International Journal of Civil Engineering

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40999-021-00609-9 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().
,- volV)

RESEARCH PAPER

Effect of Phytoremediation on Compression Characteristics of Silty

Clayey Sand Contaminated with Crude Oil
Amir Hamidi1 • Amir Hossein Karimi1

Received: 12 August 2020 / Revised: 22 January 2021 / Accepted: 31 January 2021

Ó Iran University of Science and Technology 2021

Abstract
In the present study, the effects of phytoremediation using Ophiopogon japonicus and Platycladus orientalis on the
compressibility of silty clayey sand contaminated with 3%, 5%, or 7% crude oil was examined over a period of 2 months.
Phytoremediation led to a decrease in the total petroleum hydrocarbons. The scanning electron microscopy images showed
that an increase in the crude oil content increased flocculation of the fine particles in the soil; however, phytoremediation
decreased flocculation of the soil structure. The replacement of water by crude oil decreased the dielectric constant of the
fluid in the void space, which decreased the thickness of the double-layer water. These changes caused the soil particles to
move closer together and become more flocculated. The Atterberg limits of the contaminated soil increased after phy-
toremediation. A decrease in soil permeability was observed after phytoremediation in the permeability and consolidation
tests. The compression index and coefficient of consolidation increased as the crude oil content and the contamination time
period increased. The increase in the compression index at 30 and 60 days of phytoremediation was 6% and 18% less,
respectively, than for the untreated samples. The increase in the coefficient of consolidation after phytoremediation also
was 15% less than for the untreated samples. It could be concluded that phytoremediation decreased the negative effects of
crude oil on the geotechnical properties of the soil over time. It also was effective in decreasing settlement of the soil
contaminated with crude oil and decreased the coefficient of volume compressibility.

Keywords Sandy soil  Phytoremediation  Compression  Crude oil  Settlement

1 Introduction
The use of crude oil has created environmental issues
relating to its exploration, extraction, transfer, storage, and
usage. Soil contamination by crude oil and its products is a
health hazard to organisms in the soil and can create
changes in the geotechnical properties of the soil. This
issue has caused researchers to investigate how these
geotechnical properties change. Research has been con-
ducted on contaminated sand [1, 2] and polluted fine-
grained soil [3, 4]. In many cases, the research was on soil
contaminated with crude oil [5, 6] or by-products such as
& Amir Hamidi
hamidi@khu.ac.ir
Amir Hossein Karimi
std_ahkarimi94@khu.ac.ir
1
Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering,
Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
motor or gas oil and kerosene [7, 8]. The results of these
studies differ according to the type of contaminant and type
of soil.
Researchers have reported that the liquid limit (LL) and
plastic limit (PL) of the soil increased as the crude oil
content increased [9–11]. Others have reported decreases in
the LL and PL [12, 13]. An increase in the maximum dry
density with an increase in the crude oil content has been
reported by some researchers [10, 14, 15], while others
have reported a decrease in the maximum dry density
[5, 12, 16]. The reason for the increase in dry density has
been attributed to lubrication of the soil particles, which
resulted in a denser arrangement of particles [10, 14]. A
decrease in the maximum dry density of soil contaminated
with crude oil can be attributed to the resulting increase in
soil hydrophobicity, which decreases the contact between
the water and particles and, subsequently, decreases the
capillary tension and maximum dry density. Another rea-
son is the loss of impact energy associated with the

123

maximum dry density because of the higher viscosity of
crude oil than of water [12, 16].
Most studies have reported a decrease in the optimum
moisture content of soil with an increase in the crude oil
content [5, 10, 12, 14–16]. The reason for this decrease can
be attributed to the higher viscosity of crude oil compared
to water and better lubrication between crude oil-coated
particles, which leads to a lower optimum moisture content
[10, 14]. An increase in the coefficient of permeability with
an increase in the crude oil content of the soil has been
reported in some investigations [11, 13], while a decrease
in the coefficient of permeability has been reported by
others [12, 17]. The decreased permeability of soil con-
taminated with crude oil is associated with the filling of the
soil pores with crude oil, which in turn reduces the passage
of water through the soil particles [5, 12]. The increase in
the permeability of soil contaminated with crude oil could
be related to the lubrication of soil particles by the crude
oil, which improves the passage of water through the soil
particles and averts the absorption of water by the soil
particles [18].
An increase in the crude oil content in consolidation
tests has been shown to increase the compression index
(Cc) [10, 13, 14] and the coefficient of consolidation (Cv)
[13, 18]. These increases in soil contaminated with crude
oil have been attributed to the lubrication of soil particles
and the reduction of friction between them [10, 14]. A
decrease in the preconsolidation pressure also has been
reported with an increase in the crude oil content of the soil
[17].
A review of the technical literature shows that the
geotechnical properties of soil contaminated with crude oil
frequently have been investigated, although contrasting
results have been observed. Due to the growing importance
of the recycling and reuse of contaminated sites, various
methods have been considered for cleaning the soil. Bio-
logical, isolation, incineration, absorption, soil-washing
and extraction methods have been considered [19]. Some
of these methods of removing crude oil from the soil can
cause a change in soil structure or make it unsuitable for
reuse. In most cases, biological methods will cause the
least damage to the soil structure.
Phytoremediation is a low-cost, non-destructive method
of removing crude oil from soil [20–22]. In this method,
crude oil hydrocarbon bonds are broken up by plant-root
exudates and microorganisms in the soil. Mechanisms such
as phytostabilization, phytoextraction, phytofiltration,
phytovolatilization, and phytodegradation can remove or
reduce hydrocarbons in the soil [23–25]. In addition to
reducing soil contamination, they offer benefits such as
stability [26, 27], suitability for use over large areas,
beautification of the environment and prevention of soil
erosion and landslides [28–30]. Grasses and trees are the
123
International Journal of Civil Engineering
most common plant species that have been used for phy-
toremediation of soil contaminated with oil [31–33].
Although there have been a number of studies on the
geotechnical characteristics of contaminated soil, the
effects of phytoremediation on the mechanical properties
of treated soil have not been closely investigated. Most
previous studies on phytoremediation have been concerned
with the amount of contaminant that has been remediated
[20–28]; however, the effects on the geotechnical proper-
ties of the soil have yet to be carefully considered. In this
study, different percentages of crude oil were added to silty
clayey sand to determine its effects on the sandy soil
compressibility and compression properties. Phytoremedi-
ation by Ophiopogon japonicus and Platycladus orientalis
was employed to reduce the hydrocarbons in the soil. The
effects of phytoremediation on the level of soil contami-
nation and soil geotechnical properties, especially its
compression properties, were investigated.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Soil
The soil used was obtained from an area near the city of
Karaj in Alborz province of Iran. This soil was passed
through a #40 sieve to remove any coarse particles and to
eliminate possible scale effects due to large-sized particles
in some geotechnical experiments. Gradation testing in
accordance with ASTM-D422-07 [34] indicated that the
soil contained 82% sand and 18% fine-grained soil.
Atterberg limits testing in accordance with ASTM-D4318-
10 [35] determined the soil to fall into the SC-SM group
according to the Unified Soil Classification System [36].
The gradation curve of the soil is presented in Fig. 1 and
its physical properties are listed in Table 1. The primary
reasons for selection of this soil type is the ability of the
plants used to adapt to the same site. X-ray fluores-
cence (XRF) showed that most of the soil was composed of
silica (SiO2) and aluminum oxide (Al2O3). The soil com-
ponents based on XRF analysis are presented in Table 2.
The results of the x-ray diffraction (XRD) are presented in
Fig. 2.
2.2 Contamination
Crude oil was used as the soil contaminant, because the
effects of this pollutant on soil have been known for dec-
ades [2, 37–39]. The crude oil properties are listed in
Table 3. It was added in proportions of 3%, 5% and 7% by
weight of the dry soil. Most previous studies have tested up
to 10% crude oil, but some have examined 1.3–28.5%
crude oil contents [40–42].
International Journal of Civil Engineering

