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Sports Architecture: The soccer stadiums of the twentieth century in Brazil

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Sports Architecture:
The soccer stadiums of the twentieth century in Brazil and Portugal.
Beatriz ATTA1, Pedro JANUÁRIO2, Jorge BOUERI3, João SOUSA MORAIS4.
(1)
MhD. Student at Lisbon School of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa,
beatrizgonzalezatta@gmail.com
(2)
CIAUD Research Center, Auxiliary Professor at Lisbon School of Architecture, Universidade de
Lisboa,
januario@fa.ulisboa.pt; arq.pedro.januario@gmail.com
(3)
Invited Full Professor at Lisbon School of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa,
jjboueri@gmail.com
(4)
CIAUD Research Center, Full Professor at Lisbon School of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa,
jsm@vao.pt

Abstract
The article studies the social and economic impact of the soccer stadiums in Brazil and Portugal through
the 20's century. The technologies that were used to build them, and how the process of conservation
and preservation of those until today. Most of the soccer stadiums later became landmarks and
architectonical icons because of the architectural impact and cultural heritage left by them for the next
generations. The process in which the stadiums become a city brand and the values they incorporated.
Not only as the urban equipment itself because of the new design approaches, but also as a way to
legitimate the pre-existing areas. The improvement of the quality of life of the people who live there and
the political, economic and social attractiveness for the new focal point of the city. In our opinion, it is
imperative to enhance how the finest and digital technologies can be used to preserve, protect and
safeguard the "old" (previous heritages). Also, must be used with a clear conscience of the impact they
can have not only in the process of construction but, in the lives of today's and the future generations to
come.

Keywords: sports architecture, soccer stadiums, conservation, technologies

1. The history of the practice of sports

Sports in these days can be identified as a sacred phenomenon and are practiced in the military all over
the world as a body-builder tool. They are practiced in a competitive or in a hobby way and also as an
element to project the power of the military institute. The practice of sports was incorporated into the
military in several regions all over the world, under many different perspectives through the twenty-
century. [1]
Notwithstanding it is difficult to know for sure, it is accepted that wrestling and boxing were the first
sports ever played. Competitions using the simple model of human transport, running, would also have
been among the first sports played. Competitions involving hitting, kicking, throwing a ball like an object,
as well as sports related to hunting and throwing, would be likely to have been played in the old ages.
There as many sports that created competitions such as horse riding and canoeing, and as in the military
the arch. At the first Olympic Games, dated from 760 b.C., it was a unique event: footrace. The games
that followed included other sports like wrestling, boxing, equestrian, discus, javelin, and jumping. The
most popular game ever played in all over the world, the soccer, had its origins in China.

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There is evidence in China that military forces around 2nd and 3rd century BC (Han Dynasty) played a
game, originally named "Tsu-Chu", that involved kicking a leather ball stuffed with fur into a small hole.
Like soccer, no hands were allowed during the play of the game. [2]

Fig. 1: Tsu-Chu in China.

2. The history of the game of soccer

It is known that soccer emerged around 3000 b.C. in China - "Tsu-Chu": O Tsu-Chu, which means "kick
with the feet" (Tsu) a "leather ball" (Chu), it was created to military training by Yang-Tsé, an integrant of
the emperor's Huang-ti guard. The ball was kicked by the Chinese soldiers in between two sticks on the
field. One small detail: in war times, they used to use the dead enemies skulls as the ball.
The origin of soccer in Japan: the Kemari: Since 1400 was created the Kemari and brought to China
and Japan at the same time as the Buddhism. Being a ceremonial game, it had no winner or loser. It
used to work like this: before the match, the players blessed the ball and the temple. The ceremony was
called Tokimari. A man called Edayaku prayed for prosperity and world peace. After this ritual, the game
started with 6 to 8 players that formed a circle passing the ball to one another.
Even though, in soccer history is possible to find others game references during the Agen times, without,
of course, the detail of the "balls" the Chinese soldiers used. In Ancient Japan was developed the Kemari
(8 players in which team, the balls were made of bamboo fibers, the Greeks created the Episkiros (9
players in which team, the balls were made of the cow's blatter), among other examples.
In the Middle Ages, emerged a game very much like the soccer we know today, but with a certain
amount of violence associated: the "gio del calcio". In this game, the players are allowed to give
punches, kicks, and other violent blows in one another with the objective of introducing the ball into the
armed tends at the end of each field. All this intensity, which resulted in the many player's deaths, made
the game prohibited by king Eduard II.
One can say the game - gio del calcio - was a draft of the modern soccer game, though it was in England,
in the seventeenth century, that the game was systemized and organized, to have clear, rigid and
objective rules. The British had a particular contribution to the soccer history, namely in its evolution and
gradual popularization. During all second half of the nineteenth century, lots of improvements were
idealized and added, as the creation of the goalkeeper (1871), the time of 90 minutes (1875), the penalty
(1891), among others. [3]

