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FUNCORE 102 l General Zoology l Institute of Arts and Sciences SJD2022
Mabalacat City College

Institute of Arts and Sciences
FUNCORE 102
General Zoology
LEARNING MODULE 1
The Science of Zoology
SARAH JOY DIZON

Instructor
COURSE STUDY GUIDE
A. General Guidelines
1. Time Management
Schedule and manage your time to read and understand the module and readings from the reference book. This
course will be delivered synchronous using blended, distance and online learning methods. Each ASSESSMENT
TASKS and ACTIVITY SHEETS are to be submitted on time using the learning management system. Deadlines
of worksheets and quizzes are always on lock mode.
2. Activity Worksheets
Activity sheets will be given by the professor and online submissions are via MSTeams. Self check pages are
review questions only for self-assessment of acquired information. You do not need to submit these pages. Raw
scores on each activity submitted beyond the deadline will be deducted with 5points.
There are 2 icons that can be found though out the module. These are icons for required reading or video
watching links for reiteration of concepts found in the module. Kindly go over the links provided with
each icon. After reading or watching the links to articles and videos, sets of questions may be found
which serve as review questions for self-assessment of principles obtained from reading and watching.
3. Class groups
You need to have 2 active accounts for this course: Facebook messenger account, for communications, and
MSTeams account, for quizzes and activity submissions, and online classes. Make sure the name on these
accounts is the same and reflects the name on your enrollment form/certificate of enrollment. Also, use recent
and appropriate photo on your profile page for proper identification.
B. Reminders
 Avoid plagiarism in any context and any form. Always paraphrase or rephrase. Cite
resources properly. Deductions will be made with improper citations and lack of references. A failing score
will be given on a paper found to have been plagiarized. Provide a list of references and materials cited at
the end of each requirement you submit. Do not cheat.
 All written essays have rubrics (attached in every assessment) for the criteria.
 Online submission and online quizzes will be assessed using the MSTeams platform and are always
on lock mode.
 Submit on time. Deductions will be applied on late submissions.
 Online classes/meetings will be scheduled using MSTeams.
 Inform instructor for non-attendance on a scheduled online class.
 During the duration of the online class:
o Be respectful.
o Participate.
o Turn on your video. Unmute when answering.
C. Instructor’s Contact Details:

Name: Sarah Joy Dizon
Mobile Number: 0928-503-9614
Email Add: sarah.dizon@mcc.edu.ph
Messenger Account: Sarah Dizon (https://www.facebook.com/sarah.dizon.12382/)
Online Office Days/Hours: 8:00 am-12:00 nn, 1:00 pm-5:00 pm, Tuesdays-Fridays
“It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent that survives. It is the one that is most ada ptable to
change.”
– Charles Darwin (1809-1889)
1
Module 1
CONTENT
A. Biological Principles of Life and Its Chemical Basis

B. Cells and their Metabolism, Animal Tissues and Organ Systems in an Animal
OBJECTIVES
In this module, you will:
1. recognize the significance of biological foundations and basic chemistry principles in the study of
animal life;
2. discover that most of the biological molecules are found ubiquitously;
3. compare and contrast the different cells and tissues of the animal;
4. illustrate the process of cell respiration; and
5. illustrate and differentiate the mechanism of tissue formation and tissue repair.
Introduction
Welcome to blended learning in Zoology!
―I know of nothing more inspiring than that of making discoveries for one’s self.
– George Washington Carver
Due to the ensuing fight against the spread of the pandemic COVID-19, a shift from the traditional
learning initiated the use of blended, modular or distance learning to sustain education amidst this
health concern. This mode of learning promotes self-directed discovery learning uses your own
experience and knowledge to discover facts and answers through exploring ideas and even performing
practical experiments. This module was prepared, equipped and organized for you to learn diligently,
intelligently, and independently. This will aid you in your online learning. Activities and learning
materials embedded in this module will aid you in acquiring relevant information and skills in observing
and analyzing the animal kingdom. Article and video links are embedded in this module for additional
reiteration of principle.
Aside from meeting the content and performance standards of this course in accomplishing the given
activities, you will be able to learn other invaluable learning skills which you will be proud of as a
responsible learner. As what William Butler Yeats quoted, ―[learning] is not the filling of a pail, but the
lighting of a fire.‖ The success in completing this course lies in your hands. Interest in something is the
beginning of something as this will equip you to reach a goal set in mind. Eleonor Roosevelt once said
2
that ―when you are genuinely interested in one thing, it will always lead to something else.‖ With this I
know you can do it.
Blended learning starts in
3… …
2…
1!
Zoology is also known as animal biology. It is from the Greek words

zoon, meaning ―animal‖ and logos, which pertains ―to study‖. It
studies everything about the animal kingdom including the structure,
embryology, evolution, classification, behavior, and distribution.
Due to the immense variety of animals and the complexity of the

processes occurring within animals, it is one of the broadest fields in
all of science. 1 For example, according to the Smithsonian Institute,
there are already some 900 thousand different kinds of living insects
that are discovered which makes up approximately 80% of the
world's species. 2 Due to this number of different group and species,
to be able to study the biology of a specific organism, zoologists
further specializes in studying a particular animal group or a particular discipline of AZoology.
Figure1.1 tiger and its cub in the
jungle (National Geographic Channel)
Zoology has numerous subspecialization based on taxonomic categories which pertain to specific group
of animals such as the study of insects called Entomology, study of amphibians and reptiles called
herpetology. It also has subdisciplines such as Anatomy, the study of the structure of entire organisms
and their parts.
Read more on this by visiting the link below or checking out our reference book for this
course.

