MAY 2010

Status of Mangrove Forests in Trinidad and Tobago

Prepared by

Rahanna A. Juman, Wetlands Ecologist

Environmental Research Department

and

Deanesh Ramsewak, Remote Sensing Officer

Geomatics Unit

May 2010
 Abstract

Mangrove forests provide a range of provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting

services including coastal protection, carbon sequestration, water quality maintenance
and the provision of habitats for a diversity of species. As this ecosystem is lost or
degraded, increased damage to shorelines from coastal hazards such as erosion, flooding,
and storm waves and surges is expected. There will also be a decline in coastal water
quality, biodiversity and fish and crustacean nursery habitats. Furthermore, mangrove
destruction would release large quantities of stored carbon and exacerbate global
warming trends. Much of the mangrove forests in the Caribbean have been impacted by
human activities, and now they are projected to be negatively affected by sea-level rise
especially where they are constrained on the landward side, or starved of sediment.

The goal of this project was to assess the status and trends of mangrove forests in
Trinidad and Tobago and establish a baseline, so that response to human induced changes
and climate changes can be determined. This study established the baseline as of 2007.
Mangrove forest maps for Trinidad and Tobago were created and size calculated using
high resolution IKONOS imagery, GIS technology and extensive field surveys with GPS.
It is assumed that the estimates for mangrove coverage in this study are the most accurate
and up-to-date as advanced mapping technology was used.

Estimated mangrove coverage was higher than anticipated, perhaps because of

inaccuracies in historical data and in some cases because of re-growth following past
disturbances. In Trinidad, the majority of mangrove forests are found on the sheltered
west coast (Gulf of Paria); which is the coastline that is occupied by more than 70% of
the country’s population and has experienced the most intense development activities
within the past three decades. The current mangrove coverage is estimated at 7,532 ha on
the west coast compared to 1,132.8 ha on the east coast, 481.3 ha on the south coast,
0.3 ha on the north coast and 222.9 ha in Tobago. The Caroni Swamp accounts for 56%
of all mangroves in Trinidad and Tobago.

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While mangrove forests are impacted by land-use changes and erosion, there are
instances where the forests have expanded but at the expense of freshwater wetland
communities. As landward migration continues, there are concerns with coastal squeeze
as built development occurs on the landward edge of these wetlands and can limit their
movement. Site-specific mangrove vulnerability assessment is recommended since the
ecosystem is responding to other human threats besides climate changes, and its response
is determined by site physiography, hydrology and ecology. Tidal data and
sedimentation rates have to be collected for selected areas of coast. The data generated
from the assessments should be used to inform policies, and development integrated
coastal zone plans for Trinidad and Tobago.

Keywords: Mangrove forest, sea-level rise, land use changes, vulnerability

assessment

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors wish to acknowledge the following persons who assisted with the field
surveys for this project: Jonathan Gomez, Russell Rajnauth, Sunil Ramnath, Addison
Titus, Kahlil Hassanli, Christopher Alexis, Allerson Small, and Prior Ramcharran.
Photographs were provided by Jonathan Gomez and the IKONOS satellite imagery was
provided by the Town and Country Planning Division, Ministry of Planning, Housing and
the Environment.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
Page #

1.0 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………. 1

2.0 METHODOLOGY…………………………………………. 7

2.1 Site Description……………………………………… 7

2.2 Methods……………………………………………… 9

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION……………………………. 11

Trinidad……………………………………………………… 11
West Coast…………………………………………… 11
South Coast………………………………………….. 61
East Coast……………………………………………. 74
North Coast………………………………………….. 89
Tobago……………………………………………………….. 90
Leeward Coast………………………………………. 92
Windward Coast……………………………………. 95

4.0 GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION……….. 108

5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………… 116

6.0 REFERENCES……………………………………………. 119

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Page #
Figure 2.1: Map of Trinidad and Tobago……………………………… 8

Figure 2.2: IKONOS satellite image mosaic of Trinidad…………….. 9

Figure 2.3: IKONOS satellite image mosaic of Tobago…………........ 9

Figure 3.1: Location of mangrove forests around Trinidad………….. 12

Figure 3.2: Google imagery showing the Salt Pond with fringing
mangrove forest………………………………………….. 15

Figure 3.3: Map of the mangrove forest at Hart’s Cut, Chaguaramas… 16

Figure 3.4: Map of the mangrove forest along the Cuesa River,
Chaguaramas……………………………………………… 18

Figure 3.5: Google Map of the mangrove forests found along the
Audrey Jeffers Highway, Mucurapo………………………. 19

Figure 3.6: Map of the mangrove forest in Sealots, Port of Spain…….. 23

Figure 3.7: Map of Caroni Swamp mangrove forest…………………… 26

Figure 3.8: Landsat Image (August 25, 2001 – Bands 5,4,3 RGB) of the
Caroni Swamp showing healthy mangrove in green, mangrove
Die- off in brown and lagoons in black…………………… 28

Figure 3.9: Map of the mangrove forest along the banks of the La Cuesa River,
Waterloo and fringing Barrancones Bay………………….. 31

Figure 3:10: Map of the mangrove stand growing along the Carataria River
and on mudflat in Orange Valley………………………….. 32

Figure 3:11: Map of the mangrove forests near the mouth of the Couva River in
Carli Bay…………………………………………………….. 34

Figure 3.12: Map of mangrove forest in Lisas Bay and North Claxton Bay. 36

Figure 3:13: Map of the mangrove forests in South Claxton Bay…………. 39

Figure 3.14: Map of mangrove forest at the mouth of the Guaracara River,
Pointe-a-Pierre………………………………………………… 41

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Figure 3.15: Map of mangrove near the mouth of the Marabella River…… 43

Figure 3:16 Map on the mangrove forest at the mouth of the Cipero River.. 45

Figure 3.17: Map of the mangrove forest associated with the Godineau River,
South Oropuche………………………………………………… 47

Figure 3.18: Map of the mangrove forest in Rousillac………………………. 49

Figure 3.19: Map of mangrove forests in LaBrea……………………………. 50

Figure 3.20: Map of the mangrove area along the Vessigny River,
Point Fortin……………………………………………………. 52

Figure 3.21: Map of mangrove forest in Guapo Bay, Point Fortin…………. 53

Figure 3.22: Map of the mangrove forest in Irois Bay……………………… 55

Figure 3.23: Map of the mangrove forests at Icacos and Fullerton,

Southwest Trinidad…………………………………………… 57

Figure 3.24: Map of the mangrove forest at Los Blanquizales…………….. 62

Figure 3.25: Map of the mangrove forest at the mouth of Erin River,
Frank’s Bay…………………………………………………… 64

Figure 3.26: Map of mangrove forest west Frank’s Bay at the mouth of
St Hill River…………………………………………………… 65

Figure 3.27: Map of mangrove forest on the eastern side of Moruga Bay… 66

Figure 3:28: Map of mangrove forest on the western side of Moruga Bay… 67

Figure 3.29: Map of the mangrove forests at St Hilaire, Lawai and Lizard
Rivers in Guayaguayare Bay…………………………………… 69

Figure 3:30: Mangrove forest located at Point Galeota…………………….. 70

Figure 3.31: Map of the Rincon mangrove stand…………………………… 75

Figure 3.32: Map of the Matura River mangrove forest……………………. 76

Figure 3.33: Mangrove forest along the North Oropuche/ Fishing Pond area. 78

Figure 3.34: Mangrove forest with Manzanilla Bay, East Trinidad………… 81

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Figure 3.35: Map showing the mangrove forest in Nariva Swamp……….. 83

Figure 3.36: Mangrove forest associated with the Ortoire River………… 84

Figure 3.37: Map of the mangrove communities in the northern side of

Mayaro Bay………………………………………………… . 86

Figure 3.38: Map of the mangrove communities in the Central Mayaro Bay. 87

Figure 3.39: Map of the mangrove communities in South Mayaro Bay……. 88

Figure 3.40: Map of the mangrove forest in Scotland Bay…………………. 89

Figure 3.41: Map showing the location of mangrove forests in Tobago……. 91

Figure 3.42: Map showing the mangrove forest in the Bon Accord
Lagoon and Buccoo Bay……………………………………… 93

Figure 3.43: Map showing mangrove forests in Kilgwyn and

Friendship…………………………………………………….. 97

Figure 3.44: Map of the mangrove forest fringing Petit Trou Lagoon…….. 99

Figure 3.45: Map of the mangrove forests in Little Rockly Bay…………… 100

Figure 3.46: Map of the mangrove forest in Minster’s Bay………………… 101

Figure 3.47: Map of the mangrove system north of Gransby Point……….. 103

Figure 3.48: Map of the mangrove forest in Goldsborough Bay…………. 104

Figure 3.49: Map of the mangrove forest in Belle Garden………………... 105

Figure 3.50: Map of the mangrove forest in Queen’s Bay, Louis D’or…… 106

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 LIST OF TABLES
Page #
Table 3.1 List and size of mangrove forests in Trinidad……………. 13

Table 3: 2: Change detection analysis for mangrove forest in

Mucurapo………………………………………………….. 22

Table 3.3: List and sizes of mangrove forest in Tobago……………… 90

Table 4.1: A summary of the wetland uses by local community and

Impacts in Trinidad and Tobago………………………….. 109

LIST OF PLATES
Page #
Plate 1: Mangroves at the mouth of the Maraval River, Mucurapo
This river was silted up (Photo by N. O’Connor)……….. 20

Plate 2: Mangrove area east of the Audrey Jeffers highway impacted

by clearing, and dumping to derelict vehicles and solid waste
(Photo by N. O’Connors)………………………………… 21

Plate 3: Thin fringe of red mangroves bordering muddy bay in the

Sealot area………………………………………………… 24

Plate 4: Squatting within the mangrove forest at Sealots………….. 24

Plate 5: Mangrove die-off seen north of the Caroni River in 2005

(Photo by Roger Karim)…………………………………… 29

Plate 6: Erosion seen on the seaward side of Caroni Swamp………. 29

Plate 7: Mangrove seedlings seen growing among marsh near

La Cuesa River mouth, Waterloo………………………….. 30

Plate 8: Mangrove seedlings found growing in mudflats just south of

The Orange Valley fish landing site……………………….. 33

Plate 9: Young red mangrove trees found growing on mudflats seaward

of Point Lisas Nitrogen Limited, North Couva River……… 35

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Plate 10: Large area of mangrove die-off in North Claxton Bay leaving
Shallow open water area……………………………………. 38

Plate 11: Red mangrove forest found at the mouth of Hermitage River,
South Claxton Bay…………………………………………… 40

Plate 12: Red mangrove fringing the mouth of the Guaracara River….. 42

Plate 13: Effluent pipelines on the north bank of the Guaracara River… 42

Plate 14: Squatting community found along the coast, north of the
Marabella River……………………………………………….. 44

Plate 15: The old train line that crosses the mouth of the Marabella River.. 44

Plate 16: An overview of the Rousillac Swamp showing marsh

community and mangrove forest……………………………….. 49

Plate 17: Sandflat exposed at low tide in front of mangrove forest, south
of Pitch Point, LaBrea………………………………………….. 51

Plate 18: Mangroves cleared in LaBrea, south of Pitch Point. Houses were
constructed amongst mangroves………………………………… 51

Plate 19: Mature red mangrove trees in Irois Bay………………………… 55

Plate 20: Scarlet ibis seen in the mangrove forest at Los Gallos…………. 56

Plate 21: Mangrove forests eroding in Columbus Bay, Icacos…………… 59

Plate 22: Large open water area surrounded by mangroves in Icacos,

used by a variety of waterfowls………………………………… 59

Plate 23: Mangrove fern and mangroves colonizing marsh area………… 60

Plate 24: Road being constructed through marsh areas…………………... 60

Plate 25: Erosion of the mangrove forest at Los Blanquizales………….. 63

Plate 26: Area of mangrove die-off observed in Los Blanquizales……… 63

Plate 27: Large red mangrove at the mouth of the Moruga River………. 68

Plate 28: Unplanned housing on the eastern bank of the Moruga River… 68

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Plate 29: Basin system at Mouville, Pt Galeota with white and black
mangroves growing in clumps in slightly elevated areas……… 73

Plate 30: Mangroves stand at the mouth of the Guayamare River,

northeast Trinidad……………………………………………… 74

Plate 31: Basin mangrove forest behind sand bar south of the
North Oropuche River…………………………………………. 77

Plate 32: Marsh vegetation in Fishing Pond in area that was previously
under rice cultivation……………………………………………. 79

Plate 33: Red mangrove found at mouth of channel in North Manzanilla… 80

Plate 34: Mangroves cleared in the Bon Accord Lagoon near to sewage
effluent drain for resort development …………………………… 94

Plate 35: Black and white mangroves removed in Bon Accord Lagoon up to
the red mangrove fringe that is within the intertidal zone……….. 94

Plate 36: Ephemeral drain that connects the Kilgwyn Lagoon to the Bay.. 98

Plate 37: Extensive mangrove dieback in centre of Friendship Swamp

(March 05)……………………………………………………. 98

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 1.0 INTRODUCTION
Mangrove forests cover 15.2 million hectares of coastlines worldwide, and this represents
a 20% (3.6 million hectares) reduction from 1980 estimates (FAO, 2007). They are found
in sheltered estuaries, along river banks and shallow-water lagoons in 124 countries in the
tropics and subtropics. Mangrove forests provide a range of provisioning, regulating and
cultural and supporting services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Although
economic valuation of ecosystems needs to be treated with caution, the annual value per
km2 of mangroves has been calculated at US$200,000-$900,000 (UNEP, WCMC 2006).

Mangroves are not a single genetic group but represent genetic adaptation of a large
variety of plant families to a particular environment. These halophytic (salt tolerant)
plants are of great energetic importance because they provide detrital material to both
lagoon and ocean consumers (Robertson & Daniel, 1989; Twilley et al., 1992; Ewel et
al., 1998), and they serve as habitats for larvae, juveniles and adults of estuarine and
marine organisms (Parrish, 1989; Robertson & Blaber, 1992; Tobias, 2001) making these
areas critical for coastal fisheries (Flores-Verdugo et al., 1992).

Mangroves in the Caribbean strongly influence the community structure of fish on

neighbouring coral reefs (Mumby et al., 2004). The biomass of several species more than
doubled when the reefs were connected to rich mangrove resources (defined as having at
least 70 km of fringing Rhizophora mangle within a region of 200 km2) (Mumby, 2006).
Current rates of mangrove deforestation are likely to have severe deleterious
consequences for the ecosystem function, fisheries productivity and resilience of reefs
and therefore conservation efforts should protect connected corridors of mangroves,
seagrass beds and coral reefs (Mumby, 2006).

Mangrove forests prevent coastal erosion by reducing wave impact and inducing
sedimentation in depositional environments by colonizing and stabilizing emerging mud
banks with their roots (Saenger & Siddiqi, 1993; Madza et al., 1997). They dissipate the
energy of surface waves to varying degrees, depending on the density, size and species
composition of tree stands, and the presence and aspect of tidal creeks (Madza et al.,

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2007). A model by Massel et al. (1999) indicated that shorter waves attenuate more
rapidly in mangrove swamps than longer waves, and that a dense stand of stilt root
mangroves (Rhizophora spp.,) could reduce average wave energy by over 50% at only
about 10 m distance from the water edge. However, the authors’ field measurements
showed that to decrease wave energy to such a degree more than a 100 m width of
mangroves was needed.