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2.1 The history of the soccer game in Brazil

The soccer game arrived in Brazil thanks to Charles William Miller (1874-1953). At the age of 10, he
was sent to England to study in a public school in Hampshire, where he learned to play soccer, rugby,
and cricket. After returning to Brazil, his homeland, in 1894, bringing with him two used balls, and a set
of Hampshire FA rules. Later, he suggested the creation of a soccer team within the British immigrant's
community at the São Paulo Athletic Club in 1894. In 1989, a new team emerged with the Associação
Atlética Mackenzie College.
In a few years, the sport conquered adepts throughout the country, but first, it attracted the most
unfortunate ones, and only then it achieved the lower classes in the country. In 1923 the Vasco reunited
with the suburbs teams from Rio so the lower classes players could practice the soccer. The black
people only begin to be accepted in soccer in 1920. At the Vargas government, in which the soccer
grew with government's help.
The first team had the participation of Charles Miller because he brought the firsts couple of soccer balls
to the country on June 9 of 1894. The match was won 4x2 by the first team. In 1901, was created the
Liga Paulista de Futebol (Paulista Soccer League), and after they realized the first Campeonato Paulista
(Paulista Championship). Charles Miller team was a sensation and a three-time winner of this
championship. The clubs that were emerging and organizing, until 1919, almost all of the Brazilian states
already had a regional championship and their state federation. In 1914 was created the Brazilian Sports
Confederation, which also organized other sports. [4]