100

90

80
Percent passing (%) 70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1

Parcle size (mm)

Fig. 1 Gradation curve of the soil

Table 1 Physical properties of the soil

Soil type Classification Liquid Plastic Plasticity Coefficient of Coefficient of Specific Maximum dry Optimum
(USCS) limit limit index (%) uniformity curvature gravity density (kN/ moisture
(%) (%) (Cu) (Cc) m3) content (%)

Silty clayey SC-SM 23 17 6 6.25 2.25 2.55 18.31 15.50

sand (mixed
sand)

Table 2 Soil components based on XRF analysis 2.3 Plants

Chemical Weight ratio
compounds (%) P. orientalis and O. japonicus were selected for phytore-
mediation. These two specimens are commonly found in
SiO2 52.2 the area under study and are suited to the environmental
Al2O3 13.7 conditions in the experimental location. Figure 3 shows P.
Cao 8.5 orientalis and O. japonicus plants prepared for testing.
L.O.I. 7.2
Fe2O3 6.7
K2O 4.6 3 Testing Procedure
MgO 4.2
Na2O 1.2 3.1 Contamination of Base Soil
TiO2 1.18
SO3 0.3 The soil was exposed to hot air to allow evaporation of any
MnO2 0.22 moisture [43]. Next, the particle size, Atterberg limits,
maximum dry density, optimum moisture content, coeffi-
cient of permeability, and compression properties of the
soil were determined according to ASTM-D422-07 [34],
ASTM-D4318-10 [35], ASTM-D698-12 [44], ASTM-
D5084-03 [45], and ASTM-D2435-11 [46], respectively.

123
 International Journal of Civil Engineering

Fig. 2 Results of XRD analysis of the soil

Table 3 Crude oil properties 3.2 Phytoremediation

Property Unit Result
The effects of phytoremediation by P. orientalis and O.
Specific gravity at 60 °F – 0.8656 japonicus on the total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH)
API gravitya at 60 °F – 32 content and the geotechnical properties of soil samples
Viscosity cP 20.93 contaminated with 3%, 5%, and 7% crude oil were inves-
Salt content lb/1000 bbl 11 tigated. Three pots from each contaminated sample were
Pour point °C - 19 prepared to contain the soil and plants. Three pots con-
a
A commonly used index for the density of crude oil or refined
taining only contaminated soil also were prepared for each
products condition to allow comparison of the effects of phytore-
mediation. Thus, a total of 27 pots for 30 days and 27 pots
for 60 days were prepared. The pots were 21 cm in height,
had a top diameter of 21 cm, and a bottom diameter of
Changes in the soil properties after the addition of crude 15 cm.
oil at 3%, 5%, and 7% (by weight of dry soil) were The contaminated soil was poured into the pots and P.
investigated. The crude oil was mixed manually with the orientalis and O. japonicus plants were planted in them.
dry soil and kept in a sealed bag for 1 week to obtain a The samples were irrigated twice a day for a week. No
uniform composition [4]. After 7 days, scanning electron fertilizer was added to the soil. After 7 days, when the
microscopy (SEM) images of the soil samples were made plants had become accustomed to the new soil conditions
to observe their initial structure. Testing of the contami- and no significant changes were observed, the 60-day
nated soil was carried out on days 1, 30 and 60 of phytoremediation process was initiated under the same
phytoremediation. irrigation conditions.
The 60 days of phytoremediation occurred from late
spring to early summer. The mean maximum and minimum
temperatures over the first 30-day interval were 32.5 and

123
International Journal of Civil Engineering

Fig. 3 Preparing Ophiopogon japonicus and Platycladus orientalis for phytoremediation

20.5 °C, respectively, and over the second 30-day interval
were 38 and 25.5 °C, respectively. It was assumed that
these small variations in temperature did not significantly
influence the phytoremediation process in this study.
On day 1, the soil samples were collected from all pots
contaminated with 3%, 5%, and 7% of crude oil and those
that contained uncontaminated soil and the TPH content
was determined in the contaminated-soil specimens. To
determine the amount of TPH in the soil, wet samples were
placed in a freeze dryer to remove as much water as pos-
sible. After that, the hydrocarbons in the soil were
extracted and the amount of TPH in the soil was deter-
mined using a gas chromatography flame ionization
detector (GC-FID).
The hydrocarbons in the soil were extracted ultrasoni-
cally in accordance with EPA-3550-C-07 [47]. The TPH
content was determined using a GC-FID in accordance
with EPA-8015-B-96 [48]. Information about the charac-
teristics and performance of the GC-FID device is provided
in Table 4. As stated, three samples from each contami-
nated soil sample were tested for purposes of comparison.
Environmental regulations in some US states restrict the
maximum TPH content allowed in the soil to
10,000.00 lg/g [49]. Figure 4 shows the TPH content in
soil samples containing 3%, 5%, and 7% crude oil before
phytoremediation and confirms that the TPH content was
greater than the allowable limit required reduction.
According to the previous researches conducted on crude
oil contaminated soils around refineries and industrial areas
in Ghana [50], Pakistan [51], and Poland [52], the TPH
contents were about 22,700 lg/g, 46,800 lg/g, and
9400 lg/g, respectively. These values show consistency
between the selected range of contamination in current
study and real projects.
The pots were shallow and not large; thus, the soil in the
pots was moist for most of the time and the soil grains did
not separate under the weight of the soil. At the end of 30
and 60 days of phytoremediation, the soil was emptied
from the pots. When preparing for the SEM images and
TPH testing, maximum effort was made to use the soil near
the roots of the plants, which would receive the greatest
effect from phytoremediation. Thus, the topsoil that was in

Table 4 Information about determination of TPH by GC-FID

General informations Column used Temperature program

Detector: FID Type of column: capillary Initial temperature: 60 °C

Injection technique: splitless Length: 30 m Isothermal: 2 min
Injector temperature: 295 °C Diameter: 0.32 mm Rate: 8 °C/m
Injection volume: 2 ll Film thickness: 0.25 lm To: 300 °C
Carrier gas: N2 Phase: HP-5 Isothermal: 6.5 min
Flow rate: 1.8 ml/min

123
 International Journal of Civil Engineering

27500
25262

Average of TPH (μg/g) in 3 samples

25000
22500
20305
20000
17500
15000
12500 10713
10000
7500
5000
2500
0
3% crude oil 5% crude oil 7% crude oil