Coastal communities are often aware of the particular protection afforded by mangroves.
In India (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2005) and the Philippines (Walters, 2004), villagers tell
of how they have been protected from cyclones and typhoons in locations where
mangroves were intact, but suffer where mangroves have been converted to shrimp farms
or otherwise lost. Coastal protection has been the motivation for many afforestation
programs in Bangladesh (Saenger & Siddiqi, 1993) and in Vietnam, where managed
mangrove belts have reduced the costs of maintaining sea dykes in the face of recurrent
cyclones (Ha, 2003; Tri et al., 1996).

Loss of mangrove swamps translates to loss of their ecosystems services, and loss and
degradation of wetland ecosystem services harms the health and well-being of individuals
and local communities and diminishes development prospect for all nations (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Reduced mangrove area will increase threat to human
safety and increase damage to shorelines from coastal hazards such as erosion, flooding,
and storm waves and surges. It will decrease coastal water quality, reduce biodiversity,
eliminate fish and crustacean nursery habitat, adversely affect adjacent coastal habitats,
and eliminate a major resource for human communities that traditionally rely on
mangroves for numerous products and services (Ewel, 1997; Ewel et al., 1998; Mumby et
al., 2004; Victor et al., 2004). Furthermore, mangrove destruction can release large
quantities of stored carbon and exacerbate global warming trends (Kauppi et al., 2001;
Ramsar Secretariat, 2001; Chmura et al., 2003).

The leading causes of mangrove forest loss and degradation are conversion for
aquaculture, use of mangroves for timber for construction and other functions, and for

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fuelwood and charcoal, conversion to rice paddies, and freshwater diversion and coastal
development for tourism and other purposes (Valiela et al., 2001).

Although there have been attempts in the Caribbean to protect mangrove swamps by
implementing coastal management and planning programs and declaring them Wetlands
of International Importance or Ramsar sites, there is still a net loss of mangroves and salt
marshes in the Insular Caribbean (Bacon, 2000). Of the 195 wetland sites investigated by
Bacon in 1991, some 47% showed evidence of serious resource degradation resulting
from human impact and all sites showed some damage (Bacon, 1991; 1995). A range of
impacts were identified, the most important of which are:-

a. landfill and solid waste dumping

b. vegetation clearing, particularly unregulated cutting for timber or charcoal

production

c. reclamation for agriculture, including some fish pond construction

d. hydrological alteration, particularly by roadways, or flood diversion

schemes

e. pollution by factory and domestic effluent

In Trinidad and Tobago more than 50% of the original wetland areas have disappeared
and the resources of the surviving wetlands are severely degraded, through misuse and
overexploitation (National Wetlands Policy, 2001). Wetlands are under severe pressure
as a result of population growth, increasing urbanization, industrialization and tourism in
coastal areas, and the associated catchments.

Historically, major alterations to wetlands in Trinidad and Tobago have been recorded as
far back as 1787, when the St Ann’s River was diverted, and wetlands in the lower
section of Port of Spain were reclaimed for the city’s expansion. Between 1922 and
1985, 494 ha of mangrove forest were lost from the northern and southern sections of the
Caroni Swamp due to the construction of roads, WASA sewage ponds and the Beetham

3
landfill (Gerald, 1985). Wetlands in Scotland Bay and Williams Bay in the western end
of Trinidad were filled in with dredged spoil during the United States occupation of
Chaguaramas (Ramcharan et al., 1982).

Between 1962 and 1969, 233 ha of mangroves were lost in the Godineau Swamp for rice
cultivation (Juman et al., 2006). In the 1970’s mangrove swamps at the mouth of the
Diego Martin and Maraval Rivers were reclaimed to provide land for high density
housing, recreational and port facilities, and highways (Ramcharan et al., 1982). In 1979,
500 ha of mangrove in the Couva-Claxton Bay area were reclaimed for the construction
of the Point Lisas industrial park and deep-water port (Ramcharan et al., 1982). During
the 1980s and 1990s rice farmers significantly altered a large portion of the western
section of the Nariva Swamp (IMA, 1998).

In 2001, 170 ha of mangrove dieback were detected in Landsat imagery in Caroni, and
more recently private landowners have cleared wetland areas in Guayamare and San
Juan, and there is squatting on the eastern boundary of this swamp. In Tobago, wetlands
were reclaimed in Scarborough for the library and post office buildings and in Kilgwyn
for the expansion of the runway at Crown Point (IMA, 1990).

Global climate change is expected to exacerbate the loss and degradation of mangrove
forest and the loss or decline of their species and to harm the human populations
dependent on their services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Small island
states, like Trinidad and Tobago, have limited capacity to adapt to relative sea level rise,
including accommodating landward migration of mangroves and other coastal
ecosystems. This is a result of their small land mass, high population densities and
growth rates, limited funds, poorly developed infrastructure, and susceptibility to damage
from natural disasters (Nurse et al., 2001).

After surveying over 200 coastal wetland sites in the Insular Caribbean, Bacon (1994)
suggests that responses to sea level rise would be quite variable since there is a wide
range of wetland types and geomorphic settings in the region. Mangrove forests in the

4
Insular Caribbean are of four main functional types (Lugo & Snedaker, 1974) based on
edaphic and hydrologic conditions:- riverine, fringe, basin and scrub. The potential
impacts are as follows-:
i. Probable loss of total mangrove area due to erosion of seaward margin of
mangrove site and loss of lagoon bars and sea barriers protecting mangroves
ii. Relocation rather than overall loss of mangrove- migration of mangrove
inland. This landward migration can be obstructed if the landward margin
of the mangrove area is steep or if there are seawalls and other
developments, thereby reducing the areas of coastal ecosystems; a
phenomenon referred to as coastal squeeze.
iii. Change in mangrove forest structure- landward replacement of Avicennia
(black mangrove) by Rhizophora (red mangrove) and increased growth and
productivity of mangrove area.
iv. Increase in mangrove area and changes to associated wetland community
types and distribution- saline intrusion into inland freshwater wetland and
rejuvenation of salinas and scrub mangrove sites.

Bacon (1994) stressed the importance of site-specific analysis and recommended that
more attention be paid to site physiography, hydrology and ecology in predicting
responses to sea level rise by tropical coastal wetlands. More importantly, if
sedimentation rate keeps pace with rising sea level, mangrove forest could remain largely
unaffected (Snedaker, 1993; Ellison, 1996).

Accurate predictions of changes to mangrove area and health, including those originating
from climate change effects, enable advanced planning to minimize and offset anticipated
losses and reduce threats to coastal development and human safety for specific sections
of coastline (Gilman et al., 2006). Establishing mangrove baselines and monitoring
gradual changes will enable the separation of site based influence from global climate
change, and will provide a better understanding of mangrove responses to sea level rise
and global climate changes. The goal of this project is to assess the status and trend of

5
mangrove forests in Trinidad and Tobago and establish a baseline, so that response to
human induced changes and climate changes can be determined.

The specific objectives are

i. To map the location, and current extent of mangrove forests in Trinidad
and Tobago.

ii. To describe the forests in terms of forest type, species composition, and
hydrological conditions

iii. To identify impacts and threats (natural and human) on mangrove forests
in Trinidad and Tobago using published and unpublished literature and by
examining the adjacent land uses.

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 2.0 METHODOLOGY

2.1 Site Description

Trinidad and Tobago is situated in the southernmost end of the Caribbean island chain
between 10° 02’ -10° 50’N latitude and 60° 55’-61° 56’W longitude (Figure 2.1). It is
located on the continental shelf of South America, and immediately adjacent to the
outflow of the Orinoco River. The country is less exposed to tropical storms and
hurricanes than most of the Caribbean nations, because of its southerly location. Its
marine ecosystems are influenced by discharge from South American Rivers, mainly the
Orinoco River, while its terrestrial biota is largely South American. The land areas of
Trinidad and Tobago are 4823 km2, and 300 km2 respectively. A series of smaller islands
are located off the northwest coast of Trinidad, of which the main ones are Gasper
Grande, Monos, Huevos, and Chacachacare. On the northeast coast of Tobago, there are
Little Tobago, Goat Island and St Giles.

Trinidad and Tobago experiences a mixed semi-diurnal tide with a pronounced semi-
diurnal inequality (Kjerfve, 1981). Mean tidal range is 0.6 m (Kjerfve, 1981). The
country has a tropical climate with two distinct seasons. The dry season occurs between
January and April, while the wet season extends from June to November. May and
December are considered transitional months between the two seasons. In Trinidad
average annual rainfall is 2,200 mm, of which two-thirds is recorded during the wet
season (Henry, 1990). Southwest Tobago receives a mean total rainfall of 1415 mm yr-1,
84% of which occurs during the wet season (CMI, 1982). The mean annual air
temperature range is 22.5°C - 28°C, while average sea surface temperature ranges from
26.5°C in the dry season to 28°C in the wet season (CMI, 1982).

In 2004, the population of Trinidad and Tobago was estimated at 1,290,646 persons
(Central Statistical Office (CSO), 2007). The population is concentrated in urban areas in
northwest Trinidad and San Fernando, and approximately 90 % of the population lives
along the west coastal area and the foothill of the Northern Range. Most of the
population of Tobago is concentrated in the southwest part of the island. The offshore

7
islands on the northwestern peninsula are used for vacation homes and resorts. Some
80% of industrial activities of strategic national importance are located within coastal
areas (CSO, 2007).

Figure 2.1: Map of Trinidad and Tobago

8
 2.2 Methods
A literature search was conducted to obtain information on the mangrove swamps in
Trinidad and Tobago. Documentation was sought primarily from the libraries of the
following agencies:
• Institute of Marine Affairs
• University of the West Indies
• Wildlife Section, Forestry Division, Ministry of Public Utilities and the
Environment

Data Acquisition
Satellite Image Data

The mangrove areas were delineated using IKONOS satellite imagery. This imagery had
a spatial resolution of one metre (panchromatic) and four metres (multispectral) and was
provided by the Town and Country Planning Division, Ministry of Planning, Housing and
the Environment. The spatial reference for the dataset was the WGS 84 UTM Zone 20 N
coordinate system. The dataset consisted of thirty eight (31 for Trinidad) and (7 for
Tobago) individual satellite scenes captured over the period 2000-2007. These scenes
were mosaicked together using ER Mapper 7.1 image processing software to produce
complete coverage for both islands as seen in figures (2.2 and 2.3) below:

Trinidad
Figure 2.2: IKONOS satellite image mosaic Figure 2.3: IKONOS satellite image mosaic of
of Trinidad Tobago

9
Field Verification Data

Field surveys were conducted with the aid of a Garmin handheld GPS system to verify
the boundaries of the mangrove forests. Surveys were conducted in Tobago in September
2008 and between November 2008 and July 2009 in Trinidad. During field surveys
information was collected on mangrove forest type using Bacon’s (1993) classification,
flora and fauna, hydrology and adjacent land uses and impacts. Photographs were taken.

Mapping

Geographic Information Systems

GIS software (ArcGIS 9.0) was used in conjunction with field verification data and
ancillary data such as topographic and hydrographic maps to delineate mangrove areas
from the IKONOS imagery. The GPS field points collected were imported into ArcGIS
and overlaid onto the satellite imagery to assist in determining the margins of the
mangrove vegetation. Delineation was then carried out by digitizing based on visual
interpretation to produce maps showing the spatial distribution and extent of the
mangrove areas.

• In certain areas mangroves validated by the field visits could not be

delineated on the satellite imagery due to the occurrence of cloud cover.
For Chacachacare and Mucurapo, Google Earth imagery was utilized to
map the boundaries of the mangroves.

• The Spatial Analyst extension of ArcGIS 9.0 was then used to calculate
the area of each of the mangrove regions mapped.

10
 3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

TRINIDAD
Mangrove forests were found on the west, south and east coasts of Trinidad (Figure 3.1;
Table 3.1) and on the offshore island-Chacachacare (Figure 3.2). The only mangrove
communities found on the north coast were in Scotland Bay and Maracas Bay. In
Maracas Bay, a few white mangrove trees (Laguncularia racemosa) were found on the
eastern bank of the Maracas Bay River. The most extensive mangrove forests were
found along the sheltered Gulf of Paria coastline (Figure 3.1).

WEST COAST
Salt Pond, Chacachacare
A narrow mangrove stand (< 100 m wide) was found on the southern and eastern edges
of the Salt Pond, a hypersaline pond (< 1 ha) in the southwestern side of Chacachacare
Island (Figure 3.2). This pond, located behind a shingle beach barrier is the only salt
pond mangrove habitat in Trinidad. The dominant mangrove species were white
mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa) and this was mixed with buttonwood (Conocarpus
erectus). Fewer back mangrove (Avicennia germinans) trees were observed. Although
Bacon (1993) recorded red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) around the Salt Pond, none
were observed in the 2009 survey. Associated flora included cactus and thorn scrub in
the hilly areas on the northern and western side of the Pond. Salinity in the pond was
91 ‰ and large crab holes were observed among the mangrove vegetation.

11
Figure 3.1: Location of mangrove forests around Trinidad

12
Table 3.1 List and size of mangrove forests in Trinidad
Area Dominant plant community Size (hectares)

WEST COAST
Hart's Basin mangrove
Cut swamp 0.7
Cuesa
River Estuarine mangrove swamp 2.2

Mucurapo Swamp Mangrove swamp 9.5

Sea Lots Mangrove swamp 1.8

Caroni Swamp Estuarine mangrove swamp/freshwater marsh 5,263

La Cuesa River, Estuarine mangrove
Waterloo swamp 13.9
Estuarine mangrove
Orange Valley swamp 1.5
Couva
River Estuarine mangrove swamp 298.1

Lisas Bay 151.1

North Claxton Bay Fringed mangrove swamp 88

Estuarine/ Fringed mangrove
South Claxton Bay swamp 8.7

Guaracara River Estuarine mangrove swamp 45.1

Estuarine mangrove
Marabella River swamp 2.3
Cipero Estuarine mangrove
River swamp 15.4

Godineau Swamp Tidal marsh, mangrove swamp 765.4

Mangrove swamp/fresh water
Rousillac Swamp marsh 338.7
Fringed/ Basin
La Brea mangrove swamp 3.7

Vessigny Bay Estuarine mangrove swamp 0.2

Mangrove swamp/ freshwater
Guapo River marsh 40.7

Irois Bay Mangrove swamp 76.9

Fullerton Estuarine mangrove 2.4

Los Gallos Estuarine mangrove 76.1

Icacos Bay Mangrove swamp/freshwater marsh 326.2

13
Area Dominant plant community Size (hectares)
Basin/ fringed mangrove
Los Blanquizales swamp/freshwater marsh 250.8
Estuarine mangrove
Erin Bay swamp 33.4
Estuarine mangrove
Moruga River swamp 113.6
Estuarine mangrove
Lizard River, Guayaguayare swamp 20.6
Basin / fringed
Mouville, Pt. Galeota mangrove swamp 23.2
Estuarine mangrove
Rustville, Guayaguayare swamp 39.3
St Hiliare, Estuarine mangrove
Guayaguayare swamp 0.4

NORTH COAST

Scotland Bay Fringed mangrove swamp 0.3

EAST COAST
Estuarine mangrove
Matura River swamp 21.1
Fringed mangrove
Rincon Bay swamp 0.63
Estuarine mangrove
Le Branche River swamp 28.8

North Manzanilla Mangrove swamp 0.7

Mangrove swamp/ freshwater
North Oropuche/ Fishing Pond marsh and forest 269.8
Freshwater marsh /swamp forest/
Nariva Swamp mangrove swamp 580.7
Estuarine mangrove swamp
Ortoire River 215.7
Estuarine/ fringed mangrove
Mayaro Bay swamp 15.4

14
 CHACACHACARE ISLAND

SALT POND

BANDE DU SUD

BOLO ROCKS

Figure 3.2: Google imagery showing the Salt Pond with fringing mangrove forest

Chacachacare Island is managed by the Chaguaramas Development Authority (CDA) and

although there were no built developments in the vicinity of the pond, there is evident of
improper garbage disposal. The beach area fronting the pond is used for recreation.