2.2 The history of the soccer game in Portugal

On March 31st, 1914, few months before First World War started, the Federação Portuguesa de Futebol
(Portugal's Football Association) leaders of Lisbon, Porto, and Portalegre, reunited to constitute the
União Portuguesa de Futebol (Portuguese Soccer Union). Dr. António Joaquim de Sá e Oliveira was
the first president and had its corporate headquarters at Praça da Alegria in Lisbon. However, soccer
did not arrive in Portugal that spring day, but some thirty years before.
There is no concrete about the exact moment the soccer game was played in Portugal. Some historians
defend it was at the Madeira's island, Camacha district, at a place called Achada, where it was the first
soccer match, in the year 1875. It would be the British Harry Hinton, a young Madera's resident that
studied in London, that we owe the introduction of the "foot-ball", in Portuguese soil.
Thirteen years later, in 1888, Guilherme Pinto Basto, according to his brothers, brought the first ball to
the mainland and organized an exhibition about this new game in October that same year. A first match
was played on a Sunday afternoon at the Parada de Cascais, that the organizer Pinto Basto called
"rehearsal". This name would become a jargon at the time. For all effects, it was the first time the soccer
game was played on the continent of Portugal.
However, the first game, in fact, would only take place on January 22nd, 1889 at Campo Pequeno, in
Lisbon, again by the hands of the Pinto Basto brothers. A Portuguese team went against the British; the
victory smiled by the national color (Portuguese) in an auspicious first time to our soccer.
Due to the failure to reorganize the Club Lisbonense (1892) and the Grupo da Estrela, lead the way for
the creation on December 8th, 1902 of the Club Internacional de Foot-Ball (International Club of Foot-
Ball), with the collaboration of the Pinto Basto’s brothers. They were also the responsible for the
implementation of tennis in this historic club in Lisbon.
The club, representing Lisbon, had gone against the Foot-Ball Club do Porto on March 2nd, 1894, at
Campo Alegre, in Oporto Cricket Club field. The run of Taça D. Carlos I in the first soccer match between
Lisbon and Oporto teams. The match was won by the Lisbon team, and the Oporto team was based on
the genesis of Futebol Club do Porto. Born on September 28th, 1893 by António Nicolau de Almeida's
(1873-1948) hands, who like Pinto Basto brothers, was in aware, falling in love immediately by the
beautiful game.
Soccer, as others activities from England, lived some difficulties after the "English Ultimatum" of 1890.
The people's reaction and the Republican revolt failed on January 31st, 1891 at Porto, spread the seeds
to the unhappiness of the anti-British reaction.
Was at this time "A Portuguesa" ("The Portuguese"), written in 1890 by Henrique Lopes de Mendonça
(1856-1931) and music by Alfredo Cristiano Keil (1850-1907), who soon became a patriotic symbol of
the Republican cause. The famous part of the lyrics we sing today "against the cannons, march, march"
in the original was "against the Bretons, march, march", well enlightens of the anti-British spirit at the
time.
Soccer arrived at the country by the hand, even better, by the feet of the "foreigners" from the upper
bourgeoisie and aristocracy, who imported from Britain all the latest fashions, among them, of course,
those of sport. It would be almost unthinkable today to conceive of such an idea, but in Portugal in the
late nineteenth century, football was far from popular, with the lower classes completely divorced from
the "madmen of the English" practiced by the elites.
Supported by the idleness of the ruling classes and the taste for new amusements, the game spread
slowly throughout the country through new clubs, associations and practiced in private schools and

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colleges. By the end of the nineteenth-century there were already associations and clubs in the principal
cities of the country, such as: the Lisbonense Club; Carcavelos; Braço de Prata; Real Gym Portuguese
Club; Estrela Futebol Clube; Academic Football; Campo de Ourique; the Oporto Cricket; the Sport Club
Vianense; or the Portuguese Club Gym. [5]

3. The sports and the city

The sport configures itself as a "part of the civilization process, as an element of the urban and city
culture". [6] But, too many times the city has not had the respect that the sports earned. Bento defends
that "the city is not a sports city still (...) confirmed every day and overall on the weekends by the
numerous people who look for the stage to have a recreational, ludic activity and body-sportive in and
out of the cities limits. [7]
It is on this freedom relation we think of the sports and the green environment in urban spaces, as a
fundamental element in the cities. It is not about the hygienist visions pro sports, or naturalist visions, or
a come back to nature, by the green urban spaces. It is only about allowing the compatibilization of a
spaces typology, with the uses typology, maximizing this relation.

“Like all social practice, spatial practice is lived directly before it is conceptualized; but the
speculative primacy of the conceived over the lived causes the practice to disappear along with
life, and so does very little justice to the unconscious level of lived experience per se.” [8]

The city development, urban expansion after World War II, incused by the neoliberal neo-capitalism,
resulted in a "social spaces exploration", so that "the given value to the relations of exchanges overcome
the pleasure value associated". [9]
Bento says the city has had with the sports a conflictual relation and in some paradoxical way "from
some strange and marginal in the city, when not clandestine, it is driven far away to the suburbs,
exemplifying the urban-nature conflict.". The sports city reflects "the city of quality of life and leisure,
with natural habitat for "homo ludens", for "homo sportivus", for "homo humanus". With opportunities
and playful spaces and sports-corporal spread naturally and not as prosthesis implanted in the urban
plan. [10]