Fig. 4 Average of TPH in the soil with different crude oil contents before phytoremediation

contact with air was removed and the remaining soil, which
was in contact with the plant roots, was tested. The moist
soil was ground into smaller pieces to avoid lumping and
then was exposed to sunlight for 24 h to reduce the
moisture content for use in SEM. A small portion of each
sample was used to prepare the images.
After 30 and 60 days of phytoremediation, the P. ori-
entalis and O. japonicus plants in soil contaminated with
3%, 5%, and 7% of crude oil showed no significant
impairment and had not dried up. Because evaporation can
cause loss of moisture content, the permeability and con-
solidation testing was performed at a moisture content
corresponding to 95% of the maximum dry density on the
wet side of the compaction curve. The soil samples were
placed in a mold and statically compacted so that no sep-
aration between the contaminant and the soil was created
during compaction and preparation. For this purpose, the
soil was poured into the mold in three layers and com-
pacted at a rate of 1.3 mm/min. Table 5 summarizes the
experiments performed and variables considered in the
research program.
4 Test Results and Discussion
4.1 TPH Removal
Figure 4 shows the average TPH of soil samples containing
3%, 5%, and 7% crude oil before phytoremediation. The
TPH content increased about 100% with an increase in the
crude oil content from 3 to 5%, and a further 20% from 5 to
7%. It was expected to decrease as phytoremediation pro-
ceeded. Figure 5 shows the TPH content of the contami-
nated soil at 30 and 60 days of phytoremediation. The
crude oil content of Fig. 5a, b was 3%, of Fig. 5c, d was
5%, and of Fig. 5e, f was 7%. Table 6 shows the TPH
removal values at 30 and 60 days of phytoremediation.
Figure 5a, c, e show the results after 30 days of phy-
toremediation and Fig. 5b, d, f after 60 days of phytore-
mediation at the different crude oil contents. The
phytoremediated soil lost a greater percentage of contam-
inants than the soil without phytoremediation. Comparison
of the phytoremediated samples indicated that the TPH

Table 5 Summary of experiments

Variable No. of levels Description

Soil 1 SC-SM (silty clayey sand)

Contaminant type 1 Crude oil
Contaminant content 4 0, 3%, 5% and 7% by weight of dry soil
Time of phytoremediation 3 0, 30 and 60 days
Plant type 2 Ophiopogon japonicus and Platycladus orientalis
Experimant type 5 TPH measurement, Atterberg limits, standard compaction, permeability, and consolidation

123
International Journal of Civil Engineering

30 days of phytoremediaon 60 days of phytoremediaon

25000 25000
3% crude oil 3% crude oil

Average of TPH (μg/g)

Average of TPH (μg/g)
20000 20000

15000 15000

10000 10000
8340 7692 6888 7291 6628 5783
5000
5000

0
without Ophiopogon Platycladus 0
phytoremediaon japonicus orientalis without Ophiopogon Platycladus
phytoremediaon japonicus orientalis
(a) (b)
25000 5% crude oil 25000 5% crude oil

Average of TPH (μg/g)

Average of TPH (μg/g)

20000 20000
15191 14572 14468
15000 13541 15000 12971
11814
10000 10000

5000 5000

0 0
without Ophiopogon Platycladus without Ophiopogon Platycladus
phytoremediaon japonicus orientalis phytoremediaon japonicus orientalis

(c) (d)
25000 7% crude oil 25000
7% crude oil
Average of TPH (μg/g)

Average of TPH (μg/g)

21453 21009 20234 20069 19157

20000 20000 17516

15000 15000

10000 10000

5000 5000

0 0
without Ophiopogon Platycladus without Ophiopogon Platycladus
phytoremediaon japonicus orientalis phytoremediaon japonicus orientalis

(e) (f)
Fig. 5 Average of TPH for samples with and without phytoremediation, a 3% crude oil content and 30 days of phytoremediation, b 3% crude oil
content and 60 days of phytoremediation, c 5% crude oil content and 30 days of phytoremediation, d 5% crude oil content and 60 days of
phytoremediation, e 7% crude oil content and 30 days of phytoremediation, f 7% crude oil content and 60 days of phytoremediation

content in samples with P. orientalis was 6% lower than in
samples with O. japonicus. This indicated that P. orientalis
was more successful than O. japonicus for phytoremedia-
tion. Most of the TPH was removed from the soil in the
first 30 days of phytoremediation. In the next 30 days, the
decrease in the TPH content was about 40% of the decrease
in the first 30 days of phytoremediation.
The average TPH content of soil contaminated with 3%
crude oil dropped to less than 10,000 lg/g after 30 days of
phytoremediation. The TPH content in soil with 5% con-
tamination after 60 days of phytoremediation with P. ori-
entalis was 11,814 lg/g, which approaches the threshold
limit and might have decreased further with an increase in
phytoremediation time. For both types of plant in soil

123
 International Journal of Civil Engineering

Table 6 Removed TPH (%) after 30 days and 60 days of phytoremediation

Contaminant content (%) Without phytoremediation Ophiopogon japonicus Platycladus orientalis
30 days 60 days 30 days 60 days 30 days 60 days

3 25.2 31.9 28.2 38.1 35.7 46.1

5 22.2 28.7 27.2 36.1 33.3 41.8
7 15.1 20.6 16.8 24.2 19.9 30.7

contaminated with 7% crude oil after 60 days of phytore-
mediation, the average TPH content was still much higher
than the threshold limit.
4.2 SEM Images
The SEM images are shown in Figs. 6, 7 and 8. A mag-
nification factor of 25,000 has been used in these images.
Also, a gold layer has been applied to the soil particles to
increase conductivity and avoid charge accumulation.
Figure 6 shows the SEM images of the soil without crude
oil and with 3%, 5%, and 7% crude oil before phytore-
mediation. As seen, as the percentage of crude oil
increased, the soil structure became more flocculated,
resulting in larger soil particles with more space between
them. Figure 7a–c shows SEM images of soil with 3%, 5%,
and 7% crude oil after 30 days without phytoremediation.
The soil structure of the soil contaminated with crude oil at
30 days of phytoremediation by O. japonicus is presented
in Fig. 7d–f. Figure 7g–i shows the soil structure at

Fig. 6 SEM images of crude oil contaminated samples before phytoremediation, a clean soil b 3% crude oil content, c 5% crude oil content,
d 7% crude oil content

123
International Journal of Civil Engineering

Fig. 7 SEM images of crude oil contaminated soil after 30 days of phytoremediation, a 3% crude oil content without phytoremediation, b 5%
crude oil content without phytoremediation, c 7% crude oil content without phytoremediation, d 3% crude oil content using Ophiopogon
japonicus, e 5% crude oil content using Ophiopogon japonicus, f 7% crude oil content using Ophiopogon japonicus, g 3% crude oil content using
Platycladus orientalis, h 5% crude oil content using Platycladus orientalis, i 7% crude oil content using Platycladus orientalis

30 days of phytoremediation by P. orientalis. Figure 8
shows a similar arrangement of images for samples at
60 days of phytoremediation.
The two-dimensional void space is defined as the ratio
of void area to total area. It is calculated using ImageJ
software for each SEM image and is highlighted in black in
Figs. 6, 7 and 8. Table 7 lists the calculated void space for
each image and reveals that an increase in the crude oil
content and time period of contamination increased the
void space in the soil. Also, the use of P. orientalis for
phytoremediation resulted to less void space than O.
japonicas at the same time period of contamination and
confirms a decrease in the permeability after phytoreme-
diation. It can be observed that crude oil contamination
resulted in a more porous soil structure, which indicates
more flocculated media which could be reduced by
phytoremediation.
The SEM images show changes in the structure of the
soil with the addition of contamination. In clayey soil, the
replacement of some of the water with crude oil decreased
the dielectric constant of the porous fluid, which reduced
the thickness of the double-layer water. The dielectric
constant of the crude oil was about 2.5, which was much
lower than for water, which had a dielectric constant of 78
[4, 53–55]. These changes caused the soil particles to move
closer together and become more flocculated.
In sandy soil, the covering the surface of the particles
with contaminants caused the surface moisture of the sand
particles to fall almost to zero [56]. Therefore, as the crude
oil content increased, wetting of the sand-particle surface
decreased and flocculation of the particles and the void