Hart’s Cut
The mangrove forest found at Hart’s Cut was approximately 0.7 ha and was located on
the northeast side of Point Gourde, in the northwestern peninsula of Trinidad (Figure
3.3). This mangrove forest once bordered a tidal cut that opened into Carenage Bay, and
connected Carenage Bay to Chaguaramas Bay across Point Gourde. The system has been
fragmented as an access road was constructed to a coast guard base at Hart’s Cut. The
tidal cut has been blocked in recent years so that the basin mangrove forest is not flushed
by tides. The mangroves that fringed the sheltered Carenage Bay have regenerated after
being reclaimed and are tidally flushed.

15
 Figure 3.3: Map of the mangrove forest at Hart’s Cut,
Chaguaramas

Hart’s Cut mangrove forest was dominated by red mangrove, but there were also some
black, white and buttonwood mangrove trees. The mangrove was associated with littoral
woodland, and deciduous forest on the higher areas of Point Gourde. Associated
vegetation included tree species Bursera simaruba (naked Indian), Pithecellobium sp,
Maximiliana elegans and Lonchocarpus sp. Ten bird species have been recorded in this
wetland (Alleng, 1997) as well as crabs. The area is managed by the CDA, and this

16
wetland has been impacted by reclamation/encroachment for car-park space, hydrological
alteration and improper solid waste disposal. Adjacent land-use includes the Anchorage
Club.

Cuesa River
An estuarine mangrove forest was found along the banks of the Cuesa River,
Chaguaramas (Figure 3.4). This system was approximately 2.2 ha and ran parallel to the
Tucker Valley Road. Red mangrove dominated near the coast while white mangrove
dominates further inland. Associated vegetation community included mangrove fern
(Acrostichum aureum), swamp forest with swamp immortelle (Erythrina fusca), and
bloodwood (Pterocarpus officinalis) and freshwater marsh (Montrichardia arborescens
and Typha spp.). Common faunal species included crabs (Uca spp., Ucides cordatus),
Caiman sclerops, and a number of bird species (Alleng , 1997).

The Cuesa mangrove forest has been altered. During the United States occupation of
Chaguaramas, the wetland was filled with dredge spoilt and roads were constructed
(Ramcharan et al., 1982). In 1998, mangroves on the eastern bank of the River, north of
the Western Main Road, were cleared. This area was now colonized by scrub vegetation
(low trees and grass). There is periodic clearing of mangrove near the bridge but these
mangroves regenerate. Landward of the mangrove, the major land use activity was
agriculture.

17
 Figure 3.4: Map of the mangrove forest along the Cuesa River,
Chaguaramas

Mucurapo
Stands of mangrove forest were found along the Audrey Jeffers Highway, Mucurapo
(Figure 3.5). These mangrove stands collectively were approximately 9.5 ha (O’Connor,
2009). At the mouth of the Maraval River and just south of it, there was an estuarine
mangrove system estimated at 6 ha, and associated with tidal marshes (Plate 1). The
mangrove forest was mixed with red, white, black mangrove and the occasional
buttonwood tree. Marsh species included Sesuvium portulascastrum (seaside purselane),
Cyperus ligularis (sedge) and grass species, Panicum spp. and Paspalum spp. Some
seaside mahoe (Thespesia populnea), seagrape (Coccoloba uvifera) and mangrove vine
(Rhabdadenia biflora) were also present.

18
 AUDREY JEFFERS HIGHWAY
HELIPORT

GULF
OF
PARIA

NATIONAL STADIUM
AND JEAN PIERRE
COMPLEX

MARAVAL RIVER

______Mangrove boundary
RECLAIMED LAND MOVIE TOWNE

Figure 3.5: Google Map of the mangrove forests found along the Audrey Jeffers Highway, Mucurapo

19
 Plate 1: Mangroves at the mouth of the Maraval River, Mucurapo.
This river was silted up in May 2009. Photo by N. O’Connor

Faunal species recorded in this wetland include Fiddler crabs (Uca spp.), mangrove crab
(Cardisoma gunahumi), and birds- Cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), Brown pelican
(Pelecanus occidentalis), Yellow-crowned night heron (Nyctanassa violacea
cayennensis), Great kissidee (Piyangus sulphuratus) and Carib grackle (Quiscalus
lugubris). There are also unconfirmed reports of Scarlet ibis (Eudocimus ruber), a
locally designated vulnerable species and the National Bird of Trinidad and Tobago, in
this wetland.

North of the Maraval River system, three mangrove stands are found fringing the coast
while there is also a stand east of the Audrey Jeffers Highway (Figure 3.5). The stand east
of the highway is a basin system that has been impounded by the highway. This stand is
mixed and is dominated by black and white mangroves. Although red mangroves were
reported in this area, they are not common as this system has been heavily impacted. Not
only has this eastern stand been fragmented by the highway and deprived of tidal

20
flushing, but part of it has been cleared for built development and for dumping of derelict
vehicles (Plate 2).

Plate 2: Mangrove area east of the Audrey Jeffers highway impacted

by clearing, and dumping to derelict vehicles and solid waste
(Photo by N. O’Connors)

Just west of this eastern stand, mangroves fringe a polluted canal that opens to the sea.
This fringed forest is dominated by red mangrove with a few black and white mangrove
trees along its landward edge. In 2008, mangroves were cleared in this area for the
construction of a heliport (Figure 3.5). The other northern mangrove stands are
dominated by black and white mangroves and are fronted by mudflats. These mangrove
areas are impacted by unplanned housing (squatters) as well as pollution from solid
waste. Some of the mangrove trees appear unhealthy as they were showing signs of
fungal infestation and herbivory.

A change detection analysis from 1942 to 2009 was conducted on the Mucurapo
mangroves by O’Connor (2009) (Table 3.2). In 1942, there was a small patch of
mangroves (≈ 0.5 ha) near King’s Wharf, which south of Movie Towne. Between 1942

21
and 1969, about 21 ha of land were reclaimed and the mangrove cover increased to 13.5
ha as mangroves colonized the reclaimed areas. During these 27 years the Maraval River
was also diverted.

Table 3: 2: Change detection analysis for mangrove forest in Mucurapo

1942 1969 1984 1994 2003 2007 2009

Mangrove Area
(ha) 0.5 13.5 8.1 9.5 7.8 10.1 9.5

Between 1969 and 1986, the mangrove area decreased by approximately 5.4 ha to 8.1 ha,
as mangroves were cleared for the construction of the Jean Pierre Complex and the
Audrey Jeffers Highway as well as other built development. In 1994, mangrove cover
increased as mangroves on the eastern side of the highway were expanding although
some were being reclaimed on the seaward side. In 2003, there was a decrease in
mangrove area as forest was reclaimed for Movie Towne, the Marriot Hotel and the BHP
Billiton building. There was also clearing on the eastern side of the highway (Table 3.2).

In 2007, four years after major land reclamation, mangrove coverage increased by 2.3 ha.
Mangrove areas expanded west of Movie Town and at the mouth of the Maraval River
and northwards. In 2009, there was a slight decreased (≈ 0.6 ha) as mangroves were
cleared on the eastern side of the highway and used for dumping derelict vehicles, and on
the western side for the heliport. The mangrove communities in Mucurapo since 1986
have been going through a cycle of loss through land reclamation and then re-generation.
The conditions along this area of coastline seemed quite conducive to mangrove
colonization and growth, and there are extensive mudflats fronting these mangroves
(Figure 3.5).

Sealots
The fringe mangrove forest found at Sealots was approximately 1.8 ha (Figure 3.6). It
was a mixed system dominated by red mangroves but with some black and white
mangrove trees (Plate 3). This tall mangrove fringe once bordered the St Ann’s River
mouth but most of it has been reclaimed for an industrial area and for squatting

22
(unplanned housing) (Plate 4). The existing mangrove was heavily impacted and was
also used for dumping of solid waste. A seawall was constructed in front of a squatting
community that was built amongst mangroves. Erosion was observed at the end of the
seawall. The system opened into a shallow muddy bay rich in organic matter.

Figure 3.6: Map of the mangrove forest in Sealots, Port of Spain

23
Plate 3: Thin fringe of red mangroves bordering muddy bay in the Sealot area

Plate 4: Squatting within the mangrove forest at Sealots

24
Caroni Swamp
Caroni Swamp is an estuarine system comprising 8,340 ha of mangrove and marsh,
interrupted by numerous channels and brackish and saline lagoons. The mangrove forest
accounts for 63% of the entire wetland, covering about 5,263 ha. Caroni Swamp is the
second largest wetland after Nariva Swamp, but has the largest mangrove forest in
Trinidad and Tobago. The Swamp occupies approximately 21.7 km of the Gulf of Paria
coastline, extending from the Beetham and Churchill Roosevelt Highways in the north to
the Chandernagore River in the South (Figure 3.7).

Caroni mangrove swamp was a mixed forest with large tracts of pure stands of one
species. Estuarine and basin red mangrove was the dominant species, while black
mangrove was common on the landward side of the swamp. White mangrove was
ubiquitous, but nowhere common. Mangrove tree density in the swamp ranged between
8 trees per 0.01 ha (10 m x 10 m) off the Blue River in the north to as much as 67 trees
per 0.01 ha off the Cunupia River in the south. Mean mangrove biomass was estimated
at 90±43 kg m2. The eastern, landward borders of the swamp were occupied by saline
marshes, dominated by sedges, Eleocharis spp., in association with grasses and the fern
Acrostichum aureum which grades into rice fields. Extensive mudflats are found seaward
of the mangroves in the Gulf of Paria.

Caroni Swamp receives sediment-laden freshwater inflow and overflows from the Caroni
River along its northern boundary, and along its eastern boundary from overflows further
upstream east of the Swamp, while the Guayamare River and Cunupia River entered the
Swamp towards the south. Twelve rivers flow into the Caroni River on its northern side
from the Northern Range, and the Swamp receives runoff from a catchment area of
approximately 87, 871ha (Juman et al. 2002).

The hydrology in Caroni Swamp was modified by attempted reclamation, under the
Cipriani Reclamation Scheme 1921-1922, which was initiated to facilitate rice cultivation
(Bacon, 1970). No accurate records exist on the extent of the drainage work carried out

25
during this scheme; however it is known that the North-South Drain was excavated
across the eastern end of a large lagoon and a series of ten east-west channels were cut

Figure 3.7: Map of Caroni Swamp mangrove forest

26
joining the Drain (Bacon, 1970). Embankments were built and two tidal exclusion gates
constructed; one at the junction of the Caroni River and the North South Drain and one at
the southern end of the drain (Bacon, 1970). The objective of the scheme was to drain
the swamp and to keep salt water out but by 1954 the canals and embankments were
already in a state of disrepair (Bacon, 1970).

Further flood protection works, which began in the 1950’s, have resulted in an overall
reduction of freshwater inflow into the swamp (Phelps, 1997). This loss of freshwater
inflow has further reduced freshwater storage in the Swamp and caused increased salt
water intrusion into these areas (Bacon et al. 1997). In addition to saltwater penetration,
the Swamp receives water polluted with sewage, wastewater from industry and
agriculture run-off (Phelps, 1997).

The eastern borders of the Swamp are occupied by the remnants of once extensive
marshes. In the 1970’s these were predominantly freshwater habitats, but freshwater
diversion and saltwater encroachment have changed these to brackish marsh dominated
by sedges (Eleocharis spp) in association with grasses and the fern Acrostichum aureum.
The spread of mangroves into marsh area over the past two decades has been rapid,
suggesting that the eastern marshes may eventually be replaced by mangrove forest
(Bacon et al, 1997).

The mangrove forest at Caroni once extended northwards to the train line which is
presently the Priority Bus Route and Beetham Gardens. Four hundred and ninety-four
hectares were loss between 1922 and 1985 for the construction of highways, WASA
sewage ponds and the Beetham landfill (Lloyd, 1985). Caroni River has been
straightened and widened and the embankment has been raised so much so that water
from the River does not flow into the mangrove forest during high tide and this may
cause a concentration of salt in the system (hypersalinity). The southern embankment is
now colonized by grasses and scrub vegetation and there is some illegal housing.

27
From 2001 Landsat satellite imagery, 170 ha of mangrove dieback were detected in the
Caroni Swamp (Figure 3.8; Plate 5). This was within the Caroni Swamp Forest Reserve,
which was proclaimed in 1936. Hypersaline conditions (salinity= 91ppt) were recorded
with a A366ATC hand held refractometer (± 1) in the dead area during surveys in 2003.
However, in the 2007 imagery there is evidence of re-growth in the some of the dead
areas. In 2008, mangroves were cut along the banks of the Madame Espagnole River and
along the North-South Drain when these waterways were dredged. Private landowners
continue to clear wetland in Guayamare and San Juan, and the Swamp is threatened by
encroachment as there is squatting on the eastern boundary. On the seaward side there is
evidence of erosion (Plate 6).

Figure 3.8 Landsat Image (August 25, 2001 – Bands 5,4,3 RGB) of the
Caroni Swamp showing healthy mangrove in green,
mangrove die-off in brown and lagoons in black

28
Plate 5: Mangrove die-off seen north of the Caroni River in 2005
(Photo by Roger Karim)

Plate 6: Erosion seen on the seaward side of Caroni Swamp

29
Waterloo
An estuarine mangrove forest was found in Waterloo along the banks of the La Cuesa
River and fringing the coastline just north of the Hindu Temple (Figure 3.9). This system
was approximately 13.9 ha and was a mixed forest dominated by short red mangrove
trees mixed with some black, white and buttonwood mangroves. The mangroves were
associated with a grass (Paspalum distichum) and a beach runner (Sesuvium
portulascastrum) and extensive mudflats that were used by wading birds. Alleng (1997)
recorded this mangrove forest as being < 1ha. However, there is evidence that the
mangrove forest is extended seawards, as numerous mangrove seedlings were observed
in a once marsh area used as grazing area for cattle (Plate 7). On the landward edge of
this mangrove system there was residential development.