3.1 FIFA's recommendations

These regulations are intended to make organizers of FIFA events aware of their duties and
responsibilities before, during and after matches about safety and security at the stadium.
These regulations contain the minimum safety and security measures that event organizers and stadium
authorities must take to ensure safety, security, and order at the stadium.
LOCs/event organizers, associations and clubs/stadium authorities must take all reasonable measures
necessary to ensure safety and security at the stadium. LOCs/event organizers, associations and
clubs/stadium authorities are responsible for the behaviour and competence of the persons entrusted
with the organization of a FIFA event. [11]

4. The soccer stadiums

Stadia are by definition designed to accommodate thousands of people in one place to view and
experience an event. Inherent problems are associated with the gathering of such large numbers of
people. While solutions have been developed, the ever-changing nature of the society that
encompasses them requires an evolution in the stadia themselves. While today’s stadiums are being
designed, and constructed with extremely high standards and reviews, this was not always the case.
Historically, stadia design, in general, has been described as lacking or inadequate, with many examples
of this all over the world (Sheard, 2008).
While the Stadium at Olympia is often credited as the first stadium, the original Panathenaic Stadium
(built in 338 b.C.) provided the first concept of a spectator-oriented stadium (Hellenic Olympic
Committee, 2011). Spampinato (2012) does begin to examine the way the designs evolved, from the
initial Greek amphitheatres built in excavated hillsides such as the original Panathenaic Stadium, but
does not elaborate to a large extent. The Hellenic Olympic Committee (2011) details the initial specifics
of the Panathenaic Stadium construction in both its original (ancient) form, its revival for the first modern
Olympic Games in 1896 and its renovation for the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens. [12]
White City Stadium, in London, is often described as the precursor for the modern seated stadium. It
was constructed so that almost the entire Olympic Games could be viewed from anywhere in the
stadium. By today’s standards it would be considered crude and obsolete; however, at the time of
construction in 1908, it was hailed as a structure to behold. Unlike previous stadia, it was designed to
hold a variety of events, as evident by the 536m running track, 600m cycle track and swimming and
diving pool all incorporated into the field of play.

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The materials used for the construction of White City Stadium were also of considerable difference to
previous stadia. While past stadia employed the use of stone, marble, travertine and timber, the main
feature of White City Stadium was its steel frame structure. Steel was used for the seating tiers, as well
as to support the simple roofs that spanned sections of the straight lengths of the spectator seats within
the stadium. White City Stadium is often described as the precursor for the modern seated stadium.
Indeed, this stadium was a pioneer in the ideology of the seated stadium, however of its ultimate capacity
of 150,000 spectators only 68,000 had seats, and of those only 17,000 of those seats were under cover
of the roofs along the straight lengths of the stadium. [13]
The availability of materials and evolutions in technology and the way that those materials can be
employed within a stadium play a significant role in the way a stadium is designed. Primarily, this is
related to the overall look, definition and aesthetic qualities of the stadium; however, it also influences
the functionality, the size and is the reason for some key or unique features in modern stadia. Today,
designers and engineers involved with stadium design and construction are looking more and more
towards new technologies to improve stadium functionality, design, overall look, environmental footprint
and long-term sustainability. This has led to the incorporation of many new and unique elements in
modern stadia as engineers look to create the most memorable, sustainable and environmentally
sensitive stadiums. [14]

Fig. 2: White City Stadium in London, England (BBC News 2012).

4.1 Soccer stadiums in Brazil

Maracanã stadium was built to the FIFA World Cup 1950, it has the capacity for 74,738 thousand people,
and a total area of 150,000m² was projected by the architects Miguel Feldman, Waldir Ramos, Oscar
Valdetaro, Rafael Galvão, Orlando Azevedo, Antônio Dias Carneiro e Pedro Paulo Bernardes Bastos.
Immortalized as the unforgettable stage of the final match Brasil and Uruguay, one of the most striking
chapters of the tournament, the Jornalista Mário Franco stadium, at Rio de Janeiro, take back the lead
in Brasil 2014 FIFA World Cup. Morumbi stadium started the building process on July 1, 1953, but it
was only finished on October 2, 1960. It has the capacity of 72,809 thousand people and an area of
85,000m². It has given name is Cícero Pompeo Toledo in honour of the man who presided the club at
the time, and it is placed at Morumbi - São Paulo.

