 
sphere of radius ‘r1’ is given by 4 2
11. A circular portion of radius ‘r’ is removed from
r23 (r1 + r2 ) a uniform circular plate of radius ‘R’, then the shift
x cm = r1 r2 dr 2
r13 + r23 in centre of mass is, x = 2
cm R - r2
7. If two thin uniform rods of lengths L1 and L2
of same material are joined to form ‘T’ shape as
cm
shown in the figure, then the distance of centre of d
r
xcm
mass of the system from centre of mass of first
rod of length L1 is given by L 1

x cm Where ‘d’ is distance of C.M of removed part

L22 from centre of original disc.
x cm = L2
C

2(L1 + L 2 ) C2 12 : Similarly if a spherical portion of radius (r) is

removed from a sphere(R) to form a cavity then,
8. If two cylinders of lengths L1 and L2, radii r1
and r2 made up of same material are kept in contact then shift in centre of mass is given by
as shown in the figure, then distance of centre of
dr 3
mass of the system from the centre of first cylinder x 3
is given by R  r3

r22 L 2 æ L1 + L 2 ö
x cm = çç ÷÷
(r1 L1 + r2 L 2 )
2 2 ç
è 2 ø÷ (R-r)

L1 L2
C1
r1 x cm r2 C2

9. If a wire of length ‘  ’ is bent in the form a Where ‘d’ is distance of C.M of removed part
circular ring then the shift in center mass is from centre of original sphere.

x . 13. A square portion of diagonal equal to radius
2p
is removed from a uniform circular plate of radius
CM
R as shown in figure.Then shift in center of mass
l r
CM R
is, x s h i f t 
10. If a uniform rod of length L is bent at the mid point 2 4 p  1 
so that the two halves are inclined by an angle q with
each ot her then the shift in center of

NARAYANA GROUP 41
 CENTRE OF MASS JR-PHYSICS

 l 
of its bottom block is  
 n 1 
a a
R
R 2

14. A uniform square of side 2L is divided into

four equal quadrants. If one of the quadrent is
removed. Then shift in center of mass is
L
xshift =
3 2

 L
L 2

x

15. From a uniform square plate of side 2L, a

circular portion is removed from one of the
quadrant then shift in centre of mass is
xL
xshift =
2 (16-p)

L/2


L/ 2 
 2L
x



Note-1: The blocks are arranged in such a manner,

that each block projects out by same distance, so
that the blocks will not fall then the distance of
projection of each block from the edge of its bottom
l 
block is   .
n

l
x 
x n
x
Note-2: If the entire system is placed at the edge of a
table, so that the blocks will not fall then the equal
distance of projection of each block from the edge
42 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS ROTATORY MOTION

ROTATORY MOTION
3. Equation of motion
FORMULAS If angular velocity of a rotating body increases at
uniform rate from  1 to  2 in t sec then
1. CIRCULAR MOTION :  2  1
a) The angle swept by the radius vector in a given  2 -  1 =  t (or)  
interval of time is called angular displacement  . 2t 2
  1
22  12  2 (or)   2
 = 2  N rad, N-Number of rotations. 2
b) Rate of angular displacement is called angular 1 2
  1t   t
velocity. 2
 =  /t or  = d  /dt. 4. Centripetal acceleration (ar)
c) If T is time period and n is frequency then ar = v  = v2/r = r  2,
5 Tangential acceleration ‘aT’
 = 2  n = 2  /T
a) If a body moves in a circular path with changing
d) If the particle revolving along a circle with uniform
speed it possesses (i) tangential accelaration(aT)
speed completes n revolutions in t sec, then
(ii) radial accelaration (ar)
 = 2  n/t and (iii) angular acceleration (  )
e) Other units of  are revolutions per minute(rpm). b) aT = dv/dt. (in ms-2 )
revolutions per second(rps)
c) Resultant linear accelaration of the body
1 rps = 60 rpm
1 rpm =  / 30 rad s-1 a= a 2r  a 2T
1 rps = 2  rad s-1 If  is the angle made by ‘a’ with a r, then
f) Angular velocity of seconds hand a
Tan  = T
2 2  ar
   rad S 1 6 Centripetal force (FN )
T 60 30
Angular velocity of minutes hand a) Centripetal force
2  mv2
  rad S 1 FN = = mrω2 = mvω
60  60 1800 r
b) Tangential force Ft = mr 
Angular velocity of hours hand
2  c) For a body in non uniform circular motion,
  rad S 1
12  3600 21600 resultant force F  FN2  Ft2
In case of self rotation of earth about its own
2 2
2
axis   rad / sec  mr   mr 
2
 mr 4   2
24  60  60
g) Rate of change of angular velocity is called 7. Applications
d a) If an electron of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘e’ moves
angular acceleration  
dt around the nucleus of atomic number ‘Z’ in a circular
d d 2 d orbit of radius ‘r ’, centripetal force on it is
Note:    2 
dt dt d mv 2 1 Ze 2
2. Relation between linear and angular =
r 4π 0 r 2
variables
 Relation between linear and angular displacement b) When a planet of mass ‘m’ moves around the
is ds  rd sun in a circular orbit of radius r,
 Relation between linear and angular velocities is mv2 GMm
   centripetal force on it  2
v  r , v   r r r
 Relation between tangential and angular c) If a stone of mass m attached at the end of a
  
acceleration is a t = rα , a t = α × r string is whirled in a horizontal circle of radius ‘  ’,

NARAYANA GROUP 43
 ROTATORY MOTION JR-PHYSICS

tension in the string is equal to centripetal force

mv2 mv 2
T N sin  
 r
d) A stone is tied at the end of a string of length ‘  ’
v2
having breaking tension ‘F’. Then the safe tan   (or) v  rg tan  .
maximum angular velocity which prevents the rg
F Motion of a vehicle on a rough banked
breaking off the string is  road:
m
e) If E is the kinetic energy of a body moving in a mv 2
circular path of radius ‘r’ with uniform speed, the Case-I:If N sin   ,the vehicle possesses
r
2E
necessary centripetal force provided is F  the tendency to slip down the plane.
r
8. Circular turning on roads:
 The necessary centripetal force while taking a cir-
N cos 
cular turn is being provided to a vehicle by fol-
lowing three ways N f sin 
a) by friction only f
b) by banking of roads only 
N sin   f cos 
c) by both friction and banking of roads
 Friction only:
In this case the necessary centripetal force is pro-
vided by static friction mg

fig - (i)
v
r rg  sin    cos   rg (tan    )
vmin  
o f  cos    sin   (1   tan  )

mv 2
Case-II:If N sin   ,the vehicle possesses
 For a given radius of curvature and coefficient of r
friction, the safe maximum velocity of the vehicle the tendency to skid up the plane.
is given by vmax   s rg
N N cos 
 Banking of roads only:
N cos  
N N sin 
 f cos  
f f sin 
N sin   mg
A fig - (ii)
 Mg
O X
rg  sin    cos   rg (tan    )
N cos   mg
vmax  
 cos   sin   (1   tan  )

44 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS ROTATORY MOTION

9. Conical pendulum: 11. Motion of a Cyclist in a Death Well:

T cos   Mg ------(1) mv 2
Thus, N
T sin   Mr 2 ----(2) r
r 2 and f   N  mg
From (1) and (2) tan  
g
rg
 Vmax 

O

T 
T cos  T
mv 2 f
N
r mg
r
A
T sin 
r

Mg 12. MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE WITH

UNIFORM SPEED :
a ) A particle of mass m is rotated at uniform speed
g tan  ‘V’ in a vertical circle of radius r with the help of a

r light string.
b) If T1, T2 , T0 are the tensions in the string when
l cos  the particle is at lowest point, highest point of the
Time period of the pendulum is T0  2 g
vertical circle and at an angle  from lowest point
10. For the coin not to fly off on the turn table, of vertical circle respectively, then
the condition is mv 2 mv 2
T 1=  mg ,T2=  mg
r r

mv 2
T 0=  mg cos 
r
c) The difference between maximum and minimum
tensions in the string
T1 - T2 = 2mg
d) A vehicle of mass m is travelling with uniform
speed V along a concave road and then a convex
road of same radius of curvature r. If R1 and R2
are the normal reactions on the vehicle at the lowest
point of the concave road and highest point of the
convex road respectively then
mv 2 mv 2
mv 2 R1 = mg+ and R2 = mg 
   s mg r r
r e) Maximum speed of the vehicle at the highest
point of convex shaped bridge so that the vehicle
does not leave the surface of the bridge is
Vmax= gr
NARAYANA GROUP 45
 ROTATORY MOTION JR-PHYSICS

13. MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE WITH e) minimum tension at angle ‘  ’ from lowest point,
NON - UNIFORM SPEED :
To = 3mg(1+cos  )
1. A particle of mass ‘m’ suspended by a thread is
given a horizontal speed ‘u’, when it is at ‘A’, it 6. When a particle of mass ‘m’ is rotated in a vertical
moves in a vertical circle of radius ‘r’ circle of radius ‘r’ with critical speeds with the
B help of a light string, then
a) Its total energy = (5/2) mgr
r b) At the lowest point, KEmax = (5/2) mgr
O C c) At the highest point, KEmin = (1/2) mgr
T
q P d) between lowest and highest points  KE=  PE=
A q mg Cosq 2mgr
mg sin q
mg 7. A simple pendulum of length ‘L’ is having a bob of
mass ‘m’. Let the bob is given
2. When the angular displacement of the particle is a velocity ‘u’ along the horizontal direction.
‘  ’, ie when the particle is at p.
a) If u  5gL , the bob describes verticle circle of
a) Speed of the particle
radius L.
v= u 2  2 g r (1  C o s  ) where u is the
velocity at A, the lowest point b) If u  2gL then
b) Centripetal force mv2/r=T - mg cos  i) the bob oscillates about the mean position
e) Tangential accelaration = g sin  ii) the angle with the lower vertical at which velocity
f) Tangential force = mg sin 
g) Tension in the string T=mv2/r + mg Cos 

 u 2 
becomes zero is cos   1 
 2gL 
 
i) if VA and VB are the velocities of the particle at iii) the height at which velocity becomes zero is
the lowest (A) and highest (B) points of
the vertical circle then u2
h
VA2 -VB2 = 4gr 2g
3. If TA and TB are the tensions in the string when the c) If 2gL < u < 5gL , then
particle is at lowest point and highest point of the
vertical circle then i) the bob neither performs oscillations nor describe
vertical circle but the bob travels inside the vertical
mv 2A
TA =  mg (maximum tension) circle
r
mv 2B ii) the angle with the lower vertical at which the
TB =  mg (minimum tension) tension in the string becomes zero is
r
4. The difference between maximum and minimum  2gL  u 2 
cos    
tensions in the string  3gL 
 
TA - TB = 6mg
5. Conditions to be satisfied to complete the vertical
circle by the particle iii) the height at which tension in the string becomes

a) minimum tension, TB = 0  u 2  gL 
zero is h   
b) minimum velocity at the highest point, VB = gr  3g 
 
c) minimum velocity at the lowest point, VA = 5gr
8. The mass of the bob of a simple pendulum of length
d) minimum velocity at an angle '' from ‘L’ is ‘m’ . The bob is projected horizontally from
lowest point, Vo = 3gr  2gr cos 

46 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS ROTATORY MOTION

its mean position with velocity ‘u’ and is put in then cos  = 2/3
vertical circular motion . Then the tension in the
string at angular displacement  is d) velocity of the block at that instant is

mu 2 2gr
 mg( 2  3 cos )
V
T=
L 3
e) If the block is given a horizontal velocity ‘u’ from
(or) T = Tmax– 3mg(1 – cos) the top of the smooth convex hemisphere then the
where T max = mg + mu2/L angle  with vertical at which the block leaves the
9. A ball of mass ‘M’ is suspended vertically by a hemisphere is
string of length ‘l’. A bullet of mass ‘m’ is fired 2 u2
horizontally with a velocity ‘u’ into the ball, sticks cos   
to it. For the system to complete the vertical circle, 3 3gr
the minimum value of ‘u’ is given by u = 13. A small block of mass m is oscillating along smooth
concave hemispherical bowl of radius r with an
M  m 5gl angular amplitude  . If R1, R2 are the normal
m
reactions on the block at the mean and extreme
10. A nail is fixed at a certain distance x vertically below positions repectively and V is the speed of the block
the point of suspension of a simple pendulum of at the mean position then
length L . The bob is released when the string
makes an angle  with vertical . The bob reaches V  2gr (1  cos )
the lowest position then describes a vertical circle R1 = mg + mv2 / r = mg ( 3 - 2 cos  )
whose centre coincides with the nail . then
R2 = mg cos 
L(3  2 cos )
x min  14. Rigid body dynamics
5 Torque  moment of force (  )
  (or)
11. A body of mass ‘m’ is allowed to slide down from   rF
rest, from the top of a smooth incline of height ‘h’.   Fr sin  .
For the body to loop in a loop of radius ‘r’ on arriving 15. Principle of moments:
at the bottom, N
a) Minimum height of smooth incline d1 d2
 5r 
h=   F1 F2
2  For rotational equilibrium take the moments about
b) ‘h’ is independent of mass of the body the fulcrum; the sum of moments must be zero,
12. A small block is freely sliding down from the top of d1 F1  d 2 F2  0
a smooth convex hemisphere of radius r, placed Load arm x load = effort arm x effort
on a table with its flat face on the table . then  The ratio F1 / F2 is called the Mechanical
a) Normal reaction on the block is zero at the
Advantage
instant the block leaves the hemisphere. F d
M . A.  1  2
F2 d1
b) the vertical height from the table at which the 16. Moment of inertia or Rotational inertia
block leaves the hemisphere is h = 2r/3 a) For a particle of mass ‘m’ rotating at a distance
r from the axis of rotation. I = mr2
c) If the position vector of the block with respect
b) Moment of inertia of a group or a system of
to the centre of curvature makes an angle  with
particles is
vertical when the block leaves the hemisphere,