Plate 7: Mangrove seedlings seen growing among marsh near La Cuesa

River mouth, Waterloo

La Cuesa River flows into Barrancones Bay, which is a bay with extensive mudflats that
are exposed at low tide. Just north of the river mouth, there is the Brickfield fish landing
site. Fishermen used the area to dock their boats, but recently there has been a siltation
problem in the bay. The bay has become too shallow even at high tide. Just north of the
fish landing site and south of the Chandernagore River, new mangroves have been

30
observed growing on mudflats (Figure 3.9). These mangroves were not present on the
IKONOS imagery but were observed during field surveys in 2009. The mangrove forest
in Barrancones Bay is therefore extending seaward onto mudflats.

Figure 3.9: Map of the mangrove forest along the banks of the La Cuesa River,
Waterloo and fringing Barrancones Bay

31
Orange Valley
A narrow fringe of mainly red mangroves was found growing along the bank of the
Carataria River and on a mudflat fronting a fish land site in Orange Valley (Figure 3.10).
This mangrove stand was approximately 1.5 ha and was extending seaward as mangrove
seedlings were seen colonizing extensive mudflats in this area (Plate 8). Similar to
Brickfield, there is a problem with siltation where boats have to be relocated as the area is
getting shallower. The mudflats were being used by a number of birds including scarlet
ibises. The adjacent land use in this area was sugar cane farming.

Figure 3:10: Map of the mangrove stand growing along the Carataria
River and on mudflats in Orange Valley

32
 Plate 8: Mangrove seedlings found growing in mudflats just south of the
Orange Valley fish landing site

Couva River/ Carli Bay

An estuarine/ fringe mangrove forest approximately 298.1 ha was found at the mouth of
Couva River and fringing Carli Bay (Figure 3.11). Red mangrove was dominant along
the seaward border, while black mangrove and to a lesser extent, white mangrove
occupied the area furthest from the sea. This mangrove forest was fronted by extensive
mudflats, which were exposed during ebb tide and was being colonised by red mangrove
seedlings (Plate 9) This systems was found seaward of the Point Lisas Industrial Estates
and sugar cane fields.

In 2007, approximately 3.7 ha of black and white mangroves had died north of Couva
River, and west–northwest of Point Lisas Nitrogen Limited Compound, and to date have
not regenerated (IMA, 2007a). The cause of this dieback was not determined. Prior to
this, in 2003, mangrove die-off was recorded in the same general area and this was due to
diseases/infestation, but by 2005 there was some regeneration. In 1998, mangrove die-off
was reported south of the Couva River and the cause of this die-off was believed to be

33
hot water being released from an industry. This system later regenerated after the
situation was rectified.

Figure 3:11: Map of the mangrove forests near the mouth of the Couva River in
Carli Bay

34
Plate 9: Young red mangrove trees found growing on mudflats seaward of Point Lisas
Nitrogen Limited, North Couva River

The Couva / Carli Bay mangrove system was impacted by reclamation and river
diversion. In 1979, 500 ha of mangrove in the Couva-Claxton Bay area were reclaimed
for the construction of the Point Lisas Industrial Park and deep-water port (Ramcharan et
al. 1982). In addition, mangrove and marsh were lost through cutting and dredging of the
new river channel and dumping of dredge spoil when the Couva River was diverted
(Mutuhu-McShine, 1985). Bacon (1993) reported this system to be 171 ha however; the
2007 estimate of 298.1 ha shows a 127 ha increase in mangrove coverage. It appears that
while the landward edge of this system is being encroached upon by industrial
development and impacted by pollution from the Couva River, the system seems to be
extended seaward upon extensive mudflats.

Lisas Bay
A broad fringe of mangroves approximately 137.6 ha was found in the southern side of
Lisas Bay (Figure 3.12). The forest was dominated by red mangroves with the occasional
white and black mangroves associated with sedges and grass. Bacon (1993) reported this
system to be approximately 26 ha and stated that the size represented a significant loss of

35
wetlands as a result of land reclamation for the Point Lisas Industrial Estates and port
construction. This system had originally extended north to Savonetta Point but has been
significantly altered. Alleng (1997) indicated that in the reclaimed area there was a pond
which was used as a resting ground for a large number of seabirds. The reclaimed area is
now being colonized by mangroves and grasses.

Figure 3.12: Map of mangrove forest in Lisas Bay and North Claxton Bay

36
Just south of the main Lisas Bay wetland, a thin fringe of scrubby black mangrove less
than 5m in height was found on the periphery of the turning basin for the port (Figure
3.11). This mangrove stand was approximately 13.5 ha. No faunal species were
observed in this mangrove and during survey in October 2008; the water within the
turning basin was hot; way above ambient water temperature of 29°C.

North Claxton Bay

North Claxton Bay mangrove forest formed the southern sector of a once continuous
mangrove fringe seaward of the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. This wide mangrove fringe
was approximately 88 ha; extending from the turning basin in the north to the concrete
jetty north of the Claxton Bay fish depot (Figure 3.12). The northern section of this
forest was dominated by shrubby black mangroves interspersed with a few white
mangrove trees. Tree density was estimated at 39 trees / 0.01 ha. Black mangroves
showed signs of disease; the leaves had cankers and were shriveled. This mangrove area
was interspersed with scrub vegetation and grasses, and was bisected by a Phoenix Park
Gas Processors pipeline that ran parallel to the coast. The coastline in this northern side
of the bay was eroding, as evident by the placement of rip-rap.

Toward the centre of the mangrove system there was a large area of dead mangroves that
resulted in an open water area (Plate 10). This may be the area of mangrove die-back,
reported by Bacon (1993). Bordering this open water area on the landward side were
numerous short black mangroves. Seaward of the pond was a narrow sand bar 15 m wide
with short white and black mangroves (≈ 3 m in height), grasses (Panicum spp.,
Paspalum spp), and Sesuvium portulascastrum. At the southern end, large red
mangroves were seen fringing the coast. These trees have a well established prop root
faunal community. Mangrove oyster (Crassostrea rhizophorae), barnacle (Balanus spp.)
and Periwinkle snail (Littorina angulifera) were abundant on the roots.

37
 Plate 10: Large area of mangrove die-off in North Claxton Bay leaving shallow
open water area

The North Claxton Bay mangrove forest was initially impacted in 1979 when part of it
was reclaimed for the Point Lisas Industrial Estates (Ramcharan et al. 1982). Again in
the latter part of the 1990’s the mangroves were impacted by reclamation activities. An
island was constructed in the bay, and mangroves were planted to replace mangroves that
were lost through reclamation. The island was contained by a silk screen which was
eventually dislodged, and it eroded. The remnants of the constructed island are three
small islands; the largest being 0.5 ha, and the others 0.3 ha and 0.03 ha. These small
islands are now colonized by short white mangrove trees and grasses and are used by a
number of seabirds. Extensive mudflats are found in North Claxton Bay and toward the
southern side Thalassia beds were recorded (Juman & James, 2006).

North Claxton Bay mangrove is impacted in the north side by encroachment from the
Point Lisas Industrial Estates and on the eastern edge by illegal housing. This mangrove
area is also threatened by proposed port development and industrialization. The bay is
utilized by fishers who harvest green mussels, shrimp and fish.

38
South Claxton Bay
The mangrove that fringed the coast in the southern part of Claxton Bay was estimated at
8.7 ha. The widest stand of mangroves in this area was located north of the Trinidad
Cement Limited (TCL) (Figure 3.13). This mangrove forest was a mixed system with red
mangrove dominant along the coast and white and black in the landward side.

Figure 3:13: Map of the mangrove forests in South Claxton Bay

39
A narrow fringe approximately 1 trees wide is found growing around the southern
periphery of reclaimed land just west of TCL and a wider estuarine system dominated by
red mangrove is found growing at the mouth of Hermitage River, south of the fishing
jetty (Plate 11). The mangrove in South Claxton Bay is impacted by reclamation and
encroachment from built development included a pipeline yard. The wetland is also
littered with solid waste.

Plate 11: Red mangrove forest found at the mouth of Hermitage River,
South Claxton Bay

40
Guaracara River, Pointe-a-Pierre
An estuarine mangrove forest estimated at 45.1 ha was found at the mouth of Guaracara
River in Pointe-a-Pierre (Figure 3.14). The main part of the forest was on the southern
side of the river, as the Point-a-Pierre Refinery is located on the northern bank (Plate 12).
The forest was comprised mainly of red mangroves near the coast and black and white
mangroves landward. The landward edge of the forest, south of the river, was
encroached upon by illegal housing. At least three effluent pipelines were observed
flowing into the Guaracara River from the refinery to the north (Plate 13). Oil drums
were burnt on the northern bank of the river and a green precipitate seen on the sediment.

Figure 3.14: Map of mangrove forest at the mouth of the Guaracara River,
Pointe-a-Pierre

41
Plate 12: Red mangrove fringing the mouth of the Guaracara River

Plate 13: Effluent pipelines on the north bank of the Guaracara River

42
Marabella River
A small estuarine mangrove forest estimated at 2.3 ha was found near the mouth of the
Marabella River (Figure 3.15). The system was mixed with red, black and white
mangroves. The forest may have been continuous with the Guaracara system but has
been fragmented through clearing for unplanned housing (Plate 14). The old train line ran
parallel to the coast and traversed this system (Plate 15). The entire wetland has been
impacted by unplanned housing especially on the landward margin. The Marabella River
flowed into a muddy bay with a small island that was colonized by black and white
mangroves.

Figure 3.15: Map of mangrove near the mouth of the Marabella River

43
Plate 14: Squatting community found along the coast, north of the
Marabella River

Plate 15: The old train line that crosses the mouth of the Marabella River

44
Cipero River
An estuarine mangrove system was found at the mouth of the Cipero River, San
Fernando and an outlet just south of it (Figure 3.16). The system was approximately
15.4 ha and was predominantly white mangroves mixed with some black mangroves.
The white mangroves were short and scrubby, but large black mangrove trees were
observed landward of it.

Figure 3.16: Map on the mangrove forest at the mouth of the Cipero River

45
The mangroves were associated with coconut, grasses and other scrub vegetation on the
river bank. The forest does not appear healthy as a number of dead large black mangrove
trees were observed. However, during the field survey a number of birds were observed
utilizing the system and Caiman sp. were seen along the river bank. High scale housing
was found on the landward edge of the forest south of the Cipero River while an
unplanned housing development was seen north of the river.

Godineau Swamp
Godineau Swamp was approximately 3,171 ha and was predominantly a tidal marsh
system with mangrove forest near the coast (Figure 3.17). The mangrove forest was
approximately 765.4 ha and was dominated by red mangroves intermixed with two
species of black mangroves (A. germinan, and Avicennia schauerana) and white
mangrove. Narrow stands of black mangroves (A. schauerana) also occupied the banks
of the Oropuche River, and extended landwards to the SS Erin Road. Mangrove fern
(Acrostichum aureum) was found in some mangrove areas that have been disturbed
through clearing.

Although Godineau Swamp has changed significantly over the last three decades as rice
lands were abandoned and reverted to brackish marsh while some freshwater areas are
used for short crops agriculture, the mangrove forest has remained relatively undisturbed
(Juman & Sookbir, 2006). Between 1962 and 1969, approximately 190 ha of mangrove
forest were reclaimed east of the Trinidad Bank for rice cultivation. This was later
abandoned and the area is presently colonized by sedges and mangroves (Juman &
Sookbir, 2006). Since then the mangrove forest has not changed significantly in extent.

From the 1977 topographic map (which was based on 1969 aerial photographs) coverage
was estimated at 719 ha. From 1980 aerial photographs it was estimated at 705 ha and
from 1994 photographs it was estimated at 719 ha. The 14 ha decrease between 1969 and
1980 was as a result of mangrove clearing to facilitate oil exploration activities and
agriculture. From field surveys, it is evident that mangroves were cleared to provide
roads and embankments for oil activities. In 2003, the mangrove forest was estimated at

46
Figure 3.17: Map of the mangrove forest associated with the Godineau River, South Oropuche

47
743 ha (Juman & Sookbir, 2006). The 2007 estimated is 765.4 ha; approximately 22.4 ha
increase in mangrove coverage. This increase in mangrove coverage from 1994 to 2003
and from 2003 to 2007 may be as a result of mangroves extending landward into tidal
marsh area.

Rousillac Swamp
Rousillac Swamp was an elongated wetland approximately 526.2 ha in southwest
Trinidad. This wetland comprised a 338.7 ha mangrove forest, which was largely in a
depression behind a beach barrier, and a fresh to brackish marsh community dominated
by Cyperus giganteus, Eleocaris mutata and Gynerium sagittatum in the southern side
(Figure 3.18; Plate 16).

Unlike the mangrove forests north of it that was opened to tidal flushing, the Rousillac
system was separated from the sea by a narrow beach barrier with black sediment. The
system was dominated by black mangrove which was mixed with some white mangrove
and coastal thicket (seaside mahoe and sea almond) along the coast. Red mangroves
were abundant in the centre and northern side of the system near the coast and were
associated with a system of tidal creeks. Buttonwood mangrove was common at the
landward end mixed with swamp immortelle (Erythrina fusca).

Although the mangroves appeared healthy, the wetland was impacted by coastal erosion
on the seaward side and encroachment by housing in its landward margin. A large
housing development exists on the periphery of this wetland. In the centre of this
development (Pond Road) there is a large pond covered with duckweed (Lemna
perpusilla), and surrounded by cattails (Typha domingensis) and swamp immortelles.
This pond was utilized by many bird species including the Scarlet Ibises.

In the early 2000s, a large area of dead mangroves was reported within this system.
Although the area was investigated and there was evidence of an infestation/ disease, the
cause of the die-off was never confirmed. The area has since regenerated, similar to what

48
was observed north of the Couva River. The mangrove forest in Rousillac is much larger
than that reported by Bacon (1993). He reported a size of 110 ha.

Figure 3.18: Map of the mangrove forest in Rousillac

Plate 16: An overview of the Rousillac Swamp showing marsh

community and mangrove forest

49
LaBrea
A mixed fringe/basin mangrove system was found in LaBrea. The system which was
fragmented into two areas was estimated at 3.7 ha (Figure 3.19). The larger basin system
was found south of Pitch Point behind a beach barrier. An extensive sandflat was found
in front of this system and it was utilized by numerous birds (Plate 17). This basin
mangrove forest was a mixed system with red mangroves more abundant closer to the
coast and white and black mangroves more abundant landward. This system was heavily
impacted by illegal housing. Houses were constructed amongst mangrove trees and new
clearance of mangroves was still occurring (Plate 18).

Figure 3.19: Map of mangrove forests in LaBrea

A smaller forest was seen fringing the coast at Pitch Point. This system was dominated
by red mangroves and was also being impacted by unplanned housing. A small
mangrove stand (< 1 ha) was found fringing a channel on the south side of Station Beach.
It was a mixed black and red mangrove system (Figure 3.19).