123
 International Journal of Civil Engineering

Fig. 8 SEM images of crude oil contaminated soil after 60 days of phytoremediation, a 3% crude oil content without phytoremediation, b 5%
crude oil content without phytoremediation, c 7% crude oil content without phytoremediation, d 3% crude oil content using Ophiopogon
japonicus, e 5% crude oil content using Ophiopogon japonicus, f 7% crude oil content using Ophiopogon japonicus, g 3% crude oil content using
Platycladus orientalis, h 5% crude oil content using Platycladus orientalis, i 7% crude oil content using Platycladus orientalis

Table 7 Calculated void space of samples with different crude oil contents
First day of phytoremediation
Crude oil content (%) 0 3 5 7
Void space (%) 5.6 8.5 10.2 12.1
30 days of phytoremediation
Crude oil content (%) 3 5 7 3 5 7 3 5 7
Plant type – O. japonicus P. orientalis
Void space (%) 16.4 18.3 21.4 12.1 15.2 17.1 10.9 12.3 14.4
60 days of phytoremediation
Crude oil content (%) 3 5 7 3 5 7 3 5 7
Plant type – O. japonicus P. orientalis
Void space (%) 20.3 23.8 26.5 16.4 20.1 22.2 14.9 17.9 21.1

123
International Journal of Civil Engineering
ratio increased. At 30 and 60 days of phytoremediation
(Figs. 7, 8, respectively), flocculation and the increase in
the void space were less in the phytoremediated samples.
This shows the effect of phytoremediation in preventing
further changes in the soil structure due to contamination.
4.3 Atterberg Limits
Figure 9a shows the LL at 30 and 60 days of contamina-
tion. Figure 9b shows the PL of the contaminated soil at 30
and 60 days after the onset of phytoremediation. Both LL
and PL decreased as the crude oil content increased. These
results are consistent with the results of other researchers
[12, 13] and can be attributed to the breaking up of the
double-layer water around the clay particles and the
decrease in water absorbance [13, 53, 54]. The SEM ima-
ges reveal that, as flocculation of the soil particles
increased, the specific surface area of the particles that
came into contact with water decreased, reducing the LL
and PL values. These changes in LL and PL made little
difference in the plastic index (PI), which remained in the
range of 4–7%.
Figure 9 shows that an increase in the length of time for
phytoremediation increased the LL and PL, as can be seen
by comparison of samples with and without phytoremedi-
ation at 30 and 60 days. For the two time periods, the
sample improved by P. orientalis had higher LL and PL
values than the sample improved by O. japonicus. It can be
seen from the decrease in TPH content that P. orientalis
showed greater capacity to remove crude oil.
4.4 Proctor Test Results
The maximum dry density of the soil contaminated with
3%, 5%, and 7% crude oil is shown in Fig. 10a for day 1 of
phytoremediation. Figure 10b shows the maximum dry
density of the soil contaminated with 3%, 5%, and 7% of
crude oil at 30 days of phytoremediation. Figure 10c
shows the maximum dry density of these samples at
60 days of phytoremediation.
Figure 10a shows that an increase in the crude oil con-
tent decreased the maximum dry density of the soil. This is
consistent with the findings of previous researchers
[12, 16, 57, 58]. Figure 10b shows that, at 30 days of
phytoremediation, the maximum dry density of the soil
increased to above that for samples without phytoremedi-
ation. However, Fig. 10c shows that this increase was even
greater at 60 days of phytoremediation.
The reason for the decrease in the maximum dry density
with an increase in contamination could relate to floccu-
lation of the fine particles, which increased the void ratio as
well as the effect of the crude oil on the arrangement and
placement of the soil particles [56]. Soil samples subjected
to phytoremediation had a higher maximum dry density
than samples without phytoremediation. In addition, phy-
toremediation performed with P. orientalis produced a
higher maximum dry density than in specimens for which
O. japonicus was used.
The maximum dry density in all samples decreased as
the length of contamination time increased. This decrease
was less in samples with phytoremediation than in samples
without phytoremediation. Moreover, the average change
in maximum dry density of the samples that were not
phytoremediated to those that were was 1.2-fold in the first
30 days and 3.9-fold second 30 days. This indicates that an
increase in the length of time decreased the effect of
phytoremediation on the rate of decrease of the maximum
dry density.
Figure 11a shows the optimum moisture content for
samples contaminated with different percentages of crude
oil on the first day of phytoremediation. Figure 11b shows
the optimum moisture content of soil contaminated with
different percentages of crude oil at 30 days of phytore-
mediation. Figure 11c shows the same results for 60 days
of phytoremediation.
Figure 11a shows that the optimal moisture content
decreased as the crude oil content increased, which is in
line with the results of previous studies [12, 16, 57–59].
These results occurred, because the crude oil filled some
pores and altered the distribution of voids between the soil
particles. The presence of higher-viscosity crude oil in the
pores caused the maximum dry density to be achieved at a
lower optimum moisture content [12, 13, 59].
Figure 11b, c allows comparison of the samples with
and without phytoremediation and shows that the optimum
moisture content of samples with phytoremediation was
somewhat lower than the samples without phytoremedia-
tion. The optimum moisture content of the P. orientalis
samples was lower than for the O. japonicus samples. The
mean change in the optimum moisture contents for samples
without phytoremediation and samples with phytoremedi-
ation at 30 and 60 days of treatment were 0.25 and 0.70,
respectively. This small difference indicates that phytore-
mediation process did not affect the optimum moisture
content of the soil.
4.5 Consolidation Tests
Figure 12a, b shows the compression curves as changes in
the void ratio to vertical stress. Figure 12a is for 30 days
and Fig. 12b is for 60 days of phytoremediation for sam-
ples containing 3% crude oil. Figure 12c, d is for samples
with 5% crude oil and Fig. 12e, f are for 7% crude oil.
Figure 12 shows an increase in the initial void ratio as a
result of an increase in the crude oil content. The curves for
contaminated soil are above those for clean soil. It can be
123
 International Journal of Civil Engineering

29
28.5
28

Liquid limit (%)

27.5
27
26.5
26
25.5
25
3 5 7
Crude oil (%)
First day of phytoremediaon
without phytoremediaon- 30 days
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus- 30 days
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis- 30 days
without phytoremediaon- 60 days
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus- 60 days
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis- 60 days
(a)
24
23.5
23
22.5
Plasc limit (%)

22
21.5
21
20.5
20
19.5
19
18.5
18
3 5 7
Crude oil (%)
First day of phytoremediaon
without phytoremediaon- 30 days
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus- 30 days
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis- 30 days
without phytoremediaon- 60 days
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus- 60 days
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis- 60 days
(b)
Fig. 9 Variations in Atterberg limits of different samples with crude oil content, a liquid limits after 30 and 60 days of phytoremediation,
b plastic limits after 30 and 60 days of phytoremediation

seen that the void ratio increased as the crude oil content flocculated structure and void ratio of the soil. For the
increased [57, 60]. The curves moved downward after longer period of contamination, the effect on the soil
phytoremediation, which indicated decreases in the increased and the compression curves moved upward. The