NARAYANA GROUP 47
 ROTATORY MOTION JR-PHYSICS

I  m1r12  m 2r22  ....  m n rn2 d - perpendicular distance between the parallel

axes
I   mr 2
M - mass of the body
where m1,m2, ---- mnare masses of particles & b) K 2  K c2  d 2
r1, , r2 ---- rn are their perpendicular distances Where Kc = radius of gyration about the
from axis of rotation.
axis passing through centre of mass
c) For a rigid body I = M K2 K = radius of gyration about the parallel
K is called radius of gyration axis
18. Perpendicular axes theorem. (Valid for lamina only)
r12  r22     rn2 a) Iz = Ix + Iy
K
n Iz - MI of the body about z - axis
17. Parallel axes theorem Ix - MI of the body about x - axis
a) I = IC + Md2 Iy - MI of the body about y - axis
I - MI of the body about any axis b) K 2z  K 2x  K 2y
IC - MI of the body about a parallel axis passing Where Kx,Ky,Kz are radii of gyration about
through centre of mass x,y,z axes respectively

19. Moment of inertia of some regular bodies

S.No. Body Axis of rotation Moment of Radius of
inertia (I) gyration (K)
1. Thincircular ring a) Passing through centre and MR2 R
of mass M & radius R normal to its plane
b) any diameter MR2/2 R 2
c) any tangent in its plane 3MR2/2 3R 2
d) any tangent perpendicular 2MR2 2R
to its plane
2. Thin circular disc a) Passing through centre and MR2/2 R/ 2
of mass M and radius R normal to its plane
3. Thin hollow cylinder a) about the natural axis MR2 R

of mass M, radius R and b) perpendicular to the axis  L2 R 2  L2 R 2

M   
length L of cylinder and passing through  12 2  12 2
 
its centre
c) Passing through line of contact 2MR2 2R
of cylinder with floor when it is
rolling
 L2 R 2  L2 R 2
d) perpendicular to the axis of cylinder M   
 3 2  3 2
and passing through one end  
4. Solid cylinder of mass a) about the natural axis MR2/2 R 2
M, radius R and length L

48 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS ROTATORY MOTION

5. Thin hollow sphere of a) about the natural (or) 2MR2/3 2R/ 3

mass M, radius R diametrical axis
b) Passing through any tangent 5MR2/3 5R 3

6. Solid sphere of mass M a) about the natural (or) 2MR2/5 2R 5

and radius R diametrsical axis
b) About any tangent 7 MR2/5 7R / 5
2
7. Thin uniform rod of a) Perpendicular to the length of ML / 12 L/2 3
mass M and length L rod and passing through its centre
b) perpendicular to the length of ML2/ 3 L/ 3
rod and passing through its end
8. Thin uniform rectangular a) perpendicular to the plane and M ( L2  b 2 ) L2  b 2
plate of mass M, length L passing through its centre
12 12
and breadth b
9. Thin square plate of mass a) perpendicular to the plane and ML2/ 6 L 6
M and side length L. passing through its centre
b) perpendicular to the plane and 2ML2/ 3 2L 3
passing through a corner
c) any axis passing through the ML2/12 L 2 3
center and in the plane of plate

20. Angular momentum L : 23. a) Work done by a torque :

L  r x p If a torque  rotates a body through a small angle
a) For a particle in circular motion L = mvr = mr2 
d  , then the work done is dw =  d  .
b) In case of rotational motion of rigid body
 The total work done in rotating the body from
  I   I .d  / d t  d L / d t 2
21. Law of conservation of angular momentum :
 1 to  2 is w    d
a) When there is no external torque acting on a rigid
1
body, L = I = constant b) Work energy principle :
I1 I The work done by the constant net torque on a
I11  I22 or I1n1  I2n2 or  2 body is equal to the change in its rotational K.E.
T1 T2
b) If two rigid bodies with angular velocity 1 and 1
W I(22  12 )
2 are coupled and  is the final angular velocity 2
of the arrangement, 24. Power of a torque
I11  I22   I1  I2   The rate at which work is done by a torque
or I1n1  I2n2   (I1  I2 )n P = dw/dt =  d  /dt =  
c) In above case loss in the rotational KE of the system 25. Rolling of a body without slipping on a horizontal
is surface
a) the body possesses both translational and
1 I1I2
(w1 - w2 )
2
rotational kinetic energy.
2 I1 + I2 b) Total energy of the body
22. Rotational KE E = KEtrans+ KErot
2
1 L 1
KE rot = I 2 =  L 1 1 1 K2
2 2I 2 = mVc + I  =
2 2
mVc (1+ 2 )
2
2 2 2 r

NARAYANA GROUP 49
 ROTATORY MOTION JR-PHYSICS

where Vc = velocity of center of mass 27.Comparision of translatory and rotatory motions

K = radius of gyration and r = radius Translatory Rotatory
c) Fraction of energy associated with transla-tional 1. Linear displacement (s) Angular displacement (  )
motion = 1/ (1 + K2 / r2) 2. Linear velocity (V) Angular velocity(  )
d) Fraction of energy associated with rotational 3. Linear acceleration (a) Angular acceleration(  )
motion = 1/ (1 + r2/k2) 4. mass (m) moment of inertia (I)
e) If V is the velocity of centre of mass of a 5. Linear momentum Angular momentum
rolling body, then the velocity of its highest point is (P = mv) (L = I  )
2V and that of lowest point is zero (With respect to
6. Force (F= dp/ dt) Torque (  = dL/dt)
observer out side)
7. work ( w  F ds)
 work ( w   d)
26. When a body rolls down without sliding on an
inclined plane with inclination  and height ‘h’ 8. Linear KE Rotational KE

a) Acceleration of the body (E=mv2 /2 = p2/2m) (Er = I  2/2=L2/2I)

9. work-energy theorm work-energy theorm
g s in 
a=  -- inclination of the plane 1 1 1 2 1 2
1 K 2 /r2 FS  mv 2  mu 2   I2  I1
b) Velocity acquired by body on reaching the bottom 2 2 2 2
10. power (P=Fv) power (P=   )
2gh
V h - height of the incline. 11. Impulse ( I  F dt )
 Impulse ( I    dt )
1  k2  r 2
Equations of motion
c) Time taken by the body to roll down the inclined
plane 1. V = u + at  2 =  1+  t
2. S = ut + at2/2 = (u+v)t/2  = 1t+  t2/2=(1+ 2) t/2
2
1 2h  K 
 3. V2 –u2 = 2as 22  12  2
t 1 2
sin  g  r 
 4. Sn = u +a (n–1/2)  n  1  (n  1 / 2)
28. A body rolls on a smooth horizontal surface with
mg sin  speed v and then rolls up a rough inclined plane
d) frictional force =
(1  r 2 / K 2 ) of inclination  .
tan 
e)  s 
(1  r 2 / K 2 )
Body K2/r Accelaration Velocity at
the bottom 
Rolling ring (or)
Hollow cylinder 1 (1/2) g sin  gh The height reached by the body before coming
Disc (or) v2  k 2 
to rest is given by h  1  
Solid cylinder 1/2 (2/3) g sin  4gh 3 2g  r 2 
Solid sphere 2/5 (5/7)g sin  10gh 7 7v 2
a) For solid sphere, h 
10 g
Hollow sphere 2/3 (3/5)g sin  6gh 5 5v 2
b) For Hollow sphere, h  6 g
3v 2
c) For Disc (or) Solid cylinder, h 
4g
v2
d) For Ring (or) Hollow cylinder, h 
g
50 NARAYANA GROUP
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GRVITATION
FORMULAS L
 = constant
2m
Kepler’s Laws : L = constant
 Kepler’s first law or law of orbits: A planet  As angular momentum is conserved,
of mass m is moving in an elliptical orbit around m(Vmax )(rmin )  m(Vmin )( rmax )
the sun(S) of mass ‘M’, at one of its focii.
V m ax 1 e
 
rp rA V m in 1 e
Here, V perihelion  Vmax and Vaphelion  Vmin
M m 2b  Kepler’s third law or Law of periods : The
P S O A square of period of revolution of a planet around
the sun is proportional to cube of the average
distance of planet (i.e., semi major axis of elliptical
C a
orbit) from the sun.
rmax  rmin 1  e  a  1  e  a
SO rmean   a
 Eccentricity of the elliptical path e  2 2
OA
Hence, T 2  a 3
c
e   c  ea where ‘ a ’ is length of semi major axis of ellipse
a In case of circular orbit,
 From fig, rp  a  c  a  ea  a 1  e  r3
T 2  4 2  T 2  r3
Similarly ra  a  c  a  ea  a 1  e  GM
 From conservation of angular momentum at A and
Newton's Law of Gravitation:
The magnitude of gravitational force of
P, we have mV p rp  mVA rA attraction between two point masses is given
Vp rA 1  e m1m2
  by F  G
VA rp 1  e r2
 From conservat ion of energy, we have Where G is universal gravitational constant

 1 e 
GM GM  1  e    Gm1m2   Gm1m2 
VA   1  e  and V p   In Vector form F  r r
 a  a  1  e  r2 r3
 
Kepler’s second law or Law of Areas: Here r is the unit vector in the direction of r and
 dA  ‘-’ sign indicates that the force is attractive.
 Areal Velocity of radius vector   joining the
 dt  Relation Between g & G
planet to sun remains constant. Mathematically GM 4
g  2  p RGr
dA R 3
 constant M – Mass of the planet or heavenly body
dt
R – Radius of the planet or heavenly body
dl
r – Uniform density of the planet or
d heavenly body
sun r p

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Variation of ‘g’ with altitude: Gravitational field strength (or) Intensity

If R is the radius of the earth, M is the mass of the of Gravitationl Field:
earth and h is the altitude, then  Gravitational field strength at any point in a
GM GM gravitational field is defined as the gravitational
i) g h  2   r  R  h force experienced by a unit mass placed at that
r ( R  h) 2
point.
 2h  
ii) If h<<R, then g h  g 1    F
 R
iii) Fractional decrease of ‘g’ for smaller altitude is  Gravitational field strength, E g  m
0
g 2h

g R Note: In the earth's gravitational field,
iv) Fractional loss of weight for smaller altitude is  
 F m g 
0
W 2h Eg   g
 m0 m0
W R Null Point :
Varification of ‘g’ with depth:
 If two particles of masses m1 & m2 are separated
 d  
i) g d  g 1    g  4 p RG r 
 R  3  by a distance r, the distance of null point from m1
is given by
( r is the mean density of the earth)
r
ii) Fractional decreases of ‘g’ and weight of an object x
according to depth 'd' is m2
1
m1
W g d
  Field due to Circular Ring:
W g R  Gravitational field intensity due to a uniform circular
Variation of ‘g’ with latitude (effect of rotation ring of mass M at any point at a distance ‘x’(from
of earth) the centre of the ring) on its axis is
i) If ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity when the GMx
earth does not rotate and g  is the acceleration Eg  3/ 2

along PO
due to gravity at an attitude ‘ ’ due to rotation of
x 2
R 2

earth, then g  =g-R  2cos2  (  is angular
velocity of rotation of earth)
ii) As  increases, g also increases dE sin 
dE
iii) At equator g0= g-R  2 (min)
R
the value of g at equator depends on angular dE cos  
velocity of earth 0 
p
dE cos 
iv) At poles g90=g (max)
Variation of g according to shape of the earth.
dE dE sin 
GM 1 x
As g  2  g  2
R R
i) gmin at equator, because Rmax Field due to Circular Disc:
 Gravitational field intensity due to a circular disc
ii) gmax at poles, because R min of mass M at any point on the axial line
iii) The value of ‘g’ gradually increases from
equator to poles.