50
Plate 17: Sandflat exposed at low tide in front of mangrove forest, south
of Pitch Point, LaBrea

Plate 18: Mangroves cleared in LaBrea, south of Pitch Point. Houses were
constructed amongst mangroves

51
Vessigny Bay
A very small estuarine mangrove system approximately 0.2 ha was found at the mouth of
the Vessigny River (3.20). The system comprised mainly black mangroves which were
found along the northern bank. The southern bank was eroding. This bank has no
vegetation except for a few white mangrove saplings. The river was silting up. South of
the Vessigny Beach facility, a small stand of black and red mangroves (approximately 10
trees) were observed growing along a small channel.

Figure 3.20: Map of the mangrove area along the Vessigny River, Point Fortin

Guapo Bay, Point Fortin

An estuarine mangrove forest associated with freshwater marshes was found in Guapo
Bay, Point Fortin (Figure 3.21). This wetland was approximately 40.7 ha and was
fragmented by roads, car park construction, and the passage of a pipeline. A small stand
remained in the western side of the bay and was mixed with black and white mangroves.
West of the Guapo River mouth, a larger mangrove forest was found dominated by red
mangroves mixed with some white mangroves. A path was cut through this system for

52
Figure 3.21: Map of mangrove forest in Guapo Bay, Point Fortin

53
the laying of a pipeline, and the cleared area was colonized by sedges (Fimbristylis
cymosa) and grasses (Paspalum distichum). An access road was constructed through this
wetland parallel to the Guapo River and more recently, another road was constructed on
the beach in front of the wetland. The mangrove was associated with coastal thicket
(Hibiscus tiliaceus) and seaside purselane (Sesuvium portulascastrun) on the seaward
side. The forest was mixed with mangrove fern (Acrostichum aureum); which is
indicative of disturbance within a mangrove area.

The largest part of the Guapo mangrove system was found landward of a road that ran
parallel to the coast to gain access to an airstrip. This larger area was bisected by another
road and a scrap yard. The mangrove forest was mixed with red, black and white
mangroves. Large mangrove trees were found at the landward edge of the system and
were associated with palm (Bactris spp), mangrove fern, sedges and Heliconia hirsuta.

The mangrove forest in Guapo Bay has been impacted by road, car park and scrap yard
construction. Mangroves were cleared for these facilities. Alleng (1997) reported this
wetland to be approximately 33 ha. His estimate may not have covered the landward
extend of the mangrove forest. Guapo Bay became a popular recreational beach in the
late 1990 to early 2000 after the Clifton Hill Beach was loss to erosion. Beach facilities
have since been constructed. The wetland is used by crab catchers.

Irois Bay
An estuarine mangrove forest dominated by large red mangrove trees was found in Irois
Bay, southwest of Point Fortin (Figure 3.22; Plate 19). This wetland was estimated at
76.9 ha. It was flooded by an outlet to the bay. The wetland was separated from the sea
by a narrow beach that was eroding, and mangroves were falling into the sea. On the
western side of the wetland there was a beach with guest house facility. Coconuts are
harvested on this beach for copra. Terrestrial forest inaccessible by road was found on
the southern and eastern sides. The Irois Bay wetland has been impacted by oil pollution
(Alleng, 1997) as bitumen was found mixed with peat on the mangrove prop roots. The
wetland is littered with solid waste probably brought in by the tide.

54
Figure 3.22: Map of the mangrove forest in Irois Bay

Plate 19: Mature red mangrove trees in Irois Bay

55
Fullerton
A small mangrove stand approximately 2.4 ha was found at the mouth of a river system
in Fullerton (Figure 3.23). The forest was mixed with red mangroves at the edge of the
river bank and white and black mangroves on the inside of the red. Coastal thicket was
found seaward of the mangroves and includes seagrapes (Coccoloba uvifera), coconuts
(Cocos nucifera), and seaside mahoe (Hibiscus tilaceus). A fish landing site and houses
were found west of the wetland. The wetland was littered with solid waste.

Los Gallos
An estuarine mangrove forest approximately 76.1 ha was found at Los Gallos, on the
northern end of Columbus Bay at the mouth of a river (Figure 3.23). The mangrove
forest was mixed with red, black and white mangroves that were associated with sedges
(Fimbristylis cymosa, Cyperus ligularis), grass (Sporobolus virginicus) and Sesuvium
portulacastrum. A road bisected the mangrove near the coast and a bridge was
constructed at the mouth of the river. During field surveys in November 2008, a Scarlet
ibis was observed in this wetland (Plate 20). A coconut estate was found on the southern
side and there was built development on the northern edge.

Plate 20: Scarlet ibis seen in the mangrove forest at Los Gallos

56
Figure 3.23: Map of the mangrove forests at Icacos and Fullerton, Southwest Trinidad

57
Icacos
The mangrove community on the south of the Icacos Peninsula comprised belts of
mangrove forests that ran approximately east to west and were associated with tidal
marshes (Figure 3.23). Two of the mangrove stands open into Columbus Bay, while the
other two stands open to the coast on the eastern side of the Icacos Peninsula. The
mangrove coverage in this area was estimated at 326.2 ha. The mangrove forest is a
basin type system that occurred in elongated depressions behind beach barriers.

The mangrove belts on the eastern side of the peninsula were mixed systems with red,
black and buttonwood mangroves. The wetland was associated with coastal thicket that
included seagrape, sea almond and seaside mahoe (Hibiscus tilaceus). A wide beach was
observed in this area at low tide, but there were areas that were eroding.

On the western side of the peninsula (Columbus Bay), the forest was dominated by white
and buttonwood mangroves. A coconut estate is adjacent to these mangrove stands. The
coastline in this area is eroding (Plate 21). Tires were put in and mangroves were planted
to arrest the erosion but they failed. In 2009, 3 groynes were installed in Columbus Bay
to arrest the erosion.

Brackish marshes existed on the landward side of the mangroves. These marshes were
dominated by sedges (Eleocharis spp., Fimbristylis spp) and grasses (Typha domingensis
and Paspalum spp). There were large open water areas within the marshes that were used
by a variety of birds (Plate 22). Some of the marsh area was now being colonized by
white and black mangroves and the mangrove fern (Acrostichum aureum) (Plate 23).
Mangroves were colonizing the marsh area further inland indicating seawater intrusion.-

The wetland on the eastern and western side of Icacos Peninsula once extended across the
entire peninsula as indicated in the 1977 topographic maps. This system has been
fragmented by the construction of roads and houses. During the field survey in
November 2008, the marsh area was being filled in with red sediment (Plate 24).

58
Plate 21: Mangrove forests eroding in Columbus Bay, Icacos

Plate 22: Large open water area surrounded by mangrove in Icacos,

used by a variety of waterfowls

59
Plate 23: Mangrove fern and mangroves colonizing marsh area

Plate 24: Road being constructed through marsh areas

60
SOUTH COAST
On the south coast of Trinidad, the most extensive mangrove forests were found at Los
Blanquizales in the west and Moruga to the east. Smaller mangrove systems were found
in Frank’s and Guayaguayare Bay. A narrow buttonwood mangrove fringe mixed with
sea almond was found at Palo Seco Bay. Palo Seco, Isolote, Erin and Los Irois Bays
were eroding.

Los Blanquizales
An elongated stand of basin and fringe mangrove forest was found in Los Blanquizales
associated with a tidal creek system. The mangrove forest was approximately 250.8 ha
and extended across Islote and Erin Bay behind a beach barrier (Figure 3.24). The
mangrove forest was mixed with large red, white, black and buttonwood mangroves. On
the coast the mangrove was associated with coastal thicket. Landward of the mangroves
were large communities of mangrove fern (Acrostichum aureum), marsh, palm forest and
terrestrial forest.

Los Blanquizales wetland comprised marsh areas as well as palm forest. The entire
wetland is approximately 909.4 ha with the mangrove accounting for about 28%. Alleng
(1997) reported that this wetland was 1,085 ha, and part of it was converted to rice fields.
However there were no signs of rice cultivation during field survey in 2009. Ramcharan
et al., (1982) provided vegetation maps for the wetland and indicated that large tracts of
mangroves were destroyed along this coast by erosion. There is still evidence of erosion
occurring in this area especially in the western side (Plate 25). A stand of dead
mangroves was also observed landward of an outlet that flowed into the sea (Plate 26).

Most of the Los Blanquizales wetland is remote; not accessible by road. There are few
roads in the area and these roads lead to oil facilities and houses. There was minor
agriculture landward of the mangrove forest. The major impact on the mangrove forest at
Los Blanquizales has been and still remains coastal erosion.

61
Figure 3.24: Map of the mangrove forest at Los Blanquizales

62
Plate 25: Erosion of the mangrove forest at Los Blanquizales

Plate 26: Area of mangrove die-off observed in Los Blanquizales

63
Frank’s Bay, Erin
An estuarine mangrove forest was found at the mouth of Erin River, and fringed Frank’s
Bay (Figure 3.25). This forest was approximately 33.4 ha and was mixed with red, black
and white mangroves. The forest was cut into two sections when a road and fishing
landing site was constructed. The eastern mangrove area was separated from the sea by a
beach barrier and a sand spit. Unplanned housing was seen along the margin of this
section, and the Erin River which flowed through this area received waste from the Erin
pig farm just upstream of the mangroves. The mangrove west of the landing site was
separated from the sea by a narrow beach barrier and showed no sign of human impact.

Figure 3.25: Map of the mangrove forest at the mouth of

Erin River, Frank’s Bay

64
A small estuarine system approximately 0.8 ha was found further west of Frank’s Bay
near the mouth of the St Hill River (Figure 3.26). This mangrove area was accessible
only by the sea.

Figure 3.26: Map of mangrove forest west of Frank’s Bay

at the mouth of St Hill River

Moruga
Estuarine / fringe mangrove forests covering approximately 113.6 ha were found in
Moruga Bay. The mangrove stands were associated with rivers that flowed into Moruga
Bay. On the western side of the bay, west of the fish landing site, there was a small
mangrove stand at the mouth of La Lune River (Figure 3.27). This system comprised
about 11 black mangrove trees on the eastern bank. The western bank was backed by a
cliff. Further east but still west of the fish landing site, a small mangrove system was
found associated with a drain that flowed through a squatting community. This stand
comprised black and white mangrove trees.

65
 Figure 3.27: Map of mangrove forest on the eastern side of Moruga Bay

East of the fish landing site and fringing Moruga Bay was a mangrove forest associated
with the Moriquite and Moruga Rivers (Figure 3.28). The forest at the mouth of the
Moriquite River is a mixed system with red, black and white mangroves. This river
mouth was oriented parallel to the shoreline behind a beach barrier and the river entered
the sea near Moriquite Point. On the western side of this river mouth, black mangroves
were found along the beach. On the eastern side of the river mouth, mangroves were
cleared near the road to accommodate housing. This mangrove forest was bisected by a
road. White and black mangroves were seen landwards of the road.

66
Figure 3:28: Map of mangrove forest on the western side of Moruga Bay

67
Large mangrove trees were seen on the eastern bank of the Moruga River close to the sea.
This area was dominated by red mangrove (Plate 27) although white, black and
buttonwood mangroves were present. Associated vegetation included coconut, Bactris
palm, and grasses. Mudflats were observed on the eastern bank of the river in front of
houses. Unplanned housing is also observed along the western bank of the river (Plate
28). Bacon (1993) reported the Moruga mangrove forest to cover 24 ha, much less than
what currently exists.

Plate 27: Large red mangrove at the mouth of the Moruga River

Plate 28: Unplanned housing on the eastern bank of the Moruga River

68
Guayaguayare Bay
There were four mangrove systems within Guayaguayare Bay: St. Hilaire, Rustville,
Lizard River and Mouville, Point Galeota. The mangrove forests associated with the St
Hilaire, Lawai and Lizard Rivers are estimated at 59.4 ha (Figure 3.29) while the
Mouville mangrove forest on the western side of Point Galeota, is estimated at 23.2 ha
(Figure 3.30).

Figure 3.29: Map of the mangrove forests at St Hilaire, Lawai and Lizard Rivers in
Guayaguayare Bay

69
Figure 3:30: Mangrove forest located at Point Galeota

70
A small estuarine mangrove forest approximately 0.4 ha was found at the mouth of the
St. Hilaire River (Figure 3.29). This mangrove area had a mixture of red, white and black
trees with the red and white mangroves being more abundant. This mangrove forest was
associated with an annual floodplain on the landward side, and with coastal thicket
including coconuts, seaside mahoe (Hibiscus tiliaceus) and hogplum (Spondias mombin)
near the coast. The system has been altered by the construction of a road and bridge, and
the leaves of the black and white mangroves were showing signs of herbivory/disease.

The Rustville Swamp was a mangrove dominated estuarine system that developed along
the lower banks of the Lawai River (Figure 3.29). The mangrove forest was estimated at
39 ha. Other plant communities within the swamp included marsh vegetation near the
river bank in the northern side, scrub vegetation along the southern periphery and near
the river mouth, and extensive mangrove fern (A. aureum, Acrostichum daneaifolium)
communities. From the 1977 topographic map, the mangrove area was estimated at 80 ha.
The topographic map indicated greater mangrove extent upstream of the Lawai River.
Between 1969 and 2007 the mangrove area had declined by about 41 ha.

In the Rustville system, white mangrove was dominant in the northern, western and
southeastern periphery. Few large black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) trees were
interspersed among the white mangroves. Closer to the river mouth, red mangrove was
dominant, and was seen fringing some areas of the Rio Claro Guayaguayare Road.
Between the road and the mangrove forest, a zone of scrub vegetation was observed.
Species observed included bull grass (Paspalum fasciculatum), coconuts, Heliconia
hirsuta, seaside mahoe (Hibiscus tilaceus), hogplum, and Scleria sp. Within, and
adjacent to the mangrove forest there were pure stands of mangrove fern (Acrosticum
aureum, A danaeifolium). This stand of mangrove fern was also reported by Ramcharan
et al. (1982) and IMA (1996), and is indicative of some natural disturbance in the area.
Roseau palm (Bactris sp) was also observed on elevated areas within the forest. This
Rustville wetland was impacted by the construction of a road, and housing along its
western edge.

71
A mangrove dominated estuarine system exists near the mouth of the Lizard River
(Figure 3.29). The mangrove system covered approximately 21 ha and was mixed with
red, black and white mangroves; with the red and white mangroves dominating, similar to
Rustville. The red mangroves were found parallel to the road while the white mangroves
were observed closer to the river bank. Associated plant communities included marsh
grasses, and mangrove fern (A. aureum). This wetland was a relatively stable system as it
has not undergone significant changes in mangrove extent from 1942 to 2001 (IMA,
2004). In 2002 however, approximately 1.2 ha of mangrove forest was reclaimed 300 m
east of the Lizard River mouth

The Mouville mangrove community comprised two stands on the western side of Point
Galeota Road that open into Guayaguayare Bay (Figure 3.30). This system was
estimated at 23.2 ha and was a basin/ fringe system with some open water areas. The
forest was a mixed system with red mangrove, white mangrove, black mangrove and
buttonwood mangrove. The buttonwood mangrove together with coastal thicket occurred
along some areas of the coastline. Further south a thin zone of red mangroves (< 20 m
wide) extended more than 200 m along the coast.