123
International Journal of Civil Engineering

First day of phytoremediaon

18.4

Maximum dry density

18.2
18

(kN/m3)
17.8
17.6
17.4
17.2
17
Soil with 0% crude oil Soil with 3% crude oil Soil with 5% crude oil Soil with 7% crude oil

(a)
30 days of phytoremediaon

Maximum dry density (kN/m3)

17.85 17.85
17.8
17.76 17.75
17.79
17.74 17.69 17.7
17.75 17.65
17.72
17.64 17.6
17.55
17.61 17.5
17.45
Pltatycladus orientalis
Ophiopogon japonicus
without phytoremediaon

3% crude oil 5% crude oil 7% crude oil

(b)
60 days of phytoremediaon
Maximum dry density (kN/m3)

17.8
17.74
17.69 17.7
17.71 17.65
17.66 17.6
17.61
17.5

17.4
17.48
17.3
17.42
17.39
17.2
Pltatycladus orientalis
Ophiopogon japonicus
without phytoremediaon

3% crude oil 5% crude oil 7% crude oil

(c)
Fig. 10 Maximum dry density of different soil samples, a first day of phytoremediation, b after 30 days of phytoremediation, c after 60 days of
phytoremediation

effect of phytoremediation increased over time, as shown and treated for 60 days compared to those treated for
by the increased difference between the compression 30 days. P. orientalis caused a greater decrease in the void
curves of the samples with and without phytoremediation ratio than O. japonicus.

123
 International Journal of Civil Engineering

16.5

Opmum moisture
16 First day of phytoremediaon
15.5

content (%)
15
14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5
12
11.5
11
Soil with 0% crude oil Soil with 3% crude oil Soil with 5% crude oil Soil with 7% crude oil

(a)
30 days of phytoremediaon

Opmum moisture content (%)

16
15
13.7 14
15.2
14 12 12
15.3
14.5 12.5 10
13.5
8
6
4
2
0
Pltatycladus orientalis
Ophiopogon japonicus
without phytoremediaon

3% crude oil 5% crude oil 7% crude oil

(b)
60 days of phytoremediaon
Opmum moisture content (%)

16.5
16
15.7
16 15.36 15.5
16.35 15.59 15
15.9
14.5
14
13.75
13.93 13.5
14.1 13
12.5
12
Pltatycladus orientalis
Ophiopogon japonicus
without phytoremediaon

3% crude oil 5% crude oil 7% crude oil

(c)
Fig. 11 Optimum moisture contents of different soil samples, a first day of phytoremediation, b after 30 days of phytoremediation, c after
60 days of phytoremediation

Figure 13 shows the compression index (Cc) of different time increased, the compression index of the contaminated
samples at different times. The compression indices for soil increased. This could be related to the increase in voids
3%, 5%, and 7% crude oil are presented in Fig. 13a–c, in the soil, as observed in the SEM images. These results
respectively. Figure 13 shows that as the contamination

123
International Journal of Civil Engineering

0.8 0.8
3% crude oil 3% crude oil
0.75 0.75
0.7 0.7
0.65 0.65
0.6 0.6

e
e

0.55 0.55
0.5 0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
log p (kPa) log p (kPa)
0% crude oil 0% crude oil
without phytoremediaon without phytoremediaon
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis
(a) (b)
0.8 0.8
5% crude oil 0.75
5% crude oil
0.75
0.7 0.7
0.65 0.65
0.6 0.6
e
e

0.55 0.55
0.5 0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
log p (kPa) log p (kPa)
0% crude oil 0% crude oil
without phytoremediaon without phytoremediaon
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis
(c) (d)
0.8 0.8
7% crude oil 7% crude oil
0.75 0.75
0.7 0.7
0.65 0.65
0.6 0.6
e

0.55 0.55
0.5 0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
log p (kPa) log p (kPa)
0% crude oil 0% crude oil
without phytoremediaon without phytoremediaon
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis
(e) (f)
Fig. 12 Compression curves for different samples, a 3% crude oil content and 30 days of phytoremediation, b 3% crude oil content and 60 days
of phytoremediation, c 5% crude oil content and 30 days of phytoremediation, d 5% crude oil content and 60 days of phytoremediation, e 7%
crude oil content and 30 days of phytoremediation, f 7% crude oil content and 60 days of phytoremediation

123
 International Journal of Civil Engineering

0.24
3% crude oil
0.22
0.2

Cc
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0 30 60
Phytoremediaon me (day)
without phytoremediaon
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis
(a)
0.24
5% crude oil
0.22
0.2
Cc

0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0 30 60
Phytoremediaon me (day)
without phytoremediaon
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis
(b)
0.24 7% crude oil
0.22
0.2
Cc

0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0 30 60
Phytoremediaon me (day)
without phytoremediaon
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis
(c)

123
 International Journal of Civil Engineering

b Fig. 13 Variations in compression index (Cc) with phytoremediation
time for different soil samples, a 3% crude oil content, b 5% crude oil
content, c 7% crude oil content
are in agreement with the outcomes reported by a number
of other researchers [10, 13, 14].
Figure 13 shows that phytoremediation reduced the rate
of increase in the soil compression index. This is likely
related to the breaking up of the flocculated soil, as is
evident in the SEM images. The decreasing trend was more
pronounced for P. orientalis than O. japonicus. A decrease
in the compression index caused by phytoremediation
reduced the settlement of soil contaminated with crude oil.
Figure 14 shows the coefficient of consolidation (Cv)
versus the crude oil content for samples without and with
phytoremediation by O. japonicus and P. orientalis. Fig-
ure 14a, b shows the values at 30 and 60 days of phy-
toremediation, respectively. It can be seen that an increase
in the crude oil content caused the coefficient of consoli-
dation to increase in all samples, which agrees with find-
ings of previous studies [18, 61]. This increase was greater
in the samples without phytoremediation than in those with
phytoremediation. With a further increase in the crude oil
content, the rate of increase of the coefficient of consoli-
dation decreased. The rate of increase was higher at 3–5%
contamination than at 5–7% contamination. In addition, an
increase in contamination time increased the coefficient of
consolidation. This increase was less in the second 30 days
of phytoremediation than in the first 30 days. Figure 15
shows the coefficient of volume compressibility based on
the crude oil content at 30 and 60 days of phytoremedia-
tion. This value was calculated using the results of con-
solidation testing [62] as
De
Dr0
mv ¼ ; ð1Þ
1 þ e0
where Dr0 is the change in effective stress, De is the change
in void ratio, and e0 is the initial void ratio.
Figure 15 shows that an increase in the crude oil content
caused an increase in the coefficient of volume compress-
ibility. The rate of increase in the first 30 days was greater
than in the second 30 days. During both periods, the
samples with phytoremediation experienced a smaller
increase in the coefficient of volume compressibility.
Those with P. orientalis showed a smaller increase in the
coefficient of volume compressibility than O. japonicus.
Consolidation settlement (DH) of the soil layer can be
calculated using Eq. (2) as:
De
DH ¼ H; ð2Þ
1 þ e0
where H is the thickness of soil treated by phytoremedia-
tion. By considering Eqs. (1) and (2), Eq. (3) can be used to
calculate the consolidation settlement [62] as:
DH ¼ mv HDr0 : ð3Þ
Based on the coefficient of volume compressibility (mv),
the amount of settlement from phytoremediation by O.
japonicus and P. orientalis in the first 30 days of