52 NARAYANA GROUP
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Q At a point on the surface of the solid sphere,

GM
R
R 2  x2 ( Eg ) surface 
R2
 for r  R 
Eg  At a point outside the solid sphere,
p
O x
 E g outside  GM
r2
 for r  R 
E g  0 (at infinite distance)
Gravitational Potential:
2GM  The amount of work done in bringing a unit mass
or E g  1  Cos 
R2 from infinity to a certain point in the gravitational
Field due to Hollow Sphere (or) field of another massive object is called as
Spherical Shell (E or I): gravitational potential at that point due to massive
 Gravitational field intensity due to a uniform object.
spherical shell  Let W is the work done and m0 is the test mass
E
W
then V 
m0
GM 1 Potential due to a Point Mass:
E
R2 r2  The gravitational potential at a point P which is at
a distance r from a point mass M is given by
r GM M r
R V  o P
At a point inside the spherical shell, r
Potential due to Circular Ring:
E  g inside  0, E  g centre
 zero
 Gravitational potential due to a circular ring, at a
At a point outside the spherical shell, distance r from the centre and on the axis of a ring
GM of mass M and radius R is given by
E  g surface

R2
(here r = R)
GM O r P
V 
GM 2
R r 2 R

E  g outside
 2 (here r > R)
r
GM
Field due to Solid Sphere(uniform mass At r = 0, V  
R
, i.e., at the centre of the
density): ring gravitational potential is 
GM
Gravitational field intensity due to a solid sphere R

E Gravitational Potential due to a Spherical

GM
Shell:
1
E
R 2 E r r2 Let M be the mass of spherical shell and R is its
radius
r GM
R V 
r
E g  0 ( at the centre of solid sphere )  At a point inside the spherical shell, (If r < R)

GMr
( Eg )inside 
R3
 for r  R 

NARAYANA GROUP 53
 GRAVITATION JR-PHYSICS

3 GM 3
 At the centre, x=0  Vc    Vsurface .
2 R 2
GM R  The variation of V with x is as shown:
Vinside  r
R O
Centre
3 GM
2 R
V
 At a point on the surface of the spherical shell, GM m surface
GM R
V su r fa c e 
R
(If r = R) Inside
Outside
GM
Vcentre  (r = 0 at centre)
R x
Relation between gravitational field and
GM
Vinside  Vsurface  Vcentre  
, potential:
R  Gravitational field and the gravitational potential
 At a point out side the spherical shell,

r are related by E  gradientV  gradV
  V  V  V  
GM E  i j k
Voutside  (If r > R)
M
 x y  z 
r R 
Note:a) If E is given V can be calculated by the
r r  
 At infinity, V  0
 The variation of magnitude of V with r is as
formula V   dV

   E. dr

shown ( For a spherical shell ) Gravitational Potential Energy of Two
V Particle System:
 The gravitational potential energy of two particles
GM
 of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r is
R
r
R Gm1m2
given by U  
r
Gravitational Potential due to a Solid Gravitational Potential Energy of Three
Sphere: Particle System:
 At a point inside the solid sphere, Consider a system consists of three particles
of masses m1, m2 and m3 located at A, B and C
GM
Vinside  3
(3R 2  x 2 ) respectively.Total potential energy ‘U’ of the
2R
m m 
 1 2 m2 m3 m1m3 
 3
Vinside  GM 
x2 
 3  (if x<R) system is U  G  r  r  r 
 12 23 13 
 2R 2R 
Gravitational Potential Energy of a body
 At a point on the surface of the solid sphere,
in Earth’s Gravitational Field:
GM  If a point mass ‘m’ is at a distance r from the centre
Vsurface  (If x=R)
R GMm
 At a point out side the solid sphere, of the earth, then, U  
r
GM  On the surface of earth,
Voutside  (If x>R)
x
54 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS GRAVITATION

GMm GM  ‘M’ and radius ‘R’


U surface     mgR  g  2 
R  R  Case I: If the velocity of projection v  ve then, the
 At a height ‘h’ above the surface of earth, body goes to certain maximum height and is given
by,
GMm
Uh  
Rh R
 h
 Work done in lifting a body of mass m from earth  v e2 
surface to a height h above the earth’s surface is  2  1
v 
1 1  mgh
W  U h  U surface ; W  GMm    Case II:-If the velocity of projection v  ve then, total
R Rh h
1 energy of the body just becomes zero, so that the
R body just escapes from the planet and goes to
 Gravitational potential energy at the centre of the infinity and the body possess zero velocity at
earth is given by infinity.
3 GMm Case III:- If a body is projected with a velocity greater
U c  mVc  
2 R
than the escape velocity  v  v e  ,
3 3GM i.e., the body will move in interplanetary or
Here, Vc  Vs  (It is minimum but not
2 2R
zero. However ‘g’ at centre of earth is zero) interstellar space with a velocity v 2  v 2e
 Change in the gravitational potential energy in Orbital speed of Satellites: The velocity of a
lifting a body from the surface of the earth to a satellite revolving around the earth of mass M and
height equal to ‘nR’ from the surface of the earth radius R in a circular orbit of radius 'r' at a height
GMmh GMm(nR ) GMmn mgRn 'h' from the surface of earth is called orbital velocity.
U    
R ( R  h) R ( R  nR) R(n  1) n  1
Escape Velocity:
 The minimum velocity required for a body in order GM GM gR 2
vo   
to escape from the gravitational field of a planet is r  R  h  R  h
defined as escape velocity.
If Ve is the escape velocity from the surface of the GM
Angular velocity   3
2GM  R  h
planet then Ve 
R
( R  h )3 ( R  h)3
Time period T  2  2
4  GM gR 2
Also Ve  2 gR and Ve  2   R  G  R
3   For a satellite orbiting very close to earth.
(Where  is the mean density of the planet) GM
Escape Velocity of a body From certain height h  R then, v o  R
 gR

above the surface of a planet:  Relation between escape and orbital velocities is
2GM ve  2 v0
 ve   2 gh  R  h 
Rh  If the satellite revolves close to the earth surface,
Here, g h is acceleration due to gravity at height h. (h<<R),then, Time period of revolution,
Behaviour of a Body Projected Vertically Up R
T  2  84.6 min =1.41 hr
with Different Velocities from the Surface of a g
Planet:
3
 Consider a body of mass ‘m’ projected with a (or) T 
G
velocity ‘v’ from the surface of a planet of mass
NARAYANA GROUP 55
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Frequency of Revolution(n): The number of

revolutions made by the satellite in one second is
called the frequency of revolution(n).
1 1 GM 1 GM
n  
T 2 r3 2 ( R  h )3

1 gR 2  GM 

2 ( R  h )3  g  R 2 

Angular Momentum: The angular momentum

of the satellite is given by
G M
L  m v 0r  m r  GM m 2r
r
Energy of Orbiting Satellite:
 The potential energy of the system is
 GMm
U
r
 The kinetic energy of the satellite is,
1 1  GM  GMm
K  m v 20  m   or K 
2 2  r  2r
GMm
 The total energy is E  K  U  
2r
Binding Energy:
The energy required to remove the satellite from
its orbit to infinity is called binding energy of the
system.
1 2 GMm
mV0   B.E .  0
2 r
GMm
Binding energy (BE) 
2r
PE PE KE
 For a satellite  2 ,  2,  1
KE TE TE
PE : KE :TE 2:1: 1
Change in Orbit of a Satellite:
 Energy required to shift a satellite from an orbit of
radius r1 into an orbit of radius r2 is
GMm  1 1 
E  E 2  E1    
2  r1 r2 

56 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS OSCILATIONS

OSCILATIONS
FORMULAS 1
 Reciprocal of time period is frequency. f 
T
1. Representation of S.H.M.
In general the simple harmonic motion is 5. Displacement of SHO :-
represented as Y = A sin (  t +  ) At any time t,displacement y  A sin t   
Y = instantaneous displacement
The argument t    of the above function is
A = Amplitude
(  t +  ) = phase ;  is called initial phase. called the phase of motion.
6. Velocity of SHO :
(i) if the motion starts from Mean Position
dy
 =0 Velocity v   A cos  t   
dt
(ii) If the motion starts from the extreme position
v   A2  y 2 ,
 =  /2
2 A
2. A simple harmonic motion can be expressed by at Mean position v is maximum, vmax  A 
periodic functions like sinwt, coswt or combination T
of these functions. at extreme position v is minimum, vmin  0
Y = A sin wt + B cos wt dv
3. S.H.M. can also be represented in the following 7. Acceleration of SHO : - a 
dt
ways 2
a   A sin t     a   y 2

md 2 y
i) F = –ky F = ma = amax  A 2 (at extreme positions)
dt 2
2
dy d2y  k  amin  0 (at mean position)
F = m. 2 = – KY or 2 +   y  0
dt dt m 8. Restoring force :-
4. Quantities characterise a SHM are: As F  m2 x  K  m 2
Amplitude(A): A body of mass ‘m’ is placed on a balance which
 It is maximum displacement from mean position
is present on horizontal platform executing SHM
 If ‘s’ is span of SHM, amplitude A will be s/2. If
in vertical plane with amplitude A and period T.
the coordinates of extreme position of SHO are
(x 1, y1, z 1 ) and (x 2,y 2,z 2 ) then mean position extreme position
coordinates are
y a
 x1  x 2 y1  y 2 z1  z 2 
 , ,  , and amplitude is mean position
 2 2 2 
2 2 2
 x2  x1    y 2  y1    z 2  z1 
extreme position
A
2
a) When the displacement of platform is ‘y’ above
Time period (T): the mean position then the reading of balance is
 It is the time taken by the particle to complete
one oscillation. R1  m  g   2 y   mg  R1  ma , So R1 is

T
2 minimum when y = A  R1  min = m  g   2 A 

Frequency ( f ): b) When the displacement of platform is ‘y’ below
 The number of oscillations made by the vibrating mean position then reading of balance is
2
body in one second is known as frequency. R2  m  g   2 y  and  R2  max  m[ g   A ]
For body not to loose contact

NARAYANA GROUP 57
 OSCILATIONS JR-PHYSICS

l
g A T = 2  g for smaller amplitudes
max  ; Tmin  2
A g
l
 A body is present on a rough horizontal platform iv) T  l or 2 = constant (at a place)
T
which is executing SHM with an amplitude A and L - T graph for a simple pendulum
period T. If the coefficient of friction between
platform and body is '  ' then the condition for
no sliding of body on the platform is
g 1 g
 max  fmax  ;
A 2 A L-T2 graph for a simple pendulum
A
Tmin  2
g l
9. Simple Pendulum T  2
g

2 4 2 4 2
T  l y = mx Slope m =
g g
v) for percentage calculation of Time period, when
i) The tension in the string at any position is equal
mv2 % increase in length is given.
to T = mg cos  +
l  T2   l2 
* When the bob is it extreme position, V = 0, a)  T 1 =  l  1)  100%
then Tension is the string is minimum  1   1 
Tmin = mg cos  T 1
b) for smaller percentages, 100 =
* When the bob is at mean position  = 0, then T 2
l
Tension is the string is maximim 100
l
mv 2 vi) When a simple pendulum is arranged in a lift
Tmax = + mg
l moving up with an acceleration 'a', its time period

(V = 2gl (1  cos ) at mean position  decreases.
If q is the angular amplitude of a simple pendulum l 1 ga
T  2 and frequency n
then the maximum tension in the thread is ga 2 l
When a simple pendulum is arranged in a lift
Tmax  mg 1  q 2  A= linear amplitude
moving down with an acceleration'a' its time period
  A 2  increases.
 mg 1    
   l 1 g a
  T  2 and frequency n
ii) Equation of motion of a simple pendulum in ga 2 l
d2y In the freely falling lift a=gT=  n=0
differntial form is 2 + w2y = 0 Therfore pendulum doesnot oscillate
dt
w2 = g/l When the lift is stationary or moving up or down
iii) (a) Time period of a simple pendulum with constant velocity, its time period doesn't
change. (acceleration a = 0)

58 NARAYANA GROUP
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l l2, are get into vibration in the same direction at

T  2 1 g the same instant with same phase. Again they will
and frequency n
g 2 l be in same phase after the shorter pendulum has
vii) When a simple pendulum is arranged to the completed n oscillations. To find the value of n,
roof of a car moving horizontally with an n TS = (n – 1) TL and T  l
acceleration'a' its time period decreases.
l a n T n l
T  2   L or  L
2 2 ; Tan  = n  1 TS n 1 ls
g a g
S - shorter L - Longer
q  angle between the thread and the vehical of
the mean position 10. Seconds pendulum : (i) The simple pendulum
viii) When a simple pendulum is arranged to the whose time period equal to 2 seconds is called
roof of a car moving with a constant speed v in a seconds pendulum.
circular path of radius 'r' its time period decreases. ii) Its length at place where g = 9.8 m/s2 is 100
cm.
1 iii) Since T = 2 sec
T  2 2
2 g.T2 g g
g 2   Vr  L= 2 L= 2
.4  L  2
  4 4 
ix) When a simple pendulum is arranged into the iv) The length of a pendulum at a place where g=
roof of a car moving down a smooth inclined plane g1 is l1 and its length at a place where g = g2 is l2
To keep the time period constant at T = 2 sec, its
of inclination  its time period increases.
length has to be decreased or increased
l corresponding to the value of 'g' at that place
T = 2  g cos 
g g
x) If a simple pendulum is arranged in an artificial Decrease in length = 1 2 2 (if g1 > g2)

satellite its time period becomes infinity. g 2  g1
xi) If the length of the pendulum is considerably Increase in length = (if g2 > g1)
2
2 11. Spring - Mass system :
T i) Restoring force F = –kx
large 
g 1l  R1  ii) When the load is pulled down and released, it
R = radius of the earth makes vertical oscillations
l = length of the pendulum.
If the length of the pendulum is infinite i.e., l = 
T = 84.6 minutes.
If the length of the pendulum is equal to radius of
the earth, then its time period is
R
T = 2 = 59min & 5 sec.
2g M
xi) A simple pendulum fitted with a metallic bob T = 2 F = Kx Mg = Kx
K
of density ds has a time period T. when it is made
to oscillate in a liquid of density dL then its time M x x
 T = 2
period increases. K g g
l
iii) If mass of the spring is considered,
 d  m
l M
T = 2 g l  d  T = 2 3 (m = mass of the spring)
 s 
k
xii) When two simple pendulum of lengths l1, and Spring oscillates on its own weight then time