Inland of the red mangrove zone was a mixed white and black mangrove basin system,
within a depression and flooded by numerous channels or streams. The mangroves
occurred in clumps (4-6 trees) on slightly elevated ground (Plate 29). This basin system
was not flooded by tides, and the water was stagnant. Other plant communities within
the wetland included brackish marsh, coastal thicket, and mangrove fern (Acrostichum
aureum).

A change detection analysis was conducted on wetland in Guayaguayare Bay (IMA,

2004). Between 1962 and 1969, both terrestrial and mangrove vegetation were cleared to
facilitate the construction of the oil facility (oil storage tanks) at Point Galeota. Land was
reclaimed to construct the port, and after 1969 some reclaimed land was colonized by
mangroves (IMA, 2004). A tidal marsh that was observed in 1942 and 1962 aerial
photographs and the 1977 topographic map has now been replaced by mangroves (IMA,

72
2004). However, mangroves were cleared for the construction of the Point Galeota Road,
and between 1969 and 2001 mangrove forest was cleared on the northern periphery of the
swamp. The Point Galeota system is now fragmented because of human intervention.

Plate 29: Basin system at Mouville, Pt Galeota with white and black
mangroves growing in clumps in slightly elevated areas

On the eastern side of Point Galeota which is Mayaro Bay, the mangrove areas were
estimated at 8.4 ha. The larger forest south of the heliport is a mixed system with red,
white and black mangroves (Figure 3.30) located behind a beach barrier. This forest area
would have been connected to the Mouville system but was fragmented when the road
was constructed. Further north, large black mangrove trees were found associated with a
channel.

73
EAST COAST
Small mangrove stands were found at the mouth of the Guayamare River, Balandra River
and Rincon Lagoon on the northeast coast of Trinidad. The Guayamare system was less
than 1 ha and comprised 18 large red mangroves trees on the southern bank and two large
black mangrove trees on the northern bank of the Guayamare River mixed with coconuts
(Plate 30). The river is not open to the ocean but is blocked by a beach barrier. The
Balandra system was less than 0.5 ha and was predominantly a red mangrove stand at the
mouth of the Balandra River. Road construction was occurring near the bridge upstream
of the river mouth and this may impact on the mangrove stand.

Plate 30: Mangroves stand at the mouth of the Guayamare River,

northeast Trinidad

Rincon
The Rincon system comprised a stand of red mangroves surrounding a small coastal
lagoon that flowed into the Matura Bay (Figure 3.31). The mangrove stand was
approximately 0.63 ha and was mixed with seagrape (Coccoloba uvifera) and coconut

74
(Cocos nucifera). The lagoon is oriented parallel to the beach and was blocked by a
beach barrier. This area was very isolated.

Figure 3.31: Map of the Rincon mangrove stand

Matura Bay
An estuarine mangrove forest was found at the mouth of the Matura River (Figure 3.32).
The forest was approximately 21.1 ha and was mixed with red, black, white and
buttonwood mangroves. Scrubby red mangroves dominated the southern end of the
forest, while larger red mangrove trees were found closer to the river mouth. Buttonwood
mangroves formed a dense fringe on the seaward side of the forest while groves of
Bactris sp were seen growing amongst the mangroves. Mangrove fern (Acrostichum

75
aureum) and coconuts were also observed growing within the mangrove forest, while a
stand of Royal Palm (Roystonea oleraceae) was observed landward of the mangrove
forest.

The Matura River flowed parallel to the Matura Bay before it entered the ocean. Matura
Bay is an important turtle nesting site. Access to the bay was therefore restricted. The
coast was eroding in this area, and the beach vegetation was wind- blown. Upstream of
the Matura wetland there were quarrying activities.

Figure 3.32: Map of the Matura River mangrove forest

76
North Oropuche/ Fishing Pond
An estuarine/ basin mangrove forest was found at the mouth of the North Oropuche River
and behind an encroaching beach barrier in the Fishing Pond area, on the southern end of
Matura Bay (Figure 3.33). The mixed forest was approximately 269.8 ha and was
dominated by red mangroves. The red mangroves were prominent along the river banks
while black and white mangroves were observed on the inside of the red mangroves. The
basin mangrove community was more extensive south of the river mouth (Plate 31;
Figure 3.33).

Plate 31: Basin mangrove forest behind sand bar south of the
North Oropuche River

Further inland where the water was less saline, the mangroves were associated with
marsh species (Eleocharis spp., Montrichardia arborescens, Cyperus spp. and
Fimbristylis spp) and the palm Bactris spp. On the coast, north of the river mouth, there
was dense coastal thicket mixed with seagrape (Coccoloba uvifera) and buttonwood
mangroves, while the sand berm on the beach was covered with beach runners.
Although Bacon (1993) reported that this coastal area was impacted by erosion, this was
not evident during the field survey in 2009. There seemed to be a build-up of sand on the
beach as the sand berm was relatively high.

77
Figure 3.33: Mangrove forest along the North Oropuche/ Fishing Pond area

78
The North Oropuche/ Fishing Pond wetland was an association of freshwater swamp
forest, marsh and mangrove forest (Ramcharan et al., 1982). This system was impacted
by rice cultivation in the 1980’s and 1990’s and the associated hydrological alteration. A
channel was cut in the Fishing Pond area that connected to the mouth of the North
Oropuche River (Figure 3.33). In 2009, there was no rice cultivation. Rice fields were
left to lie fallow and have now regenerated into marsh type vegetation (Plate 32). There
was small scale agriculture of mainly short crops and very few houses. The main activity
in the area is ecotourism as the beach is a turtle nesting site. Upstream of the North
Oropuche/ Fishing Pond wetland there was quarrying, and this is apparent in the muddy
water flowing in the river.

Bacon (1993) reported the mangrove forest at North Oropuche/ Fishing Pond as covering
170 ha; approximately 100 ha less than what existed in 2007. Mangrove may have
colonized areas previously occupied by freshwater communities; however no maps were
available to substantiate this claim.

Plate 32: Marsh vegetation in Fishing Pond in area that was previously under
rice cultivation

79
Manzanilla Bay
There were three mangrove forests within Manzanilla Bay (Figure 3.34). A larger
estuarine system was found at the mouth of the Le Branche River just north of the
Manzanilla/ Mayaro Road, and a smaller system just east of it. Together they were
estimated at approximately 28.8 ha. The larger Le Branche system was a mixed
mangrove community with red mangroves dominating closer to the river mouth and large
black and white mangrove trees common further inland. The mouth of the Le Branche
River is not always open to the sea but blocked by a beach barrier. There was an
abandoned fishing depot and unplanned housing on the southern bank of the river. The
Manzanilla Hotel was located seaward of the mangrove forest in the southern side of the
system. Bacon (1993) reported the Le Branche system to be 47 ha, this is 18.2 ha larger
than what currently exist. Mangroves were removed to construct the hotel.

Further northeast, and north of the North Manzanilla Road, another small mangrove
forest was found associated with a small outlet (Figure 3.34). This system was estimated
at 0.7 ha and comprised large red mangrove trees at the mouth of a channel (Plate 33) and
white and black mangroves further inland. The mangrove swamp extended landward to a
bridge. The channel was opened to the ocean during the field visit and the beach, which
is used for recreation, was heavily eroded. Between the North Manzanilla Road and the
mangrove forest was a large grassy area with few large forest trees.

Plate 33: Red mangrove found at mouth of channel in North Manzanilla

80
Figure 3.34: Mangrove forest at Manzanilla Bay, East Trinidad

81
Nariva Swamp
The mangrove forest in the Nariva Swamp was approximately 580.7 ha, representing 5 %
of the entire Nariva Swamp which is 11,343 ha. The mangrove forest was an estuarine/
basin system found on the eastern side of the Nariva wetland in brackish coastal margins.
It bordered the Nariva River estuary and lagoon; and occupied basins behind the old
beach barrier of the Coccal (Figure 3.35). The forest was mixed; with red mangrove (R.
mangle) being dominant, black mangrove being abundant and white mangrove common.
Buttonwood is present among the littoral woodlands near the coast.

The mangrove community in Nariva Swamp is one of five major plant communities
within the swamp. This wetland is predominantly a freshwater system with freshwater
marshes, swamp forest, palm forest and upland terrestrial forest. In the 1980’s, Nariva
Swamp was significantly altered by large scale rice farming which resulted in plant
community changes and hydrological changes. In 1993, the wetland was declared a
Wetland of International Importance (Ramsar Site) and shortly after this the large scale
rice farming was stopped. Channelization in the wetland to facilitate agriculture resulted
in salt water intruding further inland, affecting freshwater marsh and palm communities
(IMA, 1999).

In 1999, a restoration initiative for Nariva Swamp was commissioned but it was decided
that before any extensive restoration work could be effectively undertaken, an historical
analysis of the land use/land cover changes using GIS and remote sensing technology
was needed. In 2003, a historical change detection analysis was conducted (Ducks
Unlimited, 2005). In this study mangrove forest was classed together with freshwater
swamp wood and palms as swamp forest. While the study showed a decrease in swamp
forest from 1942 to 1969 and a slight increase in 1994; by the 1980’s mangroves had
started to progress into marsh areas on the eastern edges (Duck Unlimited, 2005). Bacon
(1993) estimated the mangrove forest in Nariva Swamp to be approximately 282 ha; this
is less than half of the mangrove coverage that existed in 2007. The mangrove
community in Nariva Swamp has expanded and this may be due to the hydrological
alteration that resulted in salt water intruding further inland, and/or sea level rise.

82
Figure 3.35: Map showing the mangrove forest in Nariva Swamp

83
Ortoire River
An estuarine mangrove forest approximately 215.7 ha was found near the mouth of the
Ortoire River (Figure 3.36); which flowed into Cocos Bay just north of Radix Point. The
mangrove forest was landward of the Manzanilla Mayaro Road. It did not extend all the
way to the coast, although the river was connected to the sea. Narrow fringes of black
mangrove extended as far inland as the Naparima Mayaro Road. The forest was more
extensive near the river mouth where it was dominated by red mangroves. Black
mangroves were abundant in the landward depression while white mangroves were less
common. Buttonwood was observed growing on the landward side on slightly elevated
land.

Figure 3.36: Mangrove forest associated with the Ortoire River

84
The Ortoire mangrove forest was associated with freshwater swamp forest and patches of
marsh up-river. Adjacent land uses included housing along its southeastern fringe, and a
Hindu cremation site on the northern bank of the river further inland. A fish landing site
was located on the seaward edge of the swamp and the swamp is utilized by villagers for
fishing, crab catching and hunting. Bacon (1993) reported this wetland as being 100 ha;
115.7 ha less than what existed in 2007.

Mayaro Bay
Mayaro Bay extends from Radix Point in the north of Point Galeota in the south. Within
this bay, there were many small estuarine mangrove systems associated with small rivers
or outlets. Together, the mangrove coverage in the entire Bay is 15.4 ha including 8.4 ha
of mangroves on the eastern side of Point Galeota (Figure 3.30).

In the northern section of the bay, mangroves can be found at the mouth of Mahaut River,
South of Radix Lagoon River and at the mouth of Lagoon Doux River (Figure 3.37). At
the mouth of Mahaut River, a small stand of large black mangrove trees (> 12 m in
height) were found mainly on the southern bank; there were less than 5 black mangrove
trees on the northern bank. The mangroves were associated with coconut, sea almond
(Terminalia catappa) and grasses. The channel was muddy and the surrounding area had
houses.

There were no mangroves at the mouth of the Radix Lagoon River, however south of it
there was a narrow fringe of white and black mangroves mixed with sea almonds,
coconut and grasses (Paspalum spp.). This small fringe was associated with a small
outlet open to the sea and is adjacent to residential development.

Further south, at the mouth of the Lagoon Doux River, there was a mangrove community
associated with a seasonal channel (Figure 3.37). On the southern bank of the river, a
thin fringe of red mangrove trees was observed mixed with few white and black
mangroves. The vegetation on the northern bank was cleared for housing.

85
 Figure 3.37: Map of the mangrove communities in the northern side of
Mayaro Bay

The largest mangrove community within Mayaro Bay was at the mouth of the Grand
Lagoon River (Figure 3.38). This mangrove forest was approximately 3 ha and fringed
the banks of the river as well as a coastal lagoon that has a restricted outlet to the sea. A
bridge was constructed near the river mouth. The forest was mixed with red, white and
black mangroves. Red mangroves were abundant nearer the coast while black mangroves
were more abundant on the landward side, and could be seen near the Mayaro
Guayaguayare Road. While guest houses were found closer to the coast, an unplanned
housing development was found on the northern bank of the river. The Grand Lagoon

86
River was muddy during the field visit and there was a large amount of solid waste along
its banks.

Figure 3.38: Map of the mangrove communities in the Central

Mayaro Bay

A small mangrove community was found at the mouth of the Bel Air River, which
flowed into a recreational beach area in Mayaro (Figure 3.38). The forest was mixed
primarily with black and white mangroves. There were few red mangrove trees. The
southern bank of the river was strengthened with gabions basket.

87
A mixed black and white mangrove community was found at the mouth of the Tavia
River (Figure 3.39). Unplanned houses were observed along the banks of this muddy
river both near the coast and landward. Black mangroves were also found fringing a
small channel landward of the road, while white mangrove clumps were observed on the
seaward side (Figure 3.39). The mangroves were associated with grasses and other scrub
vegetation along the channel bank. The channel was polluted with solid waste.

Further south, black and white mangroves were observed on the banks of the Labrea
River, east of the Mayaro Guayaguayare Road (Figure 3.39). On the landward side of the
road, a narrow black mangrove fringe was observed running parallel to the road. A wider
fringe of black and white mangroves was also observed along the banks of the Navette
River (Figure 3.39). Unlike at the Labrea River, this mangrove fringe extended to the
coast and much further inland beyond the Mayaro Guayaguayare Road.

Figure 3.39: Map of the mangrove communities in

South Mayaro Bay

88
NORTH COAST
The only mangrove forest found on the north coast of Trinidad was at Scotland Bay.
Although the Maracas Bay Swamp is the largest wetland system on the north coast, it was
predominantly a freshwater swampwood forest and freshwater marsh system. Only a few
white mangrove trees were found on the eastern bank of the Maracas Bay River, although
red mangroves were previously recorded (Alleng 1997).

Scotland Bay
A small fringed mangrove forest was located in the northwestern end of Scotland Bay
(Figure 3.40). The forest was approximately 0.3 ha in size and was associated with a
small outlet. The system was dominated by red mangrove, with a few black mangrove
trees at its widest point. A sand flat fronted the mangrove forest and was exposed at low
tide. There were no obvious human impacts on the wetland.

Figure 3.40: Map of the mangrove forest in Scotland Bay

89
TOBAGO
The majority of mangrove forests in Tobago were found on the windward coast (Table
3.3; Figure 3.41). The only mangrove forests found on the leeward side of the island were
in Bon Accord Lagoon and Buccoo Bay. These systems were found in the southwestern
side of the island, and were the largest mangrove forests on the island (Table 3.3).