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Fig. 3: (above on the left) Maracanã stadium. Fig. 4: (above on the right) Morumbi stadium.

Mineirão stadium, in Belo Horizonte - Minas Gerais, was built by Eduardo Mendes Guimarães Júnior e
Gaspar, Garreto, BCMF, GPA&A. The capacity is for 58,170 thousand people in a 209,000m² area.
Although the building process started in 1959, it was only concluded on December 5, 1965. Its official
name is Governador Magalhães Pinto stadium.

Fig. 5: Mineirão stadium.

4.2 Soccer stadiums in Portugal

Restelo stadium is situated in Belém, Lisbon and has the capacity for 19,856 thousand people. Carlos
Ramos is the architect and was inaugurated on September 23, 1956. It used to be called Almirante
Américo Thomaz stadium. [15] Bessa XXI century stadium was opened in 1972 in Boa Vista - Porto. It
has a capacity of 28,263 people and was signed by the Group 3 and Arquitectos Associados. The
stadium itself was built even before 1972, but was in his year it was remodeled an inaugurated. It has
been invaded by the Victorians people a few times when there were matches between Boavista FC
(home team) and Vitoria de Guimarães (rival team). [16]

Fig. 6: (above on the left) Restelo stadium. Fig. 7: (above on the right) Bessa stadium.

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5. The conservation and legacy

It is the most common of the stadiums to be left at the care of the clubs administration. The soccer
stadiums often are used for some other events in between matches, so they have lots of
recommendations for each event, so they do not harm the field especially, but the whole complex overall.
Regarding maintenance, there is not much to do in the structural terms, but the cleaning and keeping it
with a good aspect it has to be well done and is high maintenance.
Though in the past stadiums were typically designed for one purpose (i.e., one type of sport such as
football or basketball), modern stadiums are often built with a multipurpose mindset. This is however
dependent on the nature of the primary use. [17]
The stadiums have a significant impact on the city, and it can even put them on the map. Lots of cities
benefit from the stadiums to increase the tourism and it the economy, not only for the soccer events but
also attracted investments from all over the world. The biggest events like the World Cup and Olympic
Games have the most impacts on the cities. They draw worldwide attention and because of that many
city's stadiums ended up as the city's brand, and it increased their market value and attracted more
money into the city. A lot of the smaller cities became famous only for the stadiums; it became instantly
the "face of the city".
After the most significant sports event, the majority of the stadiums become underused, and some even
become what people call "white elephants" because it had no other utility and was built specially for
such an event. The population who lives there do not enjoy as much as it was supposed to. There are
lots of new studies about this topic, and every day and the stadium constructions can be more
environmentally friendly and more flexible so they can turn into something else when the event is over
and the population can explore them the best way possible.

6. Final considerations
The construction of a stadium causes an impact on a city at so many different levels, such as social,
economic and political. It can increase the value and attract people to an otherwise unknown city, but it
can also become obsolete if it has no proper maintenance. The economic and political impacts are the
primary focus when it is decided to build the stadium, but it affects a lot of other elements as the people
and the environment for instance. Urban equipment has a built-in green technology that is less harmful
to the environment, not only inside the material but also in the way the stadiums are built, in our days
there is an effort to waste as little as possible especially nature's resources.
The modern stadiums are built to be as flexible and multi-functional as possible so it will not be an issue
to the city after the big events like the World Cup and the Olympic Games. Some of them are built to
transform themselves in schools, and others so they can add value to the community around them.
Moreover, these transformations are each day more and more critical to the decision if its worth to built
such urban equipment.
In the beginning, the stadiums were used to be built with low technology, and it could damage the hole
environment at the surrounds. Also, there was not a conscience about it at that time. Today's stadiums
have to consider the costs, the impact on the city and the environment because the concern about the
sustainability is on the primary focus.
While there is some literature on the future of stadia and the direction they are headed in, it is somewhat
limited and restrained. This also verifies the need for the future study and further research into the field
of stadia design and construction, as a new evolutionary phase of stadiums is seemingly imminent.
Knight (2010) offers the view that the future of stadia is most likely geared towards the development
portable and modular stadia. Panganiban (2012) agrees with this insight, stating that the common
understanding among experts is that modular structures for stadiums is the new trend, and the initial
effects can already be seen in stadia such as the 2012 London Olympic Stadium. The prevailing theory
is that this trend will continue into the future. However, the concept of a truly portable and modular
stadium is yet to be fully realized and is a glimpse of what the future holds for stadia design and
construction. The increased focus on sustainability within such stadia will also be a challenge to ensure
we are creating the best stadia possible for spectators and the environment alike. [18]