NARAYANA GROUP 59
 OSCILATIONS JR-PHYSICS

m b) When they are joined in parallel to the same

period T  2 (M = 0) mass, time period of new arrangement Tp is given
3k
by
iv) Spring constant 'K' is inversely proportional
to its length. 1 1 1 T1T2
   Tp 
v) When a spring of force constant K and length Tp2 T12 T22 T12  T22
l is cut into two parts of lengths l1 and l2 having xii) Two masses m1 and m2 are suspended from a
force constants K1 and K2 spring of spring constant 'k'. When the masses
1 are in equilibrium, m1 is gently removed, then
K or kl = k1l1 = k2l2
l a) The angular frequency of oscillation of m2 is
vi) If a spring of spring constant 'K' is divided
into 'n' equal points, then the spring constant of k
each part is 'nK'. m2
vii) If a spring of spring constant 'K' and length 'l' m1g
is cuts in to two springs of lengths 'l1' and 'l2', then b) The amplitude of oscillation of m2 is
k
12. Coupled Oscillator :
the spring constants of the two parts is A system of two bodies connected by a spring so
K (l1  l2 ) K (l1  l2 ) that both are free to oscillate simple harmonically
K1  and K2  along the length of the spring constitutes a coupled
l1 l2 oscillator.
viii) When a spring of force constant K is cut into
two equal parts each part will have a force m1 m2
constant 2k. 0
ix) When two springs of force constants K1 and
kx -kx
K2 are connected in series. Then the effective m1 m2
force constant is x
x1
x2
For coupled oscillator


K 2    m1 m2
K 1K 2 and T   2 ,
K   K m1  m2
K1  K 2
Thus two - body oscillator is equivalent to a
single body oscillator with a reduced mass  .
x) When two springs of force constants k1 and k2
are connected in parallel. The effective spring
constant is K = k1 + k2 13. Show In Pure Rolling :
 A body of radius ‘r’ and mass ‘m’ rolls on a
curved path of radius ‘R’ as shown in the figure.
When it is displaced slightly and left free to itself
it oscillates. While oscillating it rolls without slip-
ping. In this case time period of oscillation.
xi) For the same mass attached, the time periods
of two different springs T1 and T2
a) Whey they are joined in series to the same
mass, time period of new arrangement Ts is given
by Ts  T12  T22

60 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS OSCILATIONS

iv) During one complete vibration average potential

energy is given by
R 1 2 2
= m A
4
15. Kinetic Energy :
(i) The K.E. of a particle in S.H.M is given by
1
r K.E. = mw2 (A2 – y2)
2
Kinetic energy- displacement graph
T  2
 R  r 1   
g

k2
where   2 , is rolling factor. Where k is 1
r = mw2A2 cos2 (wt  f)
2
radius of gyration about centre of mass. Kinetic energy - time graph
Note: In the above case if curved surface is fric-

R  r
tion less then T  2
g
 A body shown in the figure has mass ‘m’ and ra- ii) At mean position (y = o) K.E is maximum
dius R can roll without sliding on a horizontal sur- iii) At extreme position (y = A) K.E. is zero.
face. The period of its small oscillation
iv) During one complete vibration average kinetic
m 1   
T  2 1
K Energy is = mw2A2
4
16. Total Energy :
(i) T.E. = P.E. + K.E. = (1/2)mw2A2
Total energy - time graph

14. Potential Energy :

(i) The P.E. of particle in
Total energy displcement graph
S.H.M. is given by
1 1
P.E = mw2y2 = mw2A2 sin2 (wt  f)
2 2
Potential Energ - time graph
ii) When a particle is in S.H.M. At any position
T.E. is constant.
17. Time periods of various harmonic oscillatons
1) SHM of a liquid in U tube :
Potential energy - displacement graph If a body of density  contained in a vertical
U tube performs S.H.M. in its two limbs. Then
time period

ii) At mean position (y = 0) P.E. is minimum. L h h

iii) At extreme position (y = A) P.E. is maximum. T  2  2
2g g
NARAYANA GROUP 61
 OSCILATIONS JR-PHYSICS

where L = Total length of liquid column,

R 3
h = Height of undisturbed liquid in each limb ( T  2  84.6 min ( or ) T 
g GD
L = 2h)
2) SHM of a floating cylinder : D  Mean density ofthe earth.
If a cylinder of mass ‘m’ and cross section ‘A’ is G  Gravitational constant.
floating in a liquid of density ‘s’ with length ‘l’ inside the
liquid. is slightly depressed and released, if oscillation 7. Angular SHM - Torsional Pendulum
with a time period
wire
l
disc


m m
T = 2  2 Time period of oscillation of torsional pendulum is
K Ag
I
l T  2 where C is called torsional constant.
T = 2 C
g
‘I’ is the moment of inertia of the body
3. SHM of a floating body
8. Physical Pendulum (or) Compound
A piece of wood has dimensions a, b and c. Its
Pendulum:
relative density is ‘d’. It is floating in water such that
the side ‘a’ is vertical. If it is pushed down a little and
then released, the time period of oscillation will be P
ad
T = 2
g 
4. SHM of a small ball rolling down in hemi- d
spherical bowl

R-r d sin 
N
T = 2 G
g

R = Radius of the bowl Mg
r = Radius of the ball time period of oscillation of compound pendulum is
5. SHM of a piston in a cylinder :
I
T  2
Mgd
Mh ‘I’is moment of inertia about axis of rotation
T = 2 ‘M’is mass of physical pendulum
PA
‘d’ is perpendicular distance from axis of rotation
M = Mass of the pistion to centre of gravity of pendulum.
A = area of crosssection
h = height of cylinder
P = pressure in a cylinder
6. When a hole is drilled along the diameter of the
earth and if a body is dropped in it, it moves to
and fro about the centre of the earth and is in SHM
with a time period of
62 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

FORMULAS to strain.

1. Stress : stress
= E = constant
strain
The restoring force developed per unit area of the
deformed body is called stress E is modulus of elasticity

Re storing force F 6. Young’s modulus :

Stress = cross sec tional area  A
longitudinal stress Fl
Y 
F = External force applied longitudinal strain Ae
A = r2 = area of cross section
Mgl
If load is M, then F = Mg and y= where r is
r = radius of the wire pr 2 e
2. Stress is of three types : radius of the wire.
i) Longitudinal stress i) The stress required to double the length of a
wire or to produce 100% longitudinal strain is equal
ii) Tangential stress to Young’s modulus of the wire.
iii) Bulk stress ii) Y of a perfectly elastic material is infinite and
3. A hollow cylinder of inner and outer radii r1 and that of a perfectly inelastic material is zero.
r2 respectively is placed vertically on the iii) If a load ‘M’ produces an elongation e in a
horizontal surface, stress at the bottom of the wire, the rise in temperature required to produce
mg the same elongation is t . Then
cylinder is   r 2  r 2  Mg  YAa t
2 1
where A is area of cross section of the wire
4. Strain : and  is coefficient of linear expansion of the
The deformation produced per unit magnitude is material of the wire.
called strain iv) when a metal bar is fixed between two walls
has a rise in temperature, the bar tries to expand
change in length l
a) longitudinal strain = original length = and exerts force on the walls. This force is called
l
thermal force.
changein volume v Thermal force F = Y A a q
b) Bulk strain = originalvolume = v where  is co-efficient of linear expansion of the
c) Shearing strain =  = bar
isrise in temperature.
lateral displacem ent between tw o layers
Y is young’s modulus,
perpendicular distance betw een the tw o layers
A is area of cross section.
change in radius r Thermal force is independent of length of the bar.
d) Transverse strain = original radius = r v) Thermal stress : Thermal force per unit area
is called thermal stress
e) Shearing strain = 2 x longitudinal strain
Thermal force YA
f) Bulk strain = 3 x longitudinal strain Thermal stress = area
= A
= Y
g) Longitudinal strain : shearing strain : Bulk strain Thermal stress is independent of area of
=1:2:3 cross section and length of the bar.
vi) A long wire suspended vertically can elongate
5. Hooke’s law : due to its own weight.
 Elongation of a wire due to its own weight
Within the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional

NARAYANA GROUP 63
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS JR-PHYSICS

combination behaves as a single wire then its

 2d g
e young's modulus is
2Y
2Y1 Y2
l =length of the wire, d=density of the wire Y
Y = young’s modulus of the material of the Y1  Y2
wire
xiv)Two wires of same length and radius are joined
g = acceleration due to gravity
in parallel and loaded. If the youngs moduli of the
vii) Two wires made of same material having
materials of the wires are Y 1 & Y2 and the
lengths l1 & l2 and radii r1 and r2 are subjected
combination behaves as a single wire then its
to the same force. Then the ratio of their
young's modulus is
elongations is
e1 l1 r22 l Y1  Y2
  2 (since e  2 ) Y
e2 l2 r1 r 2
viii)Two wires made of same material having
xv) A block of mass m is suspended with a wire
lengths l 1 and l 2 and masses m1 and m2 are
of length l and of uniform area of cross section at
subjected to the same force. Then the ratio of their
one end, other end is connected to a rigid support
elongations is and is rotated in vertical circle, the elongation of
e1 l12 m2 l2 the wire when the mass is at highest and lowest
 2 (since e  ) points is
e2 l2 m1 m
v2
ix) Two wires of same material and same
volume having areas of cross section A1 & A2 are T2
mg
subjected to the same force. Then the ratio of their
elogations is
e1 A22 1 T1
 (since e  2 )
e2 A12 A v1
x) Two wires of same material and same mg
volume having radii r1 and r2 are subjected to the  Tension in the wire when the mass is at lowest
same force. Then the ratio of their elongations is mv12
r24
point is T1  mg 
e1

1 
(since e  )
e2 r14 r4 F  T1
xi) When a body of mass 'm' and density 'dB' is  elongation e1  AY  AY
suspended from a wire its elongation is 'e' when it  Tension in the wire when the mass is at highest
is in air. If it is completely immersed in a non- mv22
viscous liquid of density dL then its new elongation point is T2   mg

is F  T2 
dL  elongation e2  AY  AY
e1 = e(1–
dB )  If it just completes the vertical circle
xii) Two wires of same length and radius have v1  5 gl and T1  6 mg
youngs modulii Y1 & Y2 are subjected to the same
Tangential stress F
force. Then the ratio of their elongations is 7. Rigidity modulus, n = =
shearing strain A
e1 Y2 l
 (since e  ) where  is shearing strain
e 2 Y1 Y i) If n is low for a wire then it can be twisted
xiii)Two wires of same length and radius are joined
very easily.
end to end and loaded. If the youngs modulii of the
materials of the wires are Y 1 & Y2 and the ii) Since phosphorbronze has very low

64 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

rigidity modulus, it is used as suspension wire in (d = density of material)

moving coil galvanometer. 12. Isothermal bulk modulus of a gas = pressure of
iii) A force F is applied tangentially on the upper the gas (P)
face of a cube of side length L by fixing its lower Adiabatic bulk modulus of a gas = P
face. If l is the displacement of the upper face and where  is the ratio of two specific heats.
A is the area of the upper face, A  L2 . 13. Compressibility : The reciprocal of bulk modulus
FL FL F is called compressibility, C = 1/K
 Rigidity modulus,   Al  2  Ll .
Ll For incompressible substances , C = 0; K =  .
8. A rod of length 'l' and radius 'r' is fixed at one end. If 14. Possion’s ratio () =
the other free end is twisted through an angle ''
then the angle of shear  is given by lateral contraction strain  r/r 
= 
longitudinal elongation strain  l /l 
f  r q
The Poisson’s ratio of a given material is '  '. When
the load is applied on it, the longitudinal elongation
l
strain is . Then the fractional change in its
l
volume is
V l
9. One end of the rod is fixed. The other free end is  1  2s 
V l
twisted through an angle '' by applying a torque
15. Breaking stress :
'' then the work done on the rod (or) energy stored
in the rod is Breaking Force
i) Breaking stress = initial area of cross section
1 ii) Breaking force = Breaking stress x area of
W 
2 cross section.
where  is in radians. iii) A very long wire suspended vertically can
10. Torsion of a cylinder : break due to its own weight
When one end of a cylinder of length 'l' and radius The maximum length of a wire that can hung
'r' is clamped and the other end is given a twist without breaking under its own weight is
'  ', then the restoring torque is given by Breaking Stress
l
 nr  dg

2l 16. Work done in stretching a wire,
Where 'n' is the modulus of rigidity of the material 1
of the cylinder. w= 2
x stretching force x extension.