Table 3.3: List and sizes of mangrove forest in Tobago

Area Dominant plant community Size (hectares)

LEEWARD COAST

Bon Accord Lagoon Fringed mangrove 90.8

Buccoo Bay Basin mangrove/ Freshwater 41.5

marsh

WINDWARD COAST
Kilgwyn Swamp Basin mangrove 33.9

Friendship Swamp Basin mangrove 11.7

Petit Trou Lagoon Fringed mangrove 34.2

Little Rockly Bay Estuarine mangrove 4.3

Minster’s Bay, Bacolet Basin mangrove 2.5

Fort Gransby Estuarine mangrove 0.8

Goldborough Basin mangrove/ freshwater 1.7

marsh
Belle Garden Basin mangrove 1.1

Louis D’or Basin mangrove/ freshwater 7.4

marsh

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Figure 3.41: Map showing the location of mangrove forests in Tobago

91
LEEWARD COAST

Bon Accord Lagoon

The mangrove forest in Bon Accord Lagoon was a fringed system contiguous with a
seagrass community and the Buccoo Reef (Figure 3.42). Red mangroves dominated the
intertidal zone, while white, buttonwood, and few black mangrove trees were found in the
drier landward side. The mangrove forest covered 90.8 ha and this included some open
water lagoons (Figure 3.42). The lower intertidal zone of the forest was subjected to tidal
flushing twice a day. There was no direct riverine inflow into the swamp; two drains
(Latour's and Bon Accord Sewage outfall) carried land-based runoff through the
mangroves into the lagoon. Landward of the mangrove forest was a brackish marsh
community dominated by sedges (Eleocharis sp).

Bon Accord Lagoon mangrove forest has been impacted by reclamation for built
development, hydrological alterations and pollution (Alleng, 1997; Juman 2005). The
Bon Accord Lagoon sewage treatment facility was constructed in the 1970’s with an
effluent drain that flowed through the mangrove forest into the lagoon. This drain was a
conduit for salt water coming further inland during high tide, and mangroves were able to
colonize areas where they were not previously found.

Within the past three years, the white, black and buttonwood mangroves landward of the
intertidal red mangrove fringe, and west and east of the sewage effluent drain were
removed for housing and resort development (Plate 34; 35). Houses continue to encroach
on the mangrove fringe especially on its southern boundary. Bon Accord mangrove
forest is protected under the Marine Protection and Enhancement Act 1970. It is part of
the Buccoo Reef/Bon Accord Lagoon Ramsar site and is in the process of being declared
an Environmentally Sensitive Area.

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Figure 3.42: Map showing the mangrove forest in the Bon Accord Lagoon and Buccoo Bay

93
 Plate 34: Mangroves cleared in the Bon Accord Lagoon near to sewage
effluent drain for resort development

Plate 35: Black and white mangroves removed in Bon Accord Lagoon up to
the red mangrove fringe that is within the intertidal zone

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Buccoo Bay
The mangrove forest in Buccoo Bay covered 41.5 ha and was a basin mangrove system located
behind a sandy beach barrier, and associated with a pond with freshwater marsh (Figure 3.42).
Alleng (1997) reported that the Bon Accord mangrove forest and the mangrove forest in Buccoo
Bay were connected. From the 2007 IKONOS imagery, these mangrove forests appeared
separated by a high land area with a house (Figure 3.42).

Buccoo Bay mangrove forest was dominated by red mangroves, particularly in the southwestern
side of the system. On the northern edge, young white mangrove trees were seen growing
amongst tidal marshes landward of the Tobago House of Assembly Fisheries Facility. The
mangroves were growing in areas that were previously marsh and this is indicative of salt water
intruding further inland. A concrete drain flowed on the northern side of the wetland into Buccoo
Bay. Secondary terrestrial forest was found in upland areas surrounding the eastern sector of the
system. This system is threatened by proposed resort and housing development.

WINDWARD COAST

Kilgwyn and Friendship Swamps

Kilgwyn Swamp is a basin mangrove forest surrounding a shallow lagoon behind a beach barrier
(Figure 3.43). The mangrove forest including the lagoon was estimated at 33.9 ha, and was
dominated by white mangroves. Red mangroves formed a narrow fringe along the periphery of
the lagoon while white mangroves were more abundant and widely distributed. The lagoon is
connected to the sea by an ephemeral canal, and the mangrove forest and lagoon have been
divided into two sections by a road leading to the beach (Figure 3.43; Plate 36). A concrete
culvert under the road connects the two sections.

Friendship mangrove forest is east of Kilgwyn and is a basin forest estimated at 11.7 ha (Figure
3.43). This mangrove forest was found behind a beach berm approximately 7 m wide. It was
dominated by white mangroves, although fewer black and red mangrove trees were found along
the berm. Friendship wetland is not flooded by tides. The water within the basin is impounded;
there are no channels/outlets to the sea. A relatively large area of mangrove die-off was reported

95
in the centre of this system (Plate 37) (IMA, 2007b). However, in 2008 there was evidence of re-
growth as numerous seedlings and saplings were found in the dead area.

Kilgwyn and Friendship mangrove areas are hydrologically connected, and may have been a
contiguous system that was impacted by the construction of a channel and sand mining activities.
These mangrove forests are found along Kilgwyn Bay which extends from La Guira Bay in the
west to Canoe Bay in the east-northeast. This bay is colonized by extensive seagrass beds, and
protected by a fringing coral reef.

In 1986, Kilgwyn Swamp was estimated to be 12 ha (Scott & Carbonell, 1986) and described as
a permanent brackish lagoon with fringing mangrove swamps, separated from the sea by a sand
bar. In 1990, only a thin fringe of mangrove was left around the west, northwest and southwest
boundaries of the lagoon since most of the western part had been cleared for the Crown Point
Airport runway extension (IMA, 1990). Kilgwyn Swamp continued eastward into Friendship
Estate (IMA, 1990), where it consisted of relatively healthy mangroves. Attempts were made to
drain the eastern part of the swamp, as there was evidence of channels traversing this area and an
old pump station on the coast (IMA, 1990). Seagrasses in the backreef in La Guira Bay were
also lost through reclamation for the extension of the airport.

In 1996, the Kilgwyn Swamp was reported as a distinct wetland from the Friendship Swamp.
From the 1994 (1:12,500) aerial photographs, Kilgwyn swamp was estimated at 8 ha while
Friendship Swamp was estimated at 5 ha (IMA, 1996). These estimates are much smaller than
the 2007 estimates.

96
Figure 3.43: Map showing mangrove forests in Kilgwyn and Friendship

97
Plate 36: Ephemeral drain that connects the Kilgwyn Lagoon to the Bay

Plate 37: Extensive mangrove dieback in centre of Friendship Swamp

(March 05)

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Petit Trou Lagoon
Petit Trou Lagoon comprised contiguous mangrove forest and seagrass community protected by
a fringing reef. The mangrove forest is a fringed system that was approximately 34.2 ha (Figure
3.44). The forest was dominated by red mangroves which form a wide stand especially in the
northwest section (Plate 35), and was flushed tidally. Few black, white and buttonwood
mangrove trees were found landward of the red mangroves growing amongst littoral woodland.
Landward of the mangrove forest is a resort with golf course and artificially created wetlands
(lakes). During field surveys in 2008, plots on the landward edge of the forest with some black,
white and buttonwood mangrove trees were being advertised for sale.

Figure 3.44: Map of the mangrove forest fringing Petit Trou Lagoon

99
Little Rockly Bay
Two estuarine mangrove forests were found in Little Rockly Bay, just southwest of Scarborough.
The smaller mangrove area was approximately 1.5 ha and was found at the mouth of Thompson
River seaward of the Milford Road (Figure 3.45). It comprised white and black mangroves
associated with coconut and grasses (Paspalum spp.). The mangroves were found mainly on the
south bank where there is a breakwater. A breakwater was found on the back shore of this
recreational beach.

Figure 3.45: Map of the mangrove forests in Little Rockly Bay

100
The larger mangrove system was found at the mouth of the Lambeau River and was
approximately 2.8 ha (Figure 3.45). The mangroves exist landward of the Milford Road and
extend almost to the Claude Noel Highway. The forest was dominated by white mangrove with
a few large black mangrove trees on the landward periphery. The mangrove forest was
associated with scrub vegetation, coconut, sedges and grasses.

Minster’s Bay, Bacolet

A predominantly white mangrove forest with a few black mangrove trees was found associated
with a channel that flowed into Minster’s Bay (Figure 3.46). The forest was approximately
2.5 ha and was a basin system found behind a beach barrier. The channel runs parallel to the bay,
and within the wetland there was an open water area surrounded by dwarf mangroves and
seedlings. There were many seedlings within this forest.

Figure 3.46: Map of the mangrove forest in Minster’s Bay

101
The Bacolet housing development was found on the landward side of the mangrove. On the
northeastern edge of the mangrove system there were marshes dominated by sedges (Eleocharis
spp, Cyperus spp., Fimbristylis spp). Seaward of the mangroves was beach vegetation
comprising coconut, sea almond, seagrape as well as beach runners.

A road leads directly to this wetland and beach area, and there was a small drain that emanated
from the adjacent housing development. The drain was littered and there was a problem with
dumping of garbage in this wetland area. The wetland and beach is cleaned regularly by
employees of the Tobago House of Assembly.

Fort Gransby
A small estuarine mangrove forest, approximately 0.8 ha, was found associated with a channel
that flowed out into Barbados Bay just north of Gransby Point (Figure 3.47). The white
mangrove community was associated with a marsh community on its eastern side. The
mangroves fringed the banks of the channel which ran parallel to Pinfold Bay, but opened into
Barbados Bay. A road and beach facility was found south of the mangroves. At the mouth of
the channel there was a fishing boat facility.

Goldsborough Bay
A narrow fringe of white mangroves was found in the back beach area of Goldsborough Bay just
northeast of the Goldsborough River mouth (Figure 3.48). The mangrove stand was
approximately 1.7 ha and was adjacent to a freshwater marsh community located behind a beach
barrier. The mangrove was intermixed with beach vegetation including seagrapes (Coccoloba
uvifera), sea purselane (Sesuvium portulascastrum) and Ipomoea spp. Goldsborough Bay was
showing signs of coastal erosion.

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Figure 3.47: Map of the mangrove system north of Gransby Point

103
Figure 3.48: Map of the mangrove forest in Goldsborough Bay

104
Belle Garden
A basin mangrove forest approximately 1.1 ha was found fringing a closed coastal lagoon in
Belle Garden (Figure 3.49). The mangrove forest comprised black and white mangrove trees
associated with grasses and beach vegetation. The coastal lagoon extended from Clark’s Bay in
the west to another unnamed bay to the east. The lagoon was not open to the ocean but was
blocked by a beach barrier. A fishing landing site and experimentation site was located on the
western side of the lagoon.

Figure 3.49: Map of the mangrove forest in Belle Garden

105
Louis Dor
A basin mangrove forest with a brackish lagoon was found behind a beach barrier in Queen’s
Bay, Louis D’or (Figure 3.50). The mangrove forest was approximately 7.4 ha and was
dominated by white mangroves, with a couple of black mangrove trees along the coast. The
white mangroves closer to coast were shorter (canopy height = 3m) than those on the landward
side (canopy height =8m).

Figure 3.50: Map of the mangrove forest in Queen’s Bay, Louis D’or

106
On the western side of the wetland there was a small manmade drain that flowed from the
wetland into a concrete drain and then into the ocean. A mudflat was located close to this drain
and was being used by a number of birds (sandpipers, plovers, Little Blue heron) during field
surveys. On the beach side, the mangroves were associated with coastal thicket (coconuts,
machineel, seagrapes) and grasses. On the western and northern boundaries, the mangrove forest
was encroached upon by built development (housing and farming). The wetland is used as a
grazing area for goats.

107
 4.0 GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Coastal areas worldwide are vulnerable to an unprecedented combination of climate change associated
disturbances (e.g., storm surges, flooding, drought), and other local change drivers (e.g., land use change,
pollution, over-exploitation of resources) (Gilman et al. 2006; IPCC, 2007). The Caribbean has
experienced on average a mean relative sea-level rise of 1 mm year during the 20th century,
-1

although there was extensive local variation. Sea-level is projected to rise between 0.18 – 0.59m
by 2099 (IPCC, 2007). Coastal wetlands including mangroves are projected to be negatively affected
by sea-level rise especially where they are constrained on the landward side, or starved of sediment.
Their loss will exacerbate coastal hazards, increasing threats to human safety and shoreline
development.

In order to separate site-based influences from impacts due to global climate change, particularly
sea-level rise, mangrove baselines have to be established. This study established the baseline as
of 2007. Mangrove forest maps were created and size calculated using high resolution IKONOS
imagery, GIS technology and extensive field surveys with GPS. Although Bacon (1993) and
Alleng (1997) provided sizes for mangrove forests, the imagery and mapping technology used in
this study were not accessible to them. They did not provide maps so that differences in sizes
could be validated. It is therefore assumed that the estimates for mangrove coverage in this
study are the most accurate and up-to-date. Comparisons between past and present mangrove
coverage give some indication of change but are not exact.

In Trinidad, the majority of mangrove forests are found on the sheltered west coast (Gulf of
Paria); which is the coastline that is occupied by more than 70% of the population and has
experienced the most intense development activities within the past three decades (CSO, 2007).
The current mangrove coverage is estimated at 7,532 ha on the west coast compared to
1,132.8 ha on the east coast, 481.3 ha on the south coast, 0.3 ha on the north coast and 222.9 ha
in Tobago. Mangrove coverage was much higher than anticipated. Table 4.1 provides a
summary of the wetland uses by local community and impacts.