Bibliographical References
[1] CANCELLA, Karina. O esporte nas forças armadas norte-americanas e brasileiras no início do
século XX: considerações comparativas. (Translated by JANUÁRIO, Pedro; ATTA, Beatriz).
Proceedings of. III Congress of History and Sports - Sport and War in Rio de Janeiro. Faculdade de
Ciências Sociais e Humanas - Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2014. p. 11. *The sports in the north
American and Brazilian army at the beginning of the 20's century.*

[2] https://www.topendsports.com/resources/history.htm

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[3] http://www.historiadetudo.com/historia-do-futebol
[4] http://historia-do-futebol.info/futebol-do-brasil.html
[5] www.zerozero.pt/text.php?id=10197

[6] BENTO, J.O., O outro lado do desporto. (Translated by JANUÁRIO, Pedro; ATTA, Beatriz). Campo
das Letras Editores. 1995. p. 231. *The other side of the sport.*

[7] BENTO, J.O., O outro lado do desporto. (Translated by JANUÁRIO, Pedro; ATTA, Beatriz). Campo
das Letras Editores. 1995. p. 236. *The other side of the sport.*

[8] LEFEBVRE, H., The Production of space. Proceedings of. Blackwell Publishin. 1974. p. 34.
[9] MALUF, C., Espaço tempo e lugar. (Translated by JANUÁRIO, Pedro; ATTA, Beatriz). Revista do
Programa de Pósgraduação em Arquitetura e Urbanismo da FAU/USP nº23. 2008. p.1-8. *Space time
and place*

[10] BENTO, J.O., O outro lado do desporto. (Translated by JANUÁRIO, Pedro; ATTA, Beatriz). Campo
das Letras Editores. 1995. p. 232. *The other side of the sport.*
[11] FIFA Stadium Safety and Security Regulations

[12] BRETT, Jenaway, BENTO, J.O., Evolution of stadiums: A study in the design and construction of
ancient and modern stadia. A dissertation from University of Southern Queensland Faculty of Health,
Engineering & Sciences. Submitted: October 2013. p. 20.

[13] YARON, Erika. Evolution of Stadium Design. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States
of America, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2012.

[14] BRETT, Janeway, BENTO, J.O., Evolution of stadiums: A study in the design and construction of
ancient and modern stadia. A dissertation from University of Southern Queensland Faculty of Health,
Engineering & Sciences. Submitted: October 2013. p. 60.
[15] http://www.zerozero.pt/estadio.php?id=8
[16] https://gloriasdopassado.blogspot.pt/2007/06/estdio-do-bessa.html
[17] BRETT, Janeway, BENTO, J.O., Evolution of stadiums: A study in the design and construction of
ancient and modern stadia. A dissertation from University of Southern Queensland Faculty of Health,
Engineering & Sciences. Submitted: October 2013. p. 47.

[18] BRETT, Jenaway, BENTO, J.O., Evolution of stadiums: A study in the design and construction of
ancient and modern stadia. A dissertation from University of Southern Queensland Faculty of Health,
Engineering & Sciences. Submitted: October 2013. p. 30-31.

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