https://www.aboutbioscience.org/topics/zoology/#:~:text=Zoology%20(also%20known%
20as%20animal,the%20subcellular%20unit%20of%20life.
Chapter 1 Zoology:An Evolutionary and Ecological Perspective pages 1-2
Miller, SA., Harley, JP.(2016). Zoology. 10th Edition, McGrawhill Publishing.
ISBN 978-0-07-783727-3
1
Miller, SA., Harley, JP.(2016). Zoology. 10th Edition, McGrawhill Publishing. ISBN 978-0-07-783727-3, page 1
2
https://www.si.edu/spotlight/buginfo/bugnos
3
Review Questions
1. Who are Aristotle and Carolus Linnaeus in the study of Zoology?

2. Name some other subdisciplines of Zoology.
This chapter introduces the fundamental properties of animal life,

starting with the biology of life and its chemical basis. Furthermore, a
review of the basic unit of life will be revisited to understand the
different mechanisms that happen inside a cell, where and how they get
their energy which also is needed in the formation of tissues and
eventually an organisms made of different organ systems to understand
how animal life lives, survives and thrives.
A. Biological Principles of Life and Its Chemical Basis
Learning Outcomes
1. Recognize the significance of biological foundations in the study of
animal life.
2. Correlate the basic chemistry principles to the structure of an animal as
an organism.
Biological Principles of Life
The study of Biology has been known to have started in the ancient
times starting with Aristotle as the ―Father of Biology‖ with whom
scholars have revealed his thoughts has always been about various
aspects of the life of plants and animals. 3 This field of study is known as
the study of life.
This relatively broad field of knowledge, from its historical roots has
encountered many improvement and advances, but studying its
principles are relatively the same over history.
According to Serafini (2013) and Magner (2002), ―although modern

biology is a relatively recent development, sciences related to and
included within it have been studied since ancient times. Natural
philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations
of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, and China. However,
the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature
are most often traced back to ancient Greece.‖34
3
Magner, Lois N. (2002). A History of the Life Sciences, Revised and Expanded . CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-203-91100-6.
4
Serafini, Anthony (2013). The Epic History of Biology . ISBN 978-1-4899-6327-7.
4
While the formal study of medicine dates back to Pharaonic Egypt

and Ancient Greece, it was Aristotle (384–322 BC) who contributed
most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important
are his History of Animals and other works where he showed
naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on
biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotle's successor at
the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that
survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant
sciences, even into the Middle Ages.
Studying Biology will always follow

the question ―What is life?‖ We
BRAIN EXERCISE
easily recognize that a pine tree, a
How do you define life? butterfly, and a horse are living
things, whereas a rock is not.
Despite their diversity, the
organisms that inhabit our planet share a common set of
characteristics that distinguish them from nonliving things. 5
So what characterize an organism as living? What are the properties

that characterize life?
Life is characterized by 7 properties.
Visit the links below for an article and a video on these properties.
What is Biology (3:07minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6v8djXa-IPQ
Characteristics of Life
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-wmopen-
biology1/chapter/the-characteristics-of- Figure 1.2 Properties of life (Reece et al.,
life/#:~:text=of%20living%20things- 2014)
,Properties%20of%20Life,characteristics%20serve%20to%20define
%20life.
Figure 1.2 highlights the major properties that characterize living organisms according to Reece et al., in
their book on Campbell’s Biology (2014):
(a) Order. All living things exhibit complexity in their structures and function but have an ordered
organization. These range from simple to complex or vice versa. The biological organization of life
depicts order in its entirety (Figure 1.3).
5
Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., & Jackson, R. B. (2014). Campbell biology (No. s 1309). Boston:
Pearson.
5
(b) Regulation. The environment outside the body of an organism may change drastically, but the
organism can adjust its internal environment, keepin it within appropriate limits for the organsism to
survive. An example is when a lizard stretch out on a rock under the sun, its body absorbs solar energy
and is warmed to an appropriate internal temperature.
(c) Growth and development. All organisms pass through a characteristic life cycle of growth and
development that is controlled by the information present in genes of the genetic material that is
present in all living organisms.
(d) Energy utilization. Organisms take in energy and us it to perform all of life’s activities including
metabolism. A cheetah eat its prey there by obtains energy which is converted and used as energy for
running, mating, and other biological activities.
(e) Response to the environment. This is response to stimuli brought about by the external
environment, or otherwise known as irritability. All forms of life respond to stimuli, physical or chemical
changes in their internal or external environment. Stimuli that evoke a response in most organisms are
changes in the color, intensity, or direction of light; changes in temperature, pressure, or sound; and
changes in the chemical composition of the surrounding soil, air, or water. Responding to stimuli
involves movement, though not always locomotion (moving from one place to another).
(f) Reproduction. Living systems can reproduce themselves. Life does not arise spontaneously but
comes only from prior life, through reproduction. At each level of the biological hierarchy, living forms
reproduce to generate others like themselves.
(g) Evolution. Evolution, as