Seventy percent of the mangroves on the west coast are found in the Caroni Swamp, 10% in the
Godineau Swamp and the remaining 20% amongst smaller systems. While mangroves along this
coast were cleared in the past for built development including highway and roads, there has been
108
Table 4.1: A summary of the wetland uses by local community and impacts in Trinidad
and Tobago
TRINIDAD

WEST COAST
Local use by
Area community Impacts
Solid waste disposal,
reclamation,
hydrological
Hart's Cut alteration
Frequent clearing of
mangroves,
Cuesa River Crab catching and hunting pollution
Bird watching, crab Reclamation for
Mucurapo Swamp catching built development
Reclamation for
unplanned housing,
Sea Lots Crab catching, hunting pollution
Reclamation,
hydrological
Eco-tourism, fishing, oyster collection, alteration, pollution,
hunting, rice farming, cremation site, over-exploitation of
Caroni Swamp research resources
Encroachment by
La Cuesa River, Waterloo Fishing, hunting, bird watching built development

Orange Valley Solid waste disposal

Encroachment by
industry,
hydrological
Couva River Crab catching, hunting alteration, pollution
Reclamation for
Lisas Bay Not accessible by the public port, pollution
Reclamation for
unplanned housing
North Claxton Bay Fishing, crab catching, hunting and industry
Reclamation, solid
South Claxton Bay waste disposal
Pollution,
encroachment by
Guaracara River Hunting, crab catching unplanned housing
encroachment by
unplanned housing,
Marabella River Hunting crab catching pollution
Pollution,
encroachment for
housing
Cipero River Hunting
Pollution,
Fishing, recreation, eco-tourism, hydrological
farming, oil exploration, religious alteration,
Godineau Swamp ceremony reclamation

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Area Local use by community Impacts
Coastal erosion,
encroachment for
Rousillac Swamp Hunting, crab catching housing
Reclamation for
La Brea Crab catching unplanned housing

Vessigny Bay Siltation of river

Clearing for road,
car-park and beach
facility, passage of
Guapo River Crab catching pipeline
Coastal erosion, oil
pollution, solid
Irois Bay Hunting, crab catching waste disposal

Fullerton Solid waste disposal

Los Gallos Road construction

Coastal erosion, salt
water intrusion,
reclamation for built
Icacos Bay Crab catching, hunting development

SOUTH COAST

Area Local use by community Impacts

Los Blanquizales Hunting, oil exploration Coastal erosion

Unplanned housing,
Erin Bay Hunting, fishing pollution
Fishing, hunting, crab
catching, housing of Unplanned housing,
Moruga River boats, religious ceremony pollution

Lizard River, Guayaguayare Fishing, crab catching Reclamation

Reclamation for
Hunting crab catching , industry and road
Mouville, Pt. Galeota fishing construction
Housing, road
Rustville, Guayaguayare Hunting, crab catching construction
Bridge construction,
disease/ infestation
St Hiliare, Guayaguayare Crab catching of mangroves

NORTH COAST

Scotland Bay Not easily accessible

110
Area Local use by community Impacts

Rincon Bay Not easily accessible

Coastal erosion,
quarrying activity
Matura River upstream
Reclamation, solid
waste disposal,
Le Branche River Fishing, crab catching coastal erosion

North Manzanilla Coastal erosion

Reclamation,
hydrological
Eco-tourism, fishing, crab catching, alteration, salt water
North Oropuche/ Fishing Pond hunting, farming intrusion,
Reclamation for
housing and
farming,
hydrological
Hunting, fishing, farming, alteration, salt water
eco-tourism, re- intrusion, pollution,
Nariva Swamp forestation, research forest fires
Hunting, fishing, crab
catching, recreation, Solid waste disposal,
Ortoire River cremation site reclamation
Reclamation for
Mayaro Bay Crab catching, hunting housing, resorts

TOBAGO
LEEWARD COAST
Local use by
Area community Impacts
Bon Accord Lagoon Crab catching, fishing, Reclamation for built
research development,
hydrological
alteration pollution
Buccoo Bay Crab catching, bird Reclamation for built
watching development

WINDWARD COAST
Kilgwyn Swamp Crab catching , hunting Reclamation for
airport, solid waste
disposal
Friendship Swamp Crab catching , hunting Reclamation
Petit Trou Lagoon Eco-tourism Reclamation for
resort
Little Rockly Bay Erosion
Minster’s Bay, Bacolet Solid waste disposal
Fort Gransby
Goldborough Coastal erosion
Belle Garden Research
Louis D’or Farming, grazing sheep Reclamation for
housing

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some regeneration or new growth, at the expense of other wetland communities in most
instances. Caroni Swamp, for instance, is predominantly a mangrove dominated system with
some areas of freshwater marsh and brackish marsh. This wetland was impacted by reclamation
for highways, roads, landfill, sewage plants and agriculture. The hydrology of this system was
altered in the early 1920’s to facilitate rice cultivation, and later on for flood mitigation.
Currently, there are built developments encroaching on the wetland boundary.

While the entire Caroni nwetland is under threat from reclamation and pollution, the mangrove
forest has expanded into areas that were formerly freshwater marsh and open water areas. The
reason for the mangrove expansion is salt water intruding further inland into freshwater areas.
The saltwater intrusion may be the result of a number of factors that include reduced freshwater
outflow in the rivers due to damming and extraction, channel construction, broken embankments
and sea-level rise. The same can be said for Godineau Swamp, where a number of factors may
be causing salt water intrusion. However, in Icacos Swamp where the mangrove forest has
expanded into freshwater marsh and open pond areas, the reasons may be climate induced as
opposed to human alteration.

In contrast, the mangroves that fringed Columbus Bay are eroding. The erosion rate in that Bay
is estimated at about 1 m per year (IMA, unpublished). Similarly in Los Blanquizales, which is
on the south coast east of Icacos, the mangroves continue to undergo erosion. The extent of the
loss of mangrove or wetland area could not be estimated as there was insufficient historical
spatial data. Although Alleng (1997) reported this wetland to be 1,085 ha and the current
estimate is 909.4 ha, a difference of 175.6 ha; the loss could not be attributed to the mangrove
forest or to the general wetland area. It should be noted that direct human impact on this wetland
is minimal since most of it remains inaccessible.

In the Mucurapo area where a change detection analysis was conducted from 1942 to 2009
(O’Connor, 2009), the mangrove forest has increased from 0.5 ha in 1942 to 9.5 ha in 2009.
This mangrove area only expanded after there was land reclamation between 1942 and 1969 and
although mangroves were cleared for built development such as the Audrey Jeffer’s Highway,
Hasley Crawford Stadium, and more recently Movie Towne, natural regeneration always

112
occurred. The hydrological conditions that exist in the area are conducive to mangrove
colonization and there is a source of seedlings in Caroni which is brought in by the currents.

Mangrove forests in the central Gulf of Paria are expanding seaward onto extensive mudflats.
Sedimentation seemed to have increased from Brickfield in the north to Claxton Bay in the south
as fish landing sites located in Brickfield, Orange Valley and Claxton Bay have become
shallower and boats have to be relocated. Whether the source of the sediment is land–based or
from the Orinoco still has to be determined. This area encompasses the Point Lisas Industrial
Estate where 500 ha of mangrove forest in Couva/ Carli Bay and Lisas Bay were cleared in the
late 1970’s for the estate construction. Bacon (1993) reported the mangrove forest in Couva/
Carli Bay as 171 ha, and Lisas Bay as 26 ha. The 2007 estimates were 298.1 ha in Couva / Carli
Bay and 137.6 ha in Lisas Bay a difference of 127.1 ha and 111.6 ha respectively. While the
landward margin of these forests is being encroached upon by built development, the mangroves
are expanding seawards.

Further south on the west coast, in Claxton Bay, Guaracara, Marabella, Cipero, Rousillac and
LaBrea the mangrove forests are being negatively impacted, and encroached upon by housing
developments. Between the Guaracara and Marabella Rivers, these developments are unplanned
(squatting) so there is inadequate infrastructure for waste disposal. Near Cipero River, high end
housing is found on the landward fringes of the mangroves leaving no room for landward
migration of mangroves.

On the east coast, the largest mangrove forests are found in Nariva Swamp (580.7 ha), North
Oropuche/ Fishing Pond (268.8 ha) and Ortoire River (215.7 ha). There are no historical data for
the smaller systems at Rincon Bay, Matura Bay and North Manzanilla Bay. The mangrove
forest at the mouth of the L’Ebranche River has decreased by 18.2 ha as mangroves were cleared
for a hotel and illegal housing development. Along the Ortoire River the mangrove forest is
115.7 ha larger than reported by Bacon (1993). In North Oropuche/ Fishing Pond and Nariva
Swamp, mangroves have been expanding landward and taking over freshwater areas. Salt water
intrusion is believed to be the cause of this landward migration; with reasons similar to Caroni
Swamp.

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Unlike systems on the west coast, the wetlands on the East Coast (Atlantic Ocean) are subjected
to higher wave energy. These wetlands are not open to the ocean but occur behind sand barriers.
Most of the wetlands on this coast area are experiencing problems with coastal erosion except for
North Oropuche/Fishing Pond. Bacon (1993) reported coastal erosion in North Oropuche/
Fishing Pond but this was not evident during the 2009 field survey as high sand berms were
observed along the coast near the North Oropuche River mouth. The coastlines in north
Manzanilla and the Cocos Bay were severely eroded. Rip-rap was installed in Cocos Bay to
arrest the erosion as seawater was sometimes seen breaching the road and entering Nariva
Swamp.

On the south coast of Trinidad relatively large mangrove forests are found near the Moruga
River and at Los Blanquizales. Smaller systems are found within Guayaguayare Bay and Erin
Bay. While the Los Blanquizales system is smaller in size than what was previously reported by
Alleng (1997) and continues to be eroded, the Moruga mangrove forest is much larger than the
24 ha reported by Bacon (1993). The big difference in size is most likely a mapping error as
mangroves in Moruga were cleared for unplanned housing. The system in Erin bay has also
been impacted by unplanned housing while the mangrove forest in Point Galeota has been
fragmented by road construction.

There are no extensive mangrove forests on the North Coast. The Scotland Bay system is
relatively undisturbed as there are no built developments in that area and it is only accessible by
boat. In Maracas Bay, a stand of white mangroves was observed at the mouth of the Maracas
River. Alleng (1997) recorded red mangroves in this area but they were not present in 2009.

In Tobago, the largest mangrove communities are found at the southwest end of the island which
is the most populated and developed part of the island (CSO, 2007; IMA, 1996). Southwest
Tobago has experienced rapid growth and development in the tourism and related service
sectors. Mangroves were cleared in the 1990’s for the extension of the Crown Point Airport and
for hotel development. In 2007, mangroves were cleared in the Bon Accord Lagoon for
proposed resort development and in 2008 for housing. This ecosystem together with the

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adjoining reef and seagrass community is in the process of being established as an
Environmentally Sensitive Area under the Environment Management Act (2000).

There is indication that the Bon Accord mangrove forest is migrating landward as salt water
appeared to be intruding further inland. Mangroves were found further inland than previous
recorded. Even in areas that were recently cleared, there are signs of new growth as many white
mangrove seedlings have been re-established. Whether salt water intrusion is due to channel
construction or sea-level rise is unknown and needs to be determined. A change detection
analysis is also required to determine the change in mangrove coverage and confirm landward
migration. There is a serious concern in this area with regards to ‘coastal squeeze’. Built
development occurs on the landward edge of the forest leaving very little space for landward
migration.

There is little historical data for the smaller wetlands on the Atlantic coast of Tobago such as
Louis D’or, Goldsborough, Belle Garden, and Rockly Bay. On this coast where most mangrove
systems were found, there are concerns with coastal erosion on the seaward side and
encroachment by built development on the landward edge, leaving little space for landward
migration by mangroves.

Mangrove forests in Trinidad and Tobago have been negatively impacted, and continue to be
threatened by human activities as present and proposed developments are concentrated on the
coast. These degraded systems are more susceptible to climate change impacts (UNEP, 2007)
especially where there is little space for landward migration of mangroves as sea-level rises.
Although mangrove coverage has expanded in wetlands such as Caroni, Godineau, Icacos, and
Nariva, it has been at the expense of other freshwater communities. The causes for the
vegetation change may be site-specific or climate related but this can only be determined by
undertaking vulnerability assessments, and long-term monitoring of parameters such as relative
sea-level and sedimentation rates.

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 5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

Accurate predictions of changes to coastal ecosystem position, area and health can help minimize
and offset anticipated losses, and reduce threats to coastal development and human safety (Titus,
1991; Mullane & Suzuki, 1997; Ramsar Bureau, 1998; Hansen & Biringer, 2003; Ellison, 2004;
Gilman et al., 2005). Site-specific mangrove vulnerability assessment is recommended since the
ecosystem is responding to other human threats besides climate changes, and its response is
determined by physiography, hydrology and ecology of the area (Gilman et al., 2005; Bacon,
1994). These assessments should include-

i. The production of maps showing mangrove boundaries, topography and locations

of coastal infrastructure and other development. These maps can help to identify
the most vulnerable mangrove sites to projected sea level rise. This study
provides baseline maps from 2007.

ii. Determining how the positions of mangrove margins have changed over past
decades through observations of a time series of historical imagery. This change
detection analysis can be used to predict the future mangrove position and assess
site-specific mangrove vulnerability.

iii. Determining trends in mean relative sea-level and frequency and elevation of
extreme high water events. Tide gauges can be deployed in the mangrove forests
that have been identified as most vulnerable.

iv. Measuring trends in changes in the elevation of the mangrove forest floor to
determine how mean sea-level is changing relative to the elevation. If
sedimentation rate keeps pace with rising sea-level, then the salinity and
frequency of inundation will remain relatively unaffected. If the rate of sea-level
rise exceeds the rate of sedimentation, then mangrove zones will migrate inland to
their preferred elevation, and the seaward margin will be subjected to erosion.
Sedimentation rates within mangrove forest can be monitored using calibrated
skates (Ellison, 1996)

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 v. Monitor litter fall rate of mangroves, as increased inundation with sea-level rise
may cause stress resulting in reduced net primary production (Ellison, 1996)

The results of the site specific vulnerability assessments should be incorporated into coastal land-
use policies to provide adequate lead-time to minimize social disruption and cost, and reduce
losses of valued coastal habitats. This may include instituting setbacks from mangroves for new
development for appropriate sections of coastline and building resilience to climate change
effects by reducing and eliminating other stresses that degrade mangroves. The policy adopted to
manage site-based shoreline response to rising sea level should be made as part of a broader
integrated coastal zone management plan, which includes an assessment of the cumulative
effects of coastal activities.

Site planning in coastal areas with little to no development and large areas of mangroves may be
suitable for long-term managed retreat with relative sea level rise. Zoning rules for building
setbacks can be used to reserve zones behind current mangroves for future mangrove habitat.
However, in highly developed coastal areas adjacent to mangroves, site planning may justify the
use of shoreline erosion control measures. As a result, the mangroves’ natural landward
migration will be prevented and the mangrove fronting the development will eventually be lost.

The designation of protected areas is one coastal resource management tool that can contribute to
mitigating anticipated mangrove losses in response to climate change effects. However, when
designating a protected area the anticipated coastal ecosystem responses to climate change
effects, as well as the functional linkages between ecosystems must be incorporated. Networks
of protected areas are needed to achieve ecological connectivity to permit the movement of
species and exchange of genes.

Replanting of areas where mangrove previously exited, enhancement of degraded mangrove

forests by removing stresses that caused their decline and creating new mangrove habitat will
help offset the anticipated reductions in mangrove area and health, and increase their resilience
to climate change effects. Determining the stress/es that caused a mangrove to decline is
necessary to identify an effective restoration or enhancement method. Establishing an optimal

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hydrologic regime and protecting the site from disturbance typically will allow mangrove to self-
repair. Planting mangroves may not be successful or necessary in many cases where there is
natural recruitment of mangrove seedlings.

There is a need to build capacity within the country to conduct monitoring and assessment of
relevant mangrove parameters so as to facilitate adaptive management. Also important is public
awareness and outreach programmes to educate local communities on the value of ecosystem
services provided by mangrove so that they can be active partners in the management of the
resources, and help build resilience.

One of the major challenges facing Trinidad and Tobago is adjusting to the responses of coastal
ecosystems to the climate change-induced rise of relative sea levels by developing and
implementing appropriate, affordable, and cost-effective adaptation measures with limited
resources.

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Cover Design: Joel Demas 05/2010 • Report Printed: 26/05/2010