0.8 0.8
30 days of phytoremediaon 60 days of phytoremediaon
0.7 0.7
Cv × 10 -6 (m2/sec)

Cv × 10 -6 (m2/sec)

0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
3 5 7 3 5 7
Crude oil (%) Crude oil (%)
without phytoremediaon without phytoremediaon
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis
(a) (b)
Fig. 14 Variations in coefficient of consolidation (Cv) with crude oil content for different soil samples, a after 30 days of phytoremediation,
b after 60 days of phytoremediation

123
 International Journal of Civil Engineering

5.5 5.5
30 days of phytoremediaon 60 days of phytoremediaon
5 5
mv ×10 -4 (1/kPa)

mv ×10 -4 (1/kPa)
4.5 4.5

4 4

3.5 3.5

3 3

2.5 2.5
3 5 7 3 5 7
Crude oil (%) Crude oil (%)
First day of phytoremediaon First day of phytoremediaon
without phytoremediaon without phytoremediaon
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis
(a) (b)
Fig. 15 Variations of coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) with crude oil content for different soil samples, a after 30 days of
phytoremediation, b after 60 days of phytoremediation

phytoremediation decreased by 6% and 17%, respectively,
compared to the samples without phytoremediation for the
same time period. The decrease in settlement for samples
remediated by O. japonicus and P. orientalis at 60 days
was 8.5% and 18%, respectively, compared to the samples
without phytoremediation for the same time period.
4.6 Permeability Test
Permeability tests were used to identify changes in the
coefficient of permeability of the soil samples. Figure 16
shows the permeability coefficients of samples with and
without phytoremediation. These values are presented
according to the crude oil content at 30 and 60 days of
phytoremediation. It can be seen that, as the crude oil
content increased, permeability increased in all samples. A
similar increase in the permeability coefficient has been
reported by other researchers [18, 54, 63] and appears to be
related to the lower dielectric constant of the crude oil than
of the water [53]. Contamination of soil with crude oil
having a lower dielectric constant than water reduced the
thickness of the double-layer water. This reduction in the
double-layer water thickness increased flocculation among
the particles and led to the creation of more voids and an
increase in permeability. It is also clear that further
increases in the crude oil content decreased the rate of
increase in permeability. In these diagrams, although the
permeability increased as the period of contamination
increased, the samples with phytoremediation experienced
a smaller increase. An increase in the permeability coeffi-
cient with an increase in contamination time has been
reported previously [55].
The permeability coefficients were calculated indirectly
from the results of the consolidation tests using Eq. (4) [62]
as:
k ¼ C v cw m v ; ð4Þ
where cw is unit weight of the water.
Figure 17 compares the permeability coefficient
obtained from both direct and indirect methods on day 1 of
phytoremediation. It can be seen that the smallest differ-
ence between the two methods (6%) was at the 3% crude
oil content. The difference increased as the crude oil con-
tent increased. The difference between the permeability
coefficients calculated using the two methods at the 5% and
7% crude oil contents was 29% and 22%, respectively. The
increase in pressure decreased the coefficient of volume
compressibility and, subsequently, the coefficient of con-
solidation. This means that the permeability decreased with
an increase in pressure according to Eq. (4).

123
International Journal of Civil Engineering

40 40
30 days of phytoremediaon
Permeability × 10 -10 (m/sec)

Permeability × 10 -10 (m/sec)

35 35
60 days of phytoremediaon
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
3 5 7 3 5 7
Crude oil (%) Crude oil (%)
without phytoremediaon without phytoremediaon
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis

(a) (b)
Fig. 16 Variation of permeability coefficient with crude oil content, a after 30 days of phytoremediation, b after 60 days of phytoremediation

First day of phytoremediaon

40
Permeability × 10-10 (m/sec)

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
3 5 7
Crude oil (%)

Indirect method Direct method

Fig. 17 Comparison of permeability coefficients obtained from consolidation test (indirect method) and permeability test (direct method) for
different soil samples at the first day of phytoremediation

Figure 18 shows the difference between the permeabil- Figures 17 and 18 also show that the trend of change in
ity coefficients of the phytoremediated samples as calcu- permeability based on the results of the permeability and
lated using the permeability test (direct) and the consolidation tests were similar.
consolidation test (indirect). The samples in Fig. 18a, b are It can be concluded from Fig. 18 that the differences in
without phytoremediation. Those in Fig. 18c, d were sub- the permeability coefficients calculated using the direct and
jected to phytoremediation by O. japonicus and in Fig. 18e, indirect methods at 30 days of phytoremediation were
f were subjected to phytoremediation by P. orientalis.

123
 International Journal of Civil Engineering

30 days of phytoremediaon 60 days of phytoremediaon

40 40
without phytoremediaon

Permeability × 10-10 (m/sec)

without phytoremediaon
Permeability × 10-10 (m/sec) 35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
3 5 7 3 5 7
Crude oil (%) Crude oil (%)
Indirect method- 30 days Indirect method- 60 days
Direct method- 30 days Direct method- 60 days
(a) (b)
40 40
Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus
Permeability × 10-10 (m/sec)

Permeability × 10-10 (m/sec)

Phytoremediaon by Ophiopogon japonicus
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
3 5 7 3 5 7
Crude oil (%) Crude oil (%)
Indirect method- 30 days Indirect method- 60 days
Direct method- 30 days Direct method- 60 days
(c) (d)
40 Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis
40
Phytoremediaon by Platycladus orientalis
Permeability × 10-10 (m/sec)
Permeability × 10-10 (m/sec)

35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
3 5 7 3 5 7
Crude oil (%) Crude oil (%)
Indirect method- 30 days Indirect method- 60 days
Direct method- 30 days Direct method- 60 days
(e) (f)
Fig. 18 Comparison of permeability coefficients obtained from consolidation tests (indirect method) and permeability tests (direct method) for
different soil samples, a 30 days without phytoremediation, b 60 days without phytoremediation, c 30 days of phytoremediation by Ophiopogo
japonicus, d 60 days of phytoremediation by Ophiopogo japonicus, e 30 days of phytoremediation by Platycladus orientalis, f 60 days of
phytoremediation by Platycladus orientalis