volume stress VP 1 1 YAe 2 1 F2l 1 F2l

11. Bulk modulus K = = i) w = Fe = = =
volume strain V 2 2 l 2 AY 2 r 2 y

i) If a block of coefficient of cubical expansion ii) w = 12 x stress x strain x volume of the wire
 is heated through a rise in temperature of , the
work done
pressure to be applied on it to prevent its iii)  volume
(a strain energy per unit volume or
expansion, P  K g q where K is its bulk modulus. 1
elastic potential energy per unit volume) = x
ii) When a rubber ball of volume V, bulk modulus 2
K is taken to a depth h in water, then decrease in stress x strain 2
1  Stress
1
h d gV = x Y x (strain) = 2
2
2
Y
its volume V  iv) Area under F-e graph gives the work done or
K
the strain energy stored in the wire. Area = 12 F.e
=W

NARAYANA GROUP 65
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS JR-PHYSICS

17. Springs :
i) A spring that obeys Hooke’s law has force
constant or spring constant
Fl YA
Y= Ax
; F= x and F = Kx
l
x is elongation
Where K is called the force constant or spring
constant. It is the force needed to stretch a wire
YA
or spring over unit distance. i.e., K =
l

1
ii) Potential energy of a stretched spring = 2

1 1 F2
Fx = 2
Kx = 2

2 K
iii) Two springs have force constant K1 and K2
a) When they are stretched by the same force
and if their elastic energies are
E K
1 2
E1 and E2 then =
E K
2 1
b) When they are extended by the same length,
E K
1 1
=
E K
2 2
c) When they are extended till their energies are
F K1
1
same then = K2
F
2

K K
1 2
e) Springs in series, Keff =
K +K
1 2
f) Springs in parallel , Keff = K + K
1 2
g) The reciprocal of spring constant is called
compliance.
18. Relation among elastic constants
Y, ,K:
9 1 3 9 K
   (or) Y 
Y K  3K  
3 K  2
 Y  2 (1   ) ; Y  3K (1  2 ) ;   6 K  2

66 NARAYANA GROUP
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS JR-PHYSICS

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

FORMULAS  If container is accelerated at ‘a’, at some angle
 with the horizontal,
Pressure:
 Static pressure is the normal force experienced
F
per unit area of cross section. P  ax
A tan  
g  ay
 The average pressure on the surface area A
F
due to a normal force F is Pavg  ax = a cos   horizontal component
A
 The pressure at the bottom of the container due a y = a sin   vertical component
to liquid column of height ‘h’ is P  hg , where  = angle of inclination of free surface of the liquid
‘  ’ is the density of the liquid. with horizontal
Pascal’s Law:
 If atmospheric pressure( Po ) is considered, then
Mechanical Gain: It is the ratio of output
net pressure at the bottom of the container is
P  Po  hg  F2 
force to input force (or) Mechanical gain =  F 
 1 atmospheric pressure = 1.01325x105 pascal,  1
1 bar=760mm of Hg=76cm of Hg=0.76m of Hg, Hydraulic lift :
1 torr = 1 mm of Hg.
Gauge pressure, Absolute pressure:
The Absolute pressure at a depth ‘h’ in a
liquid co lumn is given by P = P 0 + h  g
where P-absolute pressure,P0-atmo.
pressure
h  g - hydrostatic pressure(gauge pressure)
 - density of liquid, Pabsolute = Patm+ Pgauge
Pressure difference when liquid is
accelerating in vertical direction:
(i)When liquid column is in uniform acceleration
upwards , P= h  (g + a)
(ii)When liquid column is in uniform acceleration
downwards , p = h  (g - a) F1 F2 A
 If a U shape tube is moving horizontally with an P    F2  F1 2
A1 A2 A1
acceleration ‘a’ as shown in the fig. then
Density:
 The density of a body is defined as the ratio of
mass of the body to the volume occupied by it.
mass M
density = 
volume V
h a
tan    Density of a mixture:
l g  When two liquids of masses m1, m2 and densities
1 ,  2 respectively are mixed then the effective
density of the mixture is

NARAYANA GROUP 67
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS JR-PHYSICS
M total m1  m2 body
 
W = mg  V b g
Vtotal V1  V2
(ii) The upthrust (force of buoyancy) acting
m1  m2  m  m2  1 2 upwards through centre of gravity of displaced
  1
 m1 m2  m1  2  m2 1 liquid called centre of buoyancy FB  V l g
  
 1  2  1) If  b   l  W  FB  body sinks
Note :
2) If b  l  W  FB  body just floats
2 1 2 3) If
 If m1=m2 then     
1 2 b  l  V b g  Vin l g  V b  Vin l
 When two liquids of volumes V1, V2 and densities  body is partially immersed or floats partially..
1 ,  2 respectively are mixed together, then the Tension in the string connected to a
submerged body :
resultant density of the mixture is
When the body hangs by light string and b  l
M totalm m1  m2 V1 1  V2  2
   
VtotalV V1  V2 V1  V2

1   2
Note: If V1 = V2 then,  
2
Variation of density with pressure
With increase in pressure, volume drecreases
density incrases:
 p  1
r0  r 1      0 1  p    0 1  p 
 K   k   k 

where  0 = density at NTP

 = density at desired pressure
 p = increase in pressure
K = Bulk Modulus
Buoyancy:
 A body of volume V and density b is floating
with a volume V in inside the fluid of density  l .
then V b g  Vin l g
weight of the body = weight of the liquid
displaced(due to body submerged in the liquid).
 A body of mass M and volume V is floating in a
liquid of density  l with some volume in air. Too
make it to just sink, the mass ‘m’ to be placed on
it is given by mg  Vg l , where V is the
volume of body that was initially outside the liquid.
Floatation:
 When a body of density b and volume V
immersed in a liquid of density  l then forces
acting are
(i) The weight of body acting vertically
downwards through the centre of gravity of the
Case-I : When the system is at rest or moving
with uniform velocity (a=0) in vertical direction
The tension in the string T = Apparent weight
of the body.
T  W  FB  V b g V l g  V  b  l  g
Case-II: When the system is accelerating
vertically upward with an acceleration a. Tension
T  V  b  l  g  a 
Case-III : If the system is accelerating vertically
downward with an acceleration a ( a  g )
T  V  b  l  g  a 
a) Relative density(Specific gravity) of a solid:
density of the body
RD = (or)
density of water at 40C
weight of the body
= (or)
upthrust exerted by water
weight of the body in air
= loss of weight of body in water
w1
R.D. = w -w ; w1 = weight of the body in air
1 2

NARAYANA GROUP 68
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS JR-PHYSICS
w2 = weight of the body in water
(or) kinematic viscosity m : It is
Loss of weight of body in water = w1- w2
b) Relative density of a liquid: defined as the ratio of coefficient of
If loss of weight of a body in water is ‘a’ and that viscosity to density of the fluid.
in liquid is ‘b’ then, V  w g  a; V  L g  b h
m
L r
RD of liquid =  Poiseulli's formula
w
1. According to Poiseullis, the
Loss of weight in liquid b Wair -Wliquid volume of liquid flowing through a
= = = capillary tube per second is given
Loss of weight in water a Wair -Wwater
Fraction of volume of the body outside the by
liquid: π P r4
V = ,
A body of volume V and density  b is floating in a 8h l
liquid of density  with volume Vin immersed in where r = radius of the capillary
the liquid tube,
P = pressure difference across the
 V  b = Vin 
ends of the tube
 b  l = length of the tube
=> Vin = V  
 2. Fluid resistance : From poiscuille's
 b  equation the volume of liquid coming
 Vout = V -Vin = V 1    out per sec
 
V out  b 
 1   pr 4 P p , where R =
fout = V =  = 
V   8l  8l  R
The Rate of Flow of a Liquid:  4
The rate of flow of a liquid means the volume of a  πr 
liquid that flows across any cross section in unit
time and is given by 8 l
is called fluid resistance
Volume V l πr 4
Q   A    Av ( v =vel. of the fluid)
time t t (Similar to that
Mass of the liquid that flows per unit time i = V/R in electricity)
Capillary tubes in series
M Volume l 
=  density = A     Av When two capillary tubes are
t time t  connected in series across constant
Where A is the area of cross section of the tube, pressure difference 'P' the fluid
v is the velocity of the liquid and  is the density resistance R` = R1 + R2
of the liquid.
Critical velocity (VC)
1. Reynold's formula for critical
velocity : 8  1 8 2 8   1   2 
Kh R = r 4 +  r 4 =  4 
  r1 r24 
VC  where K= Reynold's
1 2

rr volume of liquid flowing per second

number, is same through both capillaries,
 = coeff of viscosity,  = density p
of the fluid, r=radius of the pipe. p p   
V =  = 8  14  24 
Coefficient of viscosity (  ) R R1  R 2  r1 r2 
dv Here P = P1– P2 = (P1 – P0) + (P0 –
F =  A
dx P2)
Coefficient of dynamic viscosity Capillary tubes in parallel
When two capillary tubes are
NARAYANA GROUP 69
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS JR-PHYSICS
connected in parallel across 1
constant pressure difference 'P' the the liquid = 2  V2
fluid resistance is given by
where  = density, V = velocity
1 1 1 RR c) Potential energy per unit volume
= +  R 1 2
R R1 R2 R1  R 2 of the liquid =  gh.
2. The sum of the pressure energy,
1   r14 r2 4 
=    kinetic energy and gravitational
R 8  1  2  potential energy per unit volume at
any point in a stream line flow of a
fluid is constant.
1
is, P +  V2 +  gh = constant :
2
In 'this case the volume of fluid p V2
or  + h = constant
flowing per second in each tube is g 2g
different, but pressure difference P
p
= P1 ~ P2 is same Here is called pressure head, h
Total volume flowing per second V = g
V1 + V2 v2
is called gravitational head and
4 4 2g
 p  r1 r2 
V =    is called velocity head.
8   1  2 
3. For a horizontal tube, h = 0, p
of same liquid flows through two V 2
indentical cappillary tubes of + = constant.
different presssures. 2
4. Pressure in a fluid at a depth h is
V1 p P = Po + hdg. This is called static
= 1 (When l, r are constant) pressure [Po = atmospheric pressure]
V2 p2
1 2
If the fluid through two different 5.  V is dynamic pressure
tubes of same pressure difference, 2
V1
4
 r1  Dynamic lift:
=   . The upward lift experienced by a body in motion
V2  r2  in a fluid is called dynamic lift.
Equation of continuity
1
For an ideal liquid passing through Dynamic lift =  P2  P1  A =  . V12  V22   A
2
a tube of non-uniform bore, the Torricelli theorem
product of area of cross-section and
velocity of the liquid is constant.
A1V1 = A2V2 h
H v
Where V1 and V2 are the velocities
of the liquid at areas of cross-
section A1 and A2of the tube. R
Bernoullis theorem :
1. A fluid possesses three types of    2gh
energy. V is called velocity of efflux.
a) Pressure energy = work done in  Time taken by the efflux liquid to reach the ground
displacing the liquid = PAl. 2 H  h
Pressure energy per unit volume is given by t  g
PAl 2( H  h )
of the liquid = = P, Range, R = V
Al g
pressure
Range is maximum when, h = H / 2
b) Kinetic energy per unit volume of
NARAYANA GROUP 70
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS JR-PHYSICS
 The volume of the liquid coming out of the orifice
per second is Q  Av  A 2 gh =  r 2 2 gh
 A tank having an area of cross
- section A is filled with
water upto height ' H ' . and ' A0 '
is the area of cross - section
of hole at the bottom of tank.
If A0 is the area of orifice at
a depth‘y’ below the free
surface and A is that of
container, then the volume of 2g  1h1   2 h2 
liquid coming out of the v1 
1
orifice per second will be Stoke's law - Terminal velocity
as v  2 gy 
 dV / dt   vA0  A0 2gy 1. A spherical body when dropped in a
  fluid, it sets up relative motion
The time taken for the level to between different layers of the
fall from H to H1 fluid. The viscous force developed
A 2 increases with increase in velocity
H  H   and opposes the fall of the body.
A0 g  2. When the sum of the viscous force
 Time after which level of water and up thrust of the liquid on the
H body is equal to its weight, the
falls from H to is body then begins to fall with a
2
constant velocity, known as terminal
A 2 H velocity(VT)
t1   H  
A0 g  2  3. According to stoke, the viscous
 Time after which water level force =
H 6 
r VT. Where  = coeff. of
falls from to '0' is viscosity of the fluid, r = radius
2
of the body and VT terminal
A 2  H  t 2 1 velocity.
t2    0  1 
A0 g  2 t2 1 4
 4. Upward thrust on the body = pr3s g
 A tank is filled with water of 3
where  = density of fluid
4 3
density 1 and oil of density weight of the body = p r  g where
3
 2 . The height of water column  = density of the body.
for terminal velocity
is h1 and that of the oil is h2 . 4 3
The velocity of efflux through 6 r Vt = pr (r  s ) g
3
a hole at the bottom of the 2 r g r  s 
2

tank is obtained as follows  Vt 

9 h
According to Bernoulli’s 2
theorem 2
Vt1 r 
5. Vt  r    1 
Vt 2  r2 
6. When 'n' droplets are falling down
with their terminal velocities 'V'
are combined and formed a big drop,
then terminal velocity of big drop