123
International Journal of Civil Engineering
higher than at 60 days. In other words, an increase in time
decreased the difference in the results of the two methods.
5 Conclusion
The present study investigated the effects of phytoreme-
diation by O. japonicus and P. orientalis for removal of
crude oil contamination and the changes induced in the
geotechnical properties of silty clayey sand after 30 and
60 days of treatment. It was shown that, after 30 and
60 days of phytoremediation by P. orientalis, the TPH
content decreased by 30% and 40%, respectively. The
increasing trend of TPH removal phytoremediated by P.
orientalis can be related to the differences in the types of
roots of these two plants. The roots of P. orientalis showed
better contact with the soil contaminated with crude oil. It
should be noted that these conclusions are valid for the soil
studied in this research.
The SEM images showed that an increase in the crude
oil content and contamination time increased the void
space in the soil and changed the soil structure to a more
flocculated one. However, phytoremediation decreased the
amount of flocculation. The decrease in the dielectric
constant and subsequent reduction in the thickness of the
double-layer water caused an increase in the flocculation of
the soil particles. The decrease in the Atterberg limits with
an increase in the crude oil content could be also attributed
to the flocculated structure. An increase in phytoremedia-
tion period and the reduction in the contaminant content
led to an increase in the Atterberg limits.
The results of the Proctor tests showed that an increase
in the crude oil content decreased the maximum dry density
and the associated optimum moisture content. This
decrease was smaller in samples with phytoremediation. It
related to the substitution of crude oil for water in the
pores, which also was the major cause of the decrease in
the optimum moisture content.
Permeability test results indicated an increase in the
permeability coefficients with an increase in the crude oil
content. Based on the SEM results, the associated increase
in the void space due to contamination and flocculation of
the soil structure were the main reasons for the increase in
the permeability coefficient. The phytoremediated samples
experienced a smaller increase in permeability. The reason
for this could be attributed to the further reduction in the
crude oil content in the phytoremediated soil and smaller
void space in the soil structure.
The consolidation tests showed that an increase in the
crude oil content increased the compression index, coeffi-
cient of consolidation, and permeability coefficient. The
reason for the increasing trend in the soil compressibility
could relate to the increase in lubrication of soil particles
due to the presence of crude oil in the soil, which is more
viscous than water. Also, the SEM images revealed that an
increase in the void space in the soil contaminated with
crude oil lead to an increase in soil compaction. Phytore-
mediation, especially with P. orientalis, caused a greater
decrease in the crude oil content of the soil, which helped
to reduce the negative effects of the presence of crude oil.
Comparison of the permeability coefficients obtained from
permeability and consolidation tests showed good agree-
ment, with a difference of less than 10%. The final settle-
ment decreased with a decrease in the coefficient of volume
compressibility (mv) due to phytoremediation compared to
the samples without phytoremediation at 30 and 60 days of
treatment by 11.5% and 12.5%, respectively.
References
1. Nasr AM (2009) Experimental and theoretical studies for the
behavior of strip footing on oil-contaminated sand. J Geotech
Geoenviron Eng 135:1814–1822
2. Naeini SA, Shojaedin MM, Misaghian M (2019) Briefing: liq-
uefaction potential of oil-contaminated silty sands. Proc Inst Civ
Eng Geotech Eng 172(5):396–401
3. Khosravi E, Ghasemzadeh H, Sabour MR, Yazdani H (2013)
Geotechnical properties of gas oil-contaminated kaolinite. Eng
Geol 166:11–16
4. Ghadyani M, Hamidi A, Hatambeigi M (2019) Triaxial shear
behaviour of oil contaminated clays. Eur J Environ Civ Eng
23:112–135
5. Al-Sanad HA, Eid WK, Ismael NF (1995) Geotechnical proper-
ties of oil-contaminated Kuwaiti sand. J Geotech Eng
121:407–412
6. Shin EC, Das BM (2000) Bearing capacity of unsaturated oil-
contaminated sand. In: Proceeding of 10th international offshore
and polar engineering conference. International Society of Off-
shore and Polar Engineers, USA
7. Singh SK, Srivastava RK, John S (2009) Studies on soil con-
tamination due to used motor oil and its remediation. Can Geo-
tech J 46:1077–1083
8. Hosseini A, Hajiani Boushehrian A (2019) Laboratory and
numerical study of the behavior of circular footing resting on
sandy soils contaminated with oil under cyclic loading. Scientia
Iranica 26(6):3219–3232
9. Jia YG, Wu Q, Meng XM, Yang XJ, Yang ZN, Zhang GC (2010)
Case study on influences of oil contamination on geotechnical
properties of coastal sediments in the Yellow River Delta. In:
Chen Y, Zhan L, Tang X (eds) Advances in environmental
geotechnics. Springer, Berlin, pp 767–771
10. Kermani M, Ebadi T (2012) The effect of oil contamination on
the geotechnical properties of fine-grained soils. Soil Sediment
Contam 21:655–671
11. Oluwatuyi OE, Ojuri OO, Khoshghalb A (2020) Cement-lime
stabilization of crude oil contaminated kaolin clay. J Rock Mech
Geotech Eng 12:160–167
12. Khamehchiyan M, Charkhabi AH, Tajik M (2007) Effects of
crude oil contamination on geotechnical properties of clayey and
sandy soils. Eng Geol 89:220–229
123