NARAYANA GROUP 71
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS JR-PHYSICS

is Vbig  n V
2 /3

Volume of big drop = n  volume of

small drop Vbig = n. V
4 4
.R 3  n. r 3 R = n1/3. r.
3 3
Surface Tension
 The force per unit length normal to any imaginary
line drawn on the free surface of a liquid is known  Force required to pull a circular disc of radius R
as surface Tension. with hole of radius r from the surface of water of
F surface tension T is F  2 R  r T
T
l
Applications of force due to surface tension
:
 Force required to pull a wire of length ' l ' from
the surface of water of surface tension T is
F=2 l T

Surface energy : The potential energy per unit surface

 Force required to pull a circular disc of radius R
from the surface of water of surface tension T is
F  2 rT
area of the liquid (or) workdone to increase surface
area of liquid by one unit is surface energy.
Surface energy is numerically equal to surface
tension under isothermal conditions.
W J
T= ; W   T
A m2
- Work done in blowing a drop of radius (R) is
W  4 p R 2T
- Work done in increasing the radius of the drop from

W = 4p (R 2 - R1 ) T
2 2
R to R is
1 2

- Work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius (R)

W = 8 p R 2T
 Force required to pull a thin circular ring of radius
r from the surface of water of surface tension T is Work done in increasing the radius of bubble from
F= 4 r T R to R is W = 8 p (R 2 - R1 ) T
2 2
1 2

 When a large drop of radius (R) splits into n

 Force required to pull a rectangular plate of length
' l ' and breadth 'b' from the surface of water of
surface tension T is F  2l  b T
number of identical small drops each of radius
(r), then
i) total surface area increases
ii) energy must be supplied or work must be done
iii) If splitting occurs in adiabatic conditions, the drop
uses its internal energy for splitting. So the
temperature of drop decreases. So droplets cool.

iv)A=4R2 [n1/3 - 1]  W  4 R 2 T n 1 / 3  1 
 When (n) small drops of radius (r) merge to form
a big drop

NARAYANA GROUP 72
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS JR-PHYSICS
i) energy is released during merging h mgh 2 T 2 cos 2 
ii) surface area decreases U  weight    (when r
2 2 dg
iii) in adiabatic conditions, temperature of drop
is very less than h )
increases
iv) Energy released during merging  When capillary tube is dipped in a beaker
containing liquid, rise in liquid is h. If the tube
W = 4 r2n2/3 (n1/3-1)T
is tilted through an angle () with the vertical,
4 3
v) If V   R  volume of big drop then
3
i) the liquid rises into the capillary tube remains same
3VT 1/3  n1/3 1 ii) length of liquid column rise increases
W
R
 n  1  3VT   
 R R

h
 1cos a1   2 cos a2
cos a
1 1 
W  3VT     When the arrangement containing a capillary tube
r R dipped in beaker containing water is taken to height
 Surface energy of a film W = 2AT (x) above the ground
 Between two glass plates a water drop is squeezed
to form a thin film of thickness (d) and surface area
hg = h1g [ 1 -  2xR ] [Where R is radius of the earth]
(A). The force required to separate the two plates. h R - 2x
1 = R
h
2AT
F.d = 2AT  F= d  If the radii of the two limbs of a U-tube are r1 and
 The radius of the bore of a capillary tube is r r2 , the difference between the levels of a liquid
and the angle of contact of the liquid is  . 2T  1 1 
when the tube is dipped in the liquid, the radius in ‘u’ tube is h  dg  r  r  (if r1<r2 <<h)
 1 2
of curvature of the meniscus of liquid rising  If two parallel plates with the spacing ‘t’ are
r
placed in water reservoir, then height of rise
in the tube is R  Cos q 2T  mg  Vg  htg (  density of the
liquid)
 Capillarity : The rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary
2T
tube due to surface tension is called capillarity. h
tg
Capillarity is due to both cohesive and adhesive
forces.
2rT cos = r2hdg
hrdg 2T co s q
T=  h 
2cos  rd g

1 1 1
h   1/ 3
r A V
Where A is area of cross section of capillary tube.
V is the volume of the liquid.
 Volume or mass of liquid rises into capillary tube is  If two concentric cylinders of radii r1 & r2 (inner
directly proportional to radius of capillary tube. one is solid are placed in water reservoir,
1 1 T cos   l1  l2   mg
V r2.hr2.  h  
r  r 
T  2r1  2r2    r22 h  r12 h  g   00 
Vr
 Gravitational Potential energy of a liquid that rises
in a tube is
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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS JR-PHYSICS
2T  Total pressure inside an air
h bubble, which is just below
 r2  r1  g (if r1<r2 <<h)
2T
a liquid surface, Pt  Po 
R
 Total pressure inside an air
bubble, which is at a depth
“h” below the liquid
2T
 A drop of liquid of density d1 is floating with half surface, Pt  Po  h  g 
R
immersed in a liquid of density d 2 . If T is the  A capillary tube is dipped
surface tension of the liquid, then the radius of in a liquid, such that lower
end is at a depth h2 below
the drop is  if   00  ;
liquid surface and capillary
Fsurfacetension  Fbuoyancy  mg rise is h1 above liquid
2 4 surface. Pressure required
2 rT cos    r 3 d2 g   r 3 d1 g to blow an air bubble at the
3 3
lower end of tube is
3T
r
 2d1  d 2  g
 A capillary tube is vertically dipped in a liquid.
The height of the liquid in the tube is ‘h’ and the
total set up is kept in a lift.
i) If the lift is moving up with an acceleration ‘a’
then the height of the liquid in the tube is given by
 g 
h  h  
g  a Pt  Po   h1  h2   g
ii) If the lift is moving down with an acceleration ‘a’
2T
then the height of the liquid in the tube is given by (or) Pt  Po  h2  g 
R
 g   When two liquid drops of radius R and R merge
h  h   1 2
g a to form single drop under isothermal condition,
iii) If the lift is falling freely the height of the liquid 4 R2 = 4 R 2 + 4 R 2
1 2
raised in the tube is equal to full length of the tube
available,but not over flow. Radius of larger drop R  R 12  R 22
 g   Small bubble touching big bubble then radius of
h  h     ( is not true in such situations) curvature of common interface,
g  g
EXCESS PRESSURE
r1 r2
- Excess pressure in liquid drop (or) an air bubble R
r2  r1
2T
inside liquid P=
R
4T  A bubble of radius (r ) is inside another bubble of
1
- Excess pressure inside soap bubble P = R radius (r ). The radius of a single bubble whose
2
(2 surfaces) excess pressure is equal to difference in pressures
1 between inside of inner bubble and outside the outer
P  1r   1
1/3
A V
A is surface area of bubble r1 r2
R
V is volume of bubble bubble, r1  r2

NARAYANA GROUP 74
 JR-PHYSICS THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER - I

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER-I

FORMULAS C

5
1. CONVERSION OF TEMPERATURE Slope 
9
FROM ONE SCALE TO ANOTHER : F
O 320 F
C0 F  32 R 0
   -17.780C
100  0 212  32 80  0
Ra  492 K  273.15 ZX
  A plot of Celsius temperature (C) versus
672  492 373.15  273.15 Y  X
Fahrenheit temperature (F)
C F  32 R Ra  492 K  273.15 2. GENERAL METHOD OF MEASURING
   
5 9 4 9 5 TEMPERATURE.
Let X0, X100 and Xt be the parameters at ice
C F R Ra K point, steam point and unknown temperature,
   
5 9 4 9 5 respectively. Since the thermometric property is directly
proportional to temperature difference, the unknown
Faulty or New
Fahrenheit

temperature can be estimated using the equation

Reaumur

Rankine
Celsius

Kelvin

 X  X 0  0
t   t 100 C
373.15K

 X 100  X 0 
6722Ra
2120F
100 0C

80 R
UFP

Y0
3. Constant volume gas thermometer:
C F R Ra K Z Explanation : If P0, Pt, and P100 be the pressures
of a gas at constant volume corresponding to
100div

temperatures 0°C, toC and 100°C respectively, then

180div

212div

100div
80div

Y-X

 P  P0 
t t 100C
 P100  P0 
LFP

32 F

273.15K
4920Ra
0 0C

X0
0 0R

4. Constant pressure gas thermometer:

F Explanation:If V0 , Vt and V100 be the respective
212 F 0
volumes of a gas in the thermometer at constant
pressure corresponding to temperatures 0°C, t°C and
9
Slo pe  100°C respectively, then
0
5
32 F

 V  V0 
17.780 C O 100 0 C C t t 100C
 V100  V0 
A plot of Fahrenheit temperature (F) versus
5. Resistance thermometers :
Celsius temperature (C)
Explanation: If R 0 , R t and R 100 be the
resistances of the platinum wire at temperatures 0°C,
t°C and 100°C respectively, then

NARAYANA GROUP 75
 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER - I JR-PHYSICS

directions respectively then the average coefficient

 R  R0 
t t 100C x   y  z
 R100  R 0  of linear expansion is  
3
6. Measurement of temperature based on triple  Numerical value of coefficient of linear expansion
point of a solid is C when the temperature is measured
In modern thermometry instead of two fixed in Celsius scale and its value is  F when the
points only one reference point is chosen which is triple temperature is measured in Fahrenheit scale then
- point of water (temperature at which ice, water and 5 9
water - vapour co-exist) and has been assigned a)  F     C (or)  C     F
9 5
arbitrarily a value 273.16K. So if the value of thermo-
 A composite rod is made by joining two rods of
metric property at 0 K, 273.16 K and TK K is 0, XTr different materials and of same cross section. If
and X respectively, linear variation of themometric
l1, l2 are their initial lengths at t1 C , then
property with temperature requires.
(a) the increase in length of composite rod at t2 C
 X 
i.e., TK  273.16  X  K is given by l   l11  l2 2  t2  t1 
 Tr  b) The effective coefficient of linear expansion of
When a constant volume gas thermometer is used l1 1  l2  2
to measure temperature of a body then the composite rod is given by   l1  l2 .
 P   If two metal rods of coefficients of linear
TK  273.16   K
 PTr 
  expansions 1 and  2 have same length at t1 C
Where P= pressure of a given amount of gas at T and t2 C respectively, then the common
kelvin temperature at which they have again the same
PTr= pressure of a given amount of gas at triple 1t1   2t2
length is t
point of water 1   2

Expansion of Solids  If two rods of same length l having different

7. Coefficient of Linear Expansion: coefficients of linear expansion 1 and  2
 The ratio of increase in length of a solid per degree
rise in temperature to its original length is called
 1   2  are at the same temperature t1C then
coefficient of linear expansion (  ) a) difference in their lengths at higher temperature
l 2  l1 t2 C is given by l  x  1 2  l  t2 t1 
  / 0C
l1  ( t 2  t1 ) Variation of moment of inertia of the
length of the solid after heating body
 2   1 1    t 2  t1   with temperature
 When the temperature of body increases from T
 Increase in length l  lt to T + T its moment of inertia increases from I
l to I + I , fractional change in M.I. of the body is
 Fractional change in length  t
l I
l  2  T
Percentage change in length  100  t  100 I
l  A sphere of coefficient of linear expansion  ,
 For anisotropic solids, if x , y and  z are mass m and radius r is spinning about an axis
coefficients of linear expansions along x, y and z through its diameter with an angular velocity 1 .

76 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER - I

If the temperature of the sphere increases by t   :  :    : 2 : 3  1: 2 : 3

then its new angular velocity is 2 .   
  
2  1 1  2t  . 1 2 3
11. Variation of density of substance with
 The diameter of a metal ring is ‘D’ and the
temperature
coefficient of linear expansion is  . If the
If  t and  0 are densities at t0 C and 00 C.
temperature of the ring is increased by t then
the increase in circumference of the ring 0
t = (or)  t = o (1+γt)-1 .
D (1+γt)
C  Ct  2rt  2   t  Dt
2 12. Applications:
Increase in circumference   Dt  Between the rails a gap is left to allow for their
8. Coefficient of Areal (or) Superficial expansion in summer. If l is the length of the rail
expansion: and t is the change in temperature then the gap
The ratio of increase in its area per degree rise in is given by  l  l   t
temperature to its original area is called coefficient  A wire of length l is bent in the form of a ring
of areal expansion (  ). with a small gap of length x1 at t10C. On heating
the ring to t20C the gap increases to x2 in length.
The coefficient of linear expansion of wire
A2  A1
 / 0C x x
A1  (t2  t1 )  2 1
x1 (t 2  t1 )
Final area A2= A1[1 +  (t2-t1)]  Same Expansion In Different Rods:
If two rods of different materials have the same
difference between their lengths at all temperatures
 Change in area A  At . only when their linear expansions are equal.
A l1  l2 ; l11t  l2 2 t
 Fractional change in area  t
A l1  2
Percentage change in area Then l11  l2 2 , l  
2 1
A
 100  t  100 if the constant difference in their lengths is x
A then
9. Coefficient of volume expansion:
 The ratio of increase in its volume per degree rise x 2 x1
l1  , l2 
in temperature to its original volume is called 1 ~  2 1 ~  2 , x  l2 ~ l1
coefficient of volume expansion  .
 An equilarteral triangle ABC is formed by
V V joining three rods of equal length and D is
  2 1 / 0 C ; V =V [1 +  (t -t )]
V1 (t 2  t1 ) 2 1 2 1
the mid point of AB . The coefficient of linear
 Change in volume V  V1  t 2  t1  . expansion for AB is a1 and for AC and BC is
V
 Fractional change in volume   t a2 , if distance DC remains constant for small
V
V changes in temperature the relation
 percentage change in volume 100  t 100
between a1 and a2
V
10. Relation among  ,  , :
   2 ,   3

NARAYANA GROUP 77
 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER - I JR-PHYSICS

each other at 00C. When heated to t0C the strips of

different metals expand differently. So, the bimetallic
strip bends. The radius of curvature of strip A is r1 and
that of B is r2.

1
4 2  1
A
 A uniform pressure P is exerted on all sides
of a solid cube at t0C. By what amount should the d B At 0 0 C

temperature of the cube be raised in order to bring 2

its volume back to the value it had before the r1 f r2
pressure was applied ? (K is bulk modulus and 
is coefficient of linear expansion)
r1  r2 d

P V P
Sol. K   V / V  ie V  K numerically 2 a1  a2  t
r1  r2
V V 1 is the average radius of curvature of the
but V  t or t  V   2
bimetallic strip when heated. It is denoted by r.
P P d
ie t   r
K 3K a1  a2  t
15. Measuring Tapes:
13. ANISOTROPIC EXPANSION
 If lm is the measured reading of the length of a
Some times the value of a is different in all three body at t20 C and lc is the correct length of the
dimensions in a solid say 1 ,  2 , 3 then in that case body at calibration temperature t1C then
the value of g is given as
z lc  lm 1  S b   t 2  t1  t2  t1 
a3
where S ,  b are the coefficients of linear
expansions of the scale and the body respectively.
  1   2   3 a1 x
 When scale expands correction to be made
l  lt Correct reading  l  l (t2> t1)
a2
 When scale contract correction to be made
y
l  lt Correct reading  l  l (t2< t1)
The average value of b for an anisotropic solid l= measured value
16. Pendulum Clocks:
2
is b  a1  a2  a3  . Variation of Time Period of Pendulum Clocks :
3
l0
The average value of a for an anisotropic solid T0  2
g
a1  a2  a3  If temperature is increased by  t,
is a  .
3
l0 (1   t )
14. Bimetallic Strip T  2
g
Let A and B be two straight strips fastend parallel to

78 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER - I

 Pendulum clocks looses time in summer and gains

time in winter
1
The loss or gain per day = αΔt  86400 Sec.
2
17. Grid Iron Pendulum:
The total expansion of brass rods should be equal
to that of steel rods . l1  l2
n1l11  n2l2 2
18. Thermal Stress:
 A rod of length l0 clamped between two fixed
walls. For t Change in temperature
Young’s modulus
F / A Fl0 F
Y  
l / l0 Al At (  l  l 0  t )
F
or  Y  t
A
 Thermal force F  YAt .
Thermal force is independent of length of rod.
 Thermal stress  Yt
 For same thermal stress in two different rods
heated through the same rise in temperature,
Yl1  Y2 2
19. Barometer With Brass Scale:
 Relation between faulty and actual barometric
heights is given by
h 2 =h1[1+( Hg -s ) (t 2 -t1 )]

h1= height of barometer at t10 C where the scale

is marked.
h2= height of barometer at t2 0 C where the
measurement is made.
 Hg = real coefficient of expansion of mercury
 s = Coefficient of linear expansion of scale

NARAYANA GROUP 79
 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER - II JR-PHYSICS

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER-II

FORMULAS t0C let its density vary from r0 to rt . Then the relation
becomes
EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS r0  rt r  rt
 gR   0
1. COEFFICIENT OF APPARENT rt t  0 rt t 
EXPANSION OF A LIQUID 5. APPLICATIONS OF EXPANSION OF
Explanation : Let V1 be initial volume of given mass LIQUIDS
of a liquid at temperature t10C and V2/ be the apparent
volume of liquid at t20C   A can be determine by using specific gravity
bottle method
Coefficient of apparent expansion = mass of the liquid expelled
Apparent increase in volumeof liquid A 
mass remained  change in temperature
Initial volume of liquidrise of temperature
m1 = mass of empty bottle
V V1
|
m2 = mass of the bottle with liquid
ga  2

V1 t2  t1  m3 = mass of the bottle with remaining liquid

mexp = m2 - m3 ; mremain = m3 - m1
v 2/  v1 1  g a t 2  t1   15.2 t  rise in temperature
2. COEFFICIENT OF REAL OR m2  m3
A  /0 C
ABSOLUTE EXPANSION OF A LIQUID  m3  m1  t
Coefficient of real expansion  Same liquid in differnet vessels
If the same liquid is heated in two vessels X and
Real increaseinvolumeof liquid Y, real expansion of liquid is independent on
 nature of the vessel, then
(Initialvolumeof liquid)(riseof temperature)
 R   AX  3 X and   R   AY  3Y
v v
R  2 1  0 –1  AX  3 X   AY  3Y 
v1  t 2  t1  C
 AX   AY  3(Y   X )
v2  v1 1   R  t 2  t1    15.4 Here  AX ,  AY denote coefficients of apparent
expansion of liquid in vessels X and Y
3. RELATION BETWEEN THE respectively.
COEFFICIENTS OF REAL AND APPARENT X and Y are coefficients of linear expansion of
vessels X and Y respectively.
EXPANSIONS OF A LIQUID
 Volume of Liquid Expelled:
 R  a   g A container of volume VC at temperature t10C is
g R  g a  3a  g g  3a  completely filled with a liquid. If the container is
heated to t20C, then volume of liquid over flown
4. VARIATION IN DENSITY OF A
is V1 = initial volume of the liquid = initial volume
LIQUID WITH TEMPERATURE
of the container

r1  r2 0 –1 V2(liquid )  V1 1    (t2  t1 ) 
 gR  
C
r2 t 2  t1  V2(container )  V1 1   c (t2  t1 )
Similarly, when the liquid is heated from 00C to Volume of liquid over flow is

80 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER - II

V2 l  V2 c  V1 ( l   c )(t2  t1 ) v 2  v1 v  v0 v 2  v1

  t 
 Condition for unoccupied volume present v 0 (t 2  t1 ) v0 t v1t 2  v2 t1
in a container containing liquid to remain 2. Pressure Coefficient of a gas at constant volume
constant. () :-
p2  p1 p p p p
 (or)   t 0 (or)   2 1
u n o c u p ie d p0 (t 2  t1 ) p0t p1t 2  p2t1
v o lu m e
L iq u id
3. Boyle’s law:-

Let Vc and V are volumes of container and liquid p1 p2

ie, P1V1 = P2V2 = . . . . (or)  =....
. Also g c and g  are co-efficients of expansion of d1 d 2
4. At constant temperature, when the pressure of a
container and liquid respectively. gas is increased by x%, percentage decrease in
VC g C  V g  100 x
%
the volume is
(100  x)
5. Two vessels of volumes V1 and V2 contain air at
 Effect of temperature on upthrust (buoyancy)
pressures P1 and P2 at same temperature. If both
: The thrust on a body when immersed completely in the vessels are interconnected then common
a liquid of density  is given by Th  V s g ----(1) P1V1  P2 V2
pressure, P=
When the temperature of the system is increased V1  V2
by 0 C , 6. A quill tube contains air column of length l1 with its
The new thrust is Th' = V1 1 g -------------(2) open end vertically upwards , l2 with its open end
vertically downwards and l3 when it is tilted through
Th ' V11g 1   s   an angle  from vertical open end up position .
  therefore P1 = H + h ,
Th Vg 1   L 
P2 = H - h
 CORRECTION FOR BAROMETRIC and P2 = H + hcos  .
READING Here ‘h’ is the height of Hg column.
The brass scale of barometer is usually calibrated According to Boyles law,
0 (H + h)l1 = (H - h)l2 = (H + hcos  )l3
at 0 C. If observation is taken at different tempera-
ture, then a correction is needed for brass-scale. Sup- 7. If an air bubble formed at the bottom of a liquid
pose the height of mercury at 00C is H0 and true scale column raises to the top where its volume becomes
n times that at the bottom then the depth of the
reading is H. if  is the coefficient of linear expansion liquid column is given by
of brass,  being volume coefficient of mercury..
76 x13 .6
h= (n-1) cm
H0  H 1g a t d
where d is the density of the liquid in CGS system.
EXPANSION OF GASES If the radius of the bubble becomes ‘n’ times then
1. Volume Coefficient of a gas at constant pressure 76 x13 .6 3
h= (n -1)
():- d
here atmospheric pressure is taken as 76cm of
mercury.

NARAYANA GROUP 81
 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER - II JR-PHYSICS

8. Charle's first law:-

V1 V2

T1 T2
9. Charles’ second law (or) Gay Lussac’s Law :-
P1 P2
  ..... a constant
T1 T2
10. Gas equation :
PV
i) interms of r : = mr
T
PV
ii) interms of R : = nR
T
P R
iii) interms of density  : = = constant
T M
iv) interms of Boltzmann constant K,
PV R
= n NA K : [nNA = N ] & [K = ]
T NA

v) In terms of number of molecules per unit

P N
volume,  : = K (here  = )
T V

11. When gases which are seperately in the states (P1,

V1, T1) . . . are mixed and if the resultant mixture is
at (P,V,T) then
P1V1 P2 V2 PV
  ...... 
T1 T2 T
12. If two vessels of same capacity containing air at
T 1 and T 2 K and at pressures P 1 and P 2
atmospheres then the common pressure is given

by P  P1T2  P2T1
T1  T2

82 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS TRANSMISSION OF HEAT

TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
1 L 2
FORMULAS t x  t  x2
2 K
1. CONDUCTION where  is density of Ice
i) Rate of flow of heat i.e. heat current L is latent Heat of Fusion of Ice
Q KA  1  2  K is conductivity of Ice
 ; where K is coefficient of
t   is Atmospheric temperature.
thermal conductivity ii) To increase the thickness of ice layer from

ii) Thermal Resistance :R = x1 to x2 , time taken is
KA
L 2
 1  2 t
2k

x2  x12 
iii) Temperature gradient, 
 
6. CONVECTION
2. Series Combination of metalic slabs : The rate of heat convection from an object is such
i) If n slabs of equal length are in series then that

n 1 1 1  dQ 
   ...   dt   h A(  )
KS K1 K2 Kn   convection
Here
2K1K 2 A = Contact area
ii) For two slabs of equal length, Ks =
K1  K2  = Temperature difference between
3. Junction Temperature : the object and conductive fluid.
1  2 h = constant called convection coefficient.
K1 K2 7. RADIATION
1 2
a) Emissive power (E) :
The heat current is same in the two conductors
It is the amount of energy radiated by unit surface
K1A  1    K 2A    2  area per second at a given temperature in a given
 .
1 2 wavelength range.
Q
K11l2  K 2 2l1 E = At S.I. Unit : watt m–2
Junction temperature =  
K 1l2  K 2l1
K11  K 2 2 b) Absorptive power (a) : a = Qa/Qi
If l1 = l2 = l then  
K1  K 2 For a perfect blackbody, a =1 (Qi = Qa)
c) Emissivity or relative emittance (e) :
4. Parallel combination of metalic slabs:
Emissive power of a body
K1  k 2  ....K n
For n slabs of equal area K  e=
Emissive power of a perfect blackbody
n
K1  K 2 E E
For two slabs of equal area K  = = λ
2 Eb Eλ b
5. Growth of thickness of Ice layer on Ponds :
i) The time taken to form an ice layer of thickness For a perfect blackbody e = 1
x on the pond is given by the formula For anybody 0 < e < 1

NARAYANA GROUP 83
 TRANSMISSION OF HEAT JR-PHYSICS

d) For a surface if a = Absorptive power,

r = Reflecting power, and t = Transmitting power    d 
e  A TB4 - TS4  ms 
 dt 
then a + r + t =1
for a black body r =0 , t = 0, a=1
8. Kirchoff’s law :
Therefore
d
dt
=
e  A 4 4
ms

TB - TS 
El
 El b  cons tan t  For a spherical body,,
al
4 3
9. Wien’s Displacement Law: A = 4R 2 m= R 
3
m T=b = constant
Where b is wien’s constant and has value  d  1
dt R  S
2.89 × 10–3 m-K.
12. Newton’s law of cooling
10. Stefan’s Law:
Rate of loss of heat by a hot body is,
4 Q Q
i) E  T   T4    T4 dQ
At At = – b (T – T0)
Q dt
=  AT T4 (watt)
t
where ‘  ’ is Stefan’s constant Where T is temperature of the hot body, T 0 is
 = 5.67 x 10–8 w/m2/K4 temperature of the surroundings
ii) If the body is not a black body, then Rate of cooling is,
Q d  b  T  T0 
= e ATT4 (‘e’ lies between 0 & 1)   
t dt ms
e = Emissivity of the body. 1   2   
 K  1 2  0 
 Q = e At  T4 t  2 
11. Stefan - Boltzmann Law :
b
i) If a blackbody at absolute temperature ‘TB’ is in K=
ms
an enclosure at absolute temparature ‘Ts’ then the
loss of thermal energy by the body per unit time is
Q
=  A (TB4 – TS4)
t
ii) If it is not a blackbody, then
Q
= e  A (TB4 – TS4) where e= emissivity
t
 When the heat loss by radiation is
considered
dQ d
iii) = ms
dt dt
Here m = mass of of the body
s = specific heat of the material of the body
iv) Using Stefan - Boltzman’s Law