13. Al-Adili A, Alsoudany KY, Shakir A (2017) Investigation of
crude oil pollution effect on stiffness characteristics of sandy and
gypseous soil. Soil Mech Found Eng 54:276–282
14. Ahmed HUR, Abduljauwad SN (2017) Molecular-level simula-
tions of oil-contaminated clays. Environ Geotech 6:528–542
15. Mohammadi A, Ebadi T (2018) Effect of bentonite addition on
geotechnical properties of oil-contaminated sandy soil. J Civ Eng
Constr 7:153–162
16. Soltani-Jigheh H, Molamahmood HV, Ebadi T, Soorki AA
(2018) Effect of oil-degrading bacteria on geotechnical properties
of crude oil-contaminated sand. Environ Eng Geosci 24:333–341
17. Choura M, Salhi S, Cherif F (2009) Mechanical behaviour study
of soil polluted by crude oil: case of Sidi El Itayem oilfield, Sfax,
Tunisia. Environ Earth Sci 59:573–580
18. Karkush MO, Abdulkareem ZA (2017) Investigation of the
impacts of fuel oil on the geotechnical properties of cohesive soil.
Eng J 21:127–137
19. Chen H, Jiang Y, Zhang W, He X (2017) Experimental study of
the stabilization effect of cement on diesel-contaminated soil. Q J
Eng Geol Hydrog 50:199–205
20. Cunningham SD, Anderson TA, Schwab AP, Hsu FC (1996)
Phytoremediation of soils contaminated with organic pollutants.
Adv Agron 56:55–114
21. Miranda MFA, Freire MBGDS, Almeida BG, Freire AG, Freire
FJ, Pessoa LGM (2018) Improvement of degraded physical
attributes of a saline-sodic soil as influenced by phytoremediation
and soil conditioners. Arch Agron Soil Sci 64:1207–1221
22. Fazeli G, Karbassi A, Khoramnejadian S, Nasrabadi T (2019)
Evaluation of urban soil pollution: a combined approach of toxic
metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Int J
Environ Res 13:801–811
23. Wei J, Liu X, Zhang X, Chen X, Liu S, Chen L (2014) Rhizo-
sphere effect of Scirpus triqueter on soil microbial structure
during phytoremediation of diesel-contaminated wetland. Envi-
ron Technol 35:514–520
24. Paisio CE, Agostini E, González PS (2019) Application of two
bioassays as potential indicators of phenol phytoremediation
efficiency by tobacco hairy roots, Environ Technol. https://doi.
org/10.1080/09593330.2019.1649471
25. Abdollahzadeh T, Niazi A, Moghadam A, Heydarian Z, Gha-
semi-Fasaei R, Kaviani E, Pourdad N (2019) Phytoremediation of
petroleum-contaminated soil by Salicornia: from PSY activity to
physiological and morphological communications. Environ
Technol 40:2789–2801
26. Barrutia O, Epelde L, Garcı́a-Plazaola JI, Garbisu C, Becerril JM
(2009) Phytoextraction potential of two Rumex acetosa L.
accessions collected from metalliferous and non-metalliferous
sites: effect of fertilization. Chemosphere 74:259–264
27. Reddy KR, Chirakkara RA (2013) Green and sustainable reme-
dial strategy for contaminated site: case study. Geotech Geol Eng
31:1653–1661
28. Ruttens A, Mench M, Colpaert JV, Boisson J, Carleer R, Van-
gronsveld J (2006) Phytostabilization of a metal contaminated
sandy soil. I: influence of compost and/or inorganic metal
immobilizing soil amendments on phytotoxicity and plant avail-
ability of metals. Environ Pollut 144:524–532
29. Mench M, Schwitzguébel JP, Schroeder P, Bert V, Gawronski S,
Gupta S (2009) Assessment of successful experiments and limi-
tations of phytotechnologies: contaminant uptake, detoxification
and sequestration, and consequences for food safety. Environ Sci
Pollut Res 16:876–900
30. Nagendran R, Selvam A, Joseph K, Chiemchaisri C (2006)
Phytoremediation and rehabilitation of municipal solid waste
landfills and dumpsites: a brief review. Waste Manag
26:1357–1369
123
International Journal of Civil Engineering
31. Aprill W, Sims RC (1990) Evaluation of the use of prairie grasses
for stimulating polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon treatment in soil.
Chemosphere 20:253–265
32. Barac T, Weyens N, Oeyen L, Taghavi S, van der Lelie D, Dubin
D, Spliet M, Vangronsveld J (2009) Field note: hydraulic con-
tainment of a BTEX plume using poplar trees. Int J Phytoreme-
diat 11:416–424
33. Fu D, Teng Y, Shen Y, Sun M, Tu C, Luo Y, Li Z, Christie P
(2012) Dissipation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and
microbial activity in a field soil planted with perennial ryegrass.
Front Environ Sci Eng 6:330–335
34. ASTM D422-07 (2007) Standard test method for particle size
analysis of soils. ASTM International, West Conshohocken
35. ASTM D4318-10 (2010) Standard test methods for liquid limit,
plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils. ASTM International,
West Conshohocken
36. ASTM D2487-11 (2011) Standard practice for classification of
soils for engineering purposes (unified soil classification system).
ASTM International, West Conshohocken
37. Tuncan A, Pamukcu S (1992) Geotechnical properties of petro-
leum and sludge contaminated marine sediments. In: The 2nd
international offshore and polar engineering conference. Inter-
national Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers, USA
38. Puri VK, Das BM, Cook EE, Shin EC (1994) Geotechnical
properties of crude oil contaminated sand. In: Analysis of soils
contaminated with petroleum constituents. ASTM International
39. Maisano M, Cappello T, Natalotto A, Vitale V, Parrino V,
Giannetto A, Oliva S, Mancini G, Cappello S, Mauceri A, Fasulo
S (2017) Effects of petrochemical contamination on caged marine
mussels using a multi-biomarker approach: histological changes,
neurotoxicity and hypoxic stress. Mar Environ Res 128:114–123
40. Aiban SA (1998) The effect of temperature on the engineering
properties of oil-contaminated sands. Environ Int 24:153–161
41. Puri VK (2000) Geotechnical aspects of oil-contaminated sands.
Soil Sediment Contam 9:359–374
42. Ogboghodo IA, Iruaga EK, Osemwota IO, Chokor JU (2004) An
assessment of the effects of crude oil pollution on soil properties,
germination and growth of maize (Zea mays) using two crude
types—Forcados light and Escravos light. Environ Monit Assess
96:143–152
43. Moavenian MH, Yasrobi SS (2008) Volume change behavior of
compacted clay due to organic liquids as permeant. Appl Clay Sci
39:60–71
44. ASTM D698-12 (2012) Standard test methods for laboratory
compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort. ASTM
International, West Conshohocken
45. ASTM D5084-03 (2003) Standard test methods for measurement
of hydraulic conductivity of saturated porous materials using a
flexible wall permeameter. ASTM International, West
Conshohocken
46. ASTM D2435-11 (2011) Standard test methods for one-dimen-
sional consolidation properties of soils using incremental loading.
ASTM International, West Conshohocken
47. US EPA (2007) Method 3550C ultrasonic extraction, United
states environmental protection agency, SW-846 manual. U.S.
Government printing office, Washington, DC
48. US EPA (1996) Method 8015B Nonhalogenated organics using
GC/FID. United states environmental protection agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
49. Sari GL, Trihadiningrum Y, Ni’matuzahroh N (2018) Petroleum
hydrocarbon pollution in soil and surface water by public oil
fields in Wonocolo Sub-district, Indonesia. J Ecol Eng
19:184–193
50. Nero BF (2020) Phytoremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon-
contaminated soils with two plant species: Jatropha curcas and
International Journal of Civil Engineering
Vetiveria zizanioides at Ghana Manganese Company Ltd. Int J
Phytoremediat 22:1–10
51. Fatima K, Imran A, Amin I, Khan QM, Afzal M (2018) Suc-
cessful phytoremediation of crude-oil contaminated soil at an oil
exploration and production company by plants-bacterial syner-
gism. Int J Phytoremediat 20:675–681
52. Płociniczak T, Fic E, Pacwa-Płociniczak M, Pawlik M, Pio-
trowska-Seget Z (2017) Improvement of phytoremediation of an
aged petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated soil by Rhodococcus
erythropolis CD 106 strain. Int J Phytoremediat 19:614–620
53. Mitchell JK (1993) Fundamentals of soil behavior. Wiley, New
York
54. Rehman H, Abduljauwad SN, Akram T (2007) Geotechnical
behavior of oil-contaminated fine-grained soils. Electron J Geo-
tech Eng 12:1–12
55. Izdebska-Mucha D, Trzciński J (2008) Effects of petroleum
pollution on clay soil microstructure. Geologija 50:S68–S74
56. Rajabi H, Sharifipour M (2019) Geotechnical properties of
hydrocarbon-contaminated soils: a comprehensive review. B Eng
Geol Environ 78:3685–3717
57. Karkush MO, Abdulkareem MS (2018) Impacts of petroleum fuel
oil contamination on the geotechnical properties of fine-grained
soils. Indian J Eng 15:228–237
58. Nasehi SA, Uromeihy A, Nikudel MR, Morsali A (2016) Influ-
ence of gas oil contamination on geotechnical properties of fine
and coarse-grained soils. Geotech Geol Eng 34:333–345
59. Askarbioki MH, Kargaran Bafghi F, Mokhtari M, Khaleghi M
(2019) Impact of gasoline contamination on mechanical behavior
of sandy clay soil. J Min Environ 10:389–399
60. Di Matteo L, Bigotti F, Ricco R (2011) Compressibility of kao-
linitic clay contaminated by ethanol-gasoline blends. J Geotech
Geoenviron Eng 137:846–849
61. Karkush MO, Al-Taher TAA (2017) Geotechnical evaluation of
clayey soil contaminated with industrial wastewater. Arch Civ
Eng 63:47–62
62. Das BM (2013) Advanced soil mechanics. Taylor and Francis,
New York
63. Nazir AK (2011) Effect of motor oil contamination on geotech-
nical properties of over consolidated clay. Alex Eng J
50:331–335
123