84 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS THERMODYNAMICS

THERMODYNAMICS
FORMULAS by the body then
gh
CALORIEMETRY: mgh = J(ms  ),  
JS
Calorie: It is defined as the amount of heat required * If that body falls from height h1 and rebounds to
to rise the temperature of 1g of water through 10C height h2, then mg(h1 – h2) = J(ms  )
(more specifically from 14.5 to 15.50C)
g  h1  h2 
1 dQ  
Specific heat: S  JS
m dt * If a block of ice is dropped from a height h which
Latent heat: completely melts on reaching the ground. then mgh
* If 'Q' heat changes the state of mass 'm' of a JL
substance at constant temperature, then latent heat = JmL.  h 
th
g
Q 1
L  Q  mL If only of mass melts then
m nm JL
Triple point of water mgh  J L  h 
n ng
* For water the values of pressure and temperature * When a body of mass 'm' moving with velocity V is
corresponding to triple point are 4.58 mm of Hg stopped and all its K.E. is converted into heat
(0.006 atm) and 273.16K respectively. energy and is taken by body, then
Principle of method of mixtures: 1 V2
* When two substances at different temperatures are mV2  J ms     
mixed, heat will be transferred from substance at 2 2JS
* If a bullet just melts when stopped by an obstacle
higher temperature to a substance at lower
and if all the heat produced is absorbed by the bullet,
temperature till both acquire same temperature.
then
Heat lost = Heat gained
* If 'm' g of steam at 1000C is mixed with 'm' g of ice 1
mV2  J ms  mL   V2  2J  S  L
at 00C then 2
a) Resultant temperature of mixture is 1000C * If an ice block of mass M is dragged on a rough
horizontal surface with a constant velocity v, through
m a distance 'd' and workdone against friction is used
b) Mass of steam condensed = g
3 as heat which melts ice of mass m then
2m Mgd  JmL
c) Mass of steam left uncondensed = g  Mgd
3 m
4m JL
d) The finial mixture contains g of water and Internal energy (U) :
3 * The energy due to molecular motion is internal
2m kinetic energy U kand that due to molecular
g of steam both at 1000C configaration is internal potential energy Up
3
U = Uk + Up
THERMODNAMICS
* Change in internal energy (dU) is path independent
Joule's law and mechanical equivalent of heat :
and depends only on the initial and final states of
* Joule showed that when mechanical energy (work)
the system. i.e dU = Uf– Ui
is converted into heat, the ratio of work done (W)
Work (dw) :
to heat produced (Q) always remains a constant.
* The amount of external work done by a system as
W it expands (or) contracts is given by
= constant = J (or) W = JQ V2
Q
The constant J is called mechanical equivalent of W=  dW   PdV
heat V1
* If 'P' is constant then W = P(v2 – v1)
* If a body of mass 'm' falls from height 'h' and its
First law of thermodynamics :
P.E. is converted into heat and is completely taken

NARAYANA GROUP 85
 THERMODYNAMICS JR-PHYSICS

* According to this law, heat given to a system (dQ)  F γR

is equal to the sum of increase in its internal energy C P = 1+  R =
 2 γ -1
(dU) and the work done (dW) by the system against * for monatomic gases, like He, A, as F =3
surroundings.
3 5 5
dQ  dU  dW CV  R ; CP  R and    1.66
2 2 3
Specific heats of gas : * for diatomic gases like H2, O2 as F = 5
* The specific heat of a gas at constant volume is 5 7 7
defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the CV  R ; CP  R and    1.4
temperature of unit mass of gas through 1 K when 2 2 5
* for polyatomic gases like NH3, CO2 as F = 6
its volume is kept constant i.e.,
4
 Q v CV  3R ; CP  4R and    1.33
cv  3
mT * If n1 moles of one gas mixed with n2 moles of
* The specific heat of a gas at constant pressure is
another gas then for the mixture
defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of gas through 1 K when n1  Cv 1  n2  Cv 2
Cv mix 
its pressure is kept constant, i.e., n1  n2
 Q P n1  Cp 1  n2  Cp  2
cp  Cp mix 
mT n1  n2
* If instead of unit mass, 1 mole of a gas is considered
* When a gas is heated at constant pressure.
the specific heats are called molar specific heats,
dU 1 dW 1
they are denoted by CV and CP  ,  1
dQ  dQ 
 Qv  QP Different thermodynamical processes :
Cv  , Cp 
nT nT Isobaric process :
* Cv = M cv , Cp = M cp * Work done in isobaric process is
for cv, cp units are joule/kg/K W = P(Vf – Vi) = nR(Tf – Ti)
for CV, CP units are joule/mole/K * first law of thermodynamics in this case gives dQ
* The heat supplied to the gas at constant volume is = dU + PV
used only in increasing the temperature (internal * In this case dQ = nCP (dT)
energy of the gas) Isochoric process
 dQV  dU  nCVdT * Work done during this process is W = 0
* when heat is supplied to a gas at constant pressure, * First law of thermodynamics when applied in this
it is used to increase the temperature of the gas case, dQ = dU i.e., its heat supplied is used to
and in doing work due to expansion at constant increase the internal energy only (in this case dQ =
pressure. nCVdT).
 dQP  dU  dW Isothermal process
* The equation of state for this process is
 dQP  nCPdT PV = constant.
* The relation between cv, cp is * In this process internal energy remains constant,
cp  cv  r where r is specific gas constant i.e., U = constant, dU = 0.
* Relation between CV , CP is * PV diagram for the process is shown below :
P
CP – CV = R where R is universal gas constant.
* If for a gas having F degrees of freedom
2 Cp
γ = 1+ =
F Cv
V
 F R * The slope of isothermal curve is
Hence C V =   R = ,
2 γ -1

86 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS THERMODYNAMICS

P It is +ve if the cycle is clockwise.

Slope =    It is -ve if the cycle is anticlockwise.
V
* Work done during isothermal process is P P
V  V  W=+ve W=-ve
W  nRT loge  f   2.303nRTlog10  f 
 Vi   Vi 
P  P  V V
W  nRT loge  i   2.303nRTlog10  i  In the cyclic process as U f  U i ,
 Pf   Pf 
* First law of thermodynamics when applied to this  U  U f  U i  0 and so the first law implies
process, dQ = dW i.e., heat supplied is used only Q  0  W , i.e Q  W , heat supplied is
to do work. equal to the work done (area of the cycle)
* Isothermal elasticity E  P Polytrophic process:
Adiabatic Process:
 In this process the gas obeys an additional law in
* The equation of state for this process is
the form of PV x  constant,
PV  constant
For temperature and volume  In this process molar specific heat,
1 1 R R
TV 1 =constant  T1V1  T2 V2 or T  V1 C=   1  x  1
For temperature and pressure
HEAT ENGINE :
T
= c o n s t a n t  T1P11  T2P21 o r  Efficiency ,
P 1 W Q1  Q2 Q T
 1     1 2  1 2
or Q1 Q1 Q1 T1
TP 
P  T  1
REFRIGERATOR :
* PV diagram for the process is shown below
It is a heat Engine running in reverse.
P Coefficient of performance,
Q2 Q2 T2
  
W Q1  Q2 T1  T2
RELATION BETWEEN  AND 
V
1
* Slope of adiabatic cure is  
1 
P CARNOT ENGINE :
Slope =   
V Efficiency of Carnot Engine,
* Work done in adiabatic process is Q T
  1  2  1 2 also
Q1 T1
PV
i i  PV
nR  Ti  Tf  Q1 Q 2
W f f
  nCv  Ti  Tf 
 1  1 In a Carnot cycle T  T
1 2
* First law of thermodynamics when applied to this
process, 0=dU+dW  dU= –dW
* Adiabatic elasticity E  P
Free expansion:A container is divided into two
parts.One part is vacuum and the other part
contains a gas.If the gas expands into vacuum then
it is called free expansion.
here dW=0
If dQ=0 then dU=0
Cyclic process :

NARAYANA GROUP 87
 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES JR-PHYSICS

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

FORMULAS speed of sound.
The rms speed of gas molecule is
1. The perfect gas equation is given by
3 RT
PV   RT vrms 
M
Where  is number of moles and
g RT
R  NA KB is called universal gas constant The speed of sound in gas Vs 
M
2. PRESSURE OF AN IDEAL GAS : Vrms 3 3
  ,  Vrms  Vs
Vs g g
1 2
P  rvrms
3 ii) Most probable speed :
3. Relation between pressure and kinetic Most probable speed
energy: 2P 2 RT 2kT
vmp   
2 r M m
P E
3 2
vmp  vrms  0.816 vrms
4. Average translational kinetic energy of 3
a gas: iii) Average speed :
v1  v2  v3  v4  .....
i) Mean KE per mole of a gas vav 
N
3 3 3 Average speed
E PV  RT  k B N T
2 2 2
8P 8 RT 8 kT
3 vav   
ii) Mean KE per molecule of a gas E  k BT pr p M p m
2
3 RT 8
iii) K.E of 1 gram of gas  vav  vrms  0.92 vrms
2 M 3
5. Effect of mass, volume and temperature on Note : vrms > vav > vmp
pressure :
7. Avogadro's Law:
1 mN 2
P vrms (or) "Equal volumes of all gases at the same
3 V temperature and pressure contain equal number
mN T  
of molecules."
P  As vrms  T 
2

V n1  n2
6. Various Speeds of Gas Molecules :
8. Dalton's law of Partial Pressures:
i) Root mean square speed
"The resultant pressure exerted by a mixture
v12  v22  v32  v42  ....
v
2
i.e., vrms   of gases or vapours which do not interact in any
N way is equal to sum of their individual pressures."
3P 3PV 3RT 3kT P = p1 + p2 + p3 + ........
 vrms    
r Mass of gas M m 9. Graham's Law of Diffusion:
Relation between rms speed of gas molecules and "For any specified temperature and pressure,
the relative rates of diffusion of two gases are
88 NARAYANA GROUP
 JR-PHYSICS KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
inversely proportional to the square roots of their
f 
densities."   1R
Cp  2  2
Let r1 and r2 be the rates of diffusion of two gases.    1
Cv f f
R
r r 2
 1 2 ....... (2)
r2 r1 4) a) So for monoatomic gases, like He, Ar, as f=3
3 5 5
10. DEGREE OF FREEDOM CV  R , CP  R and g   1.66
2 2 3
i) Translation degrees of freedom: The b) For diatomic gases like H2, O2 as f = 5
maximum number of translational degrees of freedom
5 7 7
can be three. These are 1/2 mvx2, 1/2 mvy2, 1/2 mvz2 CV  R , CP  R and g   1.4
2 2 5
ii) Rotational degrees of freedom : The c) For polyatomic gases like NH3, CO2 as
maximum number of rotational degrees of freedom can
4
be three. These are 1/2 I x  x 2 , 1/2 I y  y2 , f = 6, CV = 3R, CP = 4R and g   1.33 .
3
1/2 Iz  z2
13 MEAN FREE PATH
iii) Vibrational degrees of freedom : Their
numbers depend on atoms in the moelcule and their The distance travelled by a gas molecule
arrangment. These degrees of freedom are consider at between two successive collisions is known as free
a very high temperature. path.

11. Law of Equipartition of Energy : Let l1 , l2 , l3 .... be the distance travelled by a

1. Monoatomic gas gas molecule during 'n' collisions respectively, then the
Degrees of freedom (f) = 3 mean free path of a gas molecule is given by
K.E. or internal energy per mole = 3/2 RT l1  l2  l3  ...  ln
K.E. or internal energy per molecule = 3/2 KT l .
n
2. Diatomic Gas
Degrees of freedom (f) = 5
K.E. or internal energy per mole = 5/2 RT
K.E. or internal energy per molecule = 5/2 KT
3. Triatomic Gas
Degrees of freedom (f) = 6
K.E. or internal energy per mole = 6/2 RT
K.E. or internal energy per molecule = 3/2 KT
4. For a molecule with f degrees of freedom 1
Degrees of freedom = f  Where d is the diameter of
2 nd 2
K.E. or internal energy per mole = f/2 RT molecule, n is the number of molecules per unit
K.E. or internal energy per molecule = f/2 KT volume.
5. For n moles of a Gas with degrees of freedom 'f' 1 K BT
 2
2 d P
Degrees of freedom = f
1 m m
K.E. or internal energy = n f/2 RT   
2 nd 2 2  mn  d 2 2 d 2 
12. Specific Heat in Terms of Degree of
Freedom
3) Ratio of Cp and Cv (  ) :

NARAYANA GROUP 89