defined by Darwin, is the change of
an organism over time as
influenced by adaptation for
survival, hence the ―survival of the
fittest‖. Evolutionary change has
been a central, unifying theme of
the study of life and its
subdisciplines since life arose nearly
4 billion years ago.
Figure 1.3 Hierarchial organization of life (Reece

et al., 2014)
Organization of Life (3:57minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HmMeOrgcuKo
6
Chemical Basis of Life
Aknowledge of chemistry is essential for

understanding organisms and how they
function. This leopard and the plants of the
tropical rain forest, as well as abundant unseen
insects and microorganisms, share fundamental
similarities in their chemical composition and
basic metabolic processes. These chemical
similarities provide strong evidence for the
evolution of all organisms from a common
ancestor and explain why much of what
biologists learn from studying bacteria or rats in
laboratories can be applied to other organisms,
including humans.
Figure 1.4 A wild leopard drinking water in the jungle (Flickr.com) Furthermore, the basic chemical and physical
principles governing organisms are not unique
to living things, for they apply to nonliving systems as well. 6
Take any biological system apart, and you eventually end up at the
chemical level.
As a review of your basic Science, matter is scientifically defined as

anything that occupies space and has mass. Atom, with its
subatomic particles, is the basic unit of matter (Figure 1.5). Those
atoms go on to build the things you see and touch every day. Both
living and non-living things are matter.
Matter, Elements and Compounds

Figure 1.5 The famed atomic structure
proposed by Ernest Rutherford (Google
images)
Matter is composed of chemical elements. Elements are substances
that cannot be broken down
into other substances. These
are found in the Periodic Table
of Elements.
There are 92 naturally

occurring elements on Earth.
Figure 1.6 Phases of matter (Google

images)
6
Solomon, E. P., Berg, L. R., & Martin, D. W. (2008). Biology. eigth edition. Thomson Brooks/Cole, Peter Adams .
7
Among these elements, 25 are essential to life and out of these 25 elements, 4 elements makes up 96%
of the weight of an organism. These are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). 7
The remaining essential elements are what are called trace elements as they are only needed in very
small amount by the body. An example of these is zinc (Zn) which is needed as a dietary supplement
ranging from 11mg to 13mg per day only. 8
Figure 1.7 Chemical composition of the human body (Google images)
Elements can combine to form compounds. Compounds

are substances that contain two or more elements in a
fixed ratio. Examples of these compounds are table salt
(NaCl) and water (H2O).
Each element consists of one kind of atom. As mentioned,

an atom is the smallest unit of matter that still retains
the properties of an element (Figure 1.5). Elements differ
in the number of subatomic particles in their atoms. The
number of protons, the atomic number, determines Figure 1.8 Oxygen with its atomic number and mass
number (Google images)
which element it is. An atom’s mass number is the sum
7
Shmala Iyer. Atoms and Life. Arizona State University, accessed Sept 22, 2020 https://askabiologist.asu.edu/content/atoms-life
8
Moser-Veillon, P. B. (1990). Zinc: consumption patterns and dietary recommendations. Journal of the American Dietetic Association , 90(8),
1089-1093.
8
of the number of protons and neutrons. Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object
(Figure 1.8).
Isotopes are alternate mass forms of an

element. Isotopes have the same number of
protons and electrons, but they have a
different number of neutrons.
The nucleus of a radioactive isotope

decays, giving off particles and energy.
Radioactive isotopes have many uses in
research and medicine. They can be used to
determine the fate of atoms in living
organisms. They are used in PET scans to
diagnose heart disorders and some cancers.
However, uncontrolled exposure to
radioactive isotopes can harm living
organisms by damaging DNA. Figure 1.9 Mutated daisies caused by Fukushima radiation in Japan
(National Geographic Channel)
What are radioactive isotopes?

(4:29minutes)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UYvx0O
8itMA
Figure 1.10 Isotopes of carbon (Pearson Education, 2010)

Chemical Bondings and Chemical Reactions
Electrons determine how an atom behaves when it encounters other atoms. Electrons orbit the nucleus
of an atom in specific electron shells. The farther an electron is from the nucleus, the greater its energy.
The number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the chemical properties of an atom. 9
For a review of chemical bonding, visit the links below online.
Atomic Hook-ups – Types of Chemical Bonds (9:45mins)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QXT4OVM4vXI
Bonding Models and Lewis Structure (11:37minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a8LF7JEb0IA
9
Timberlake, K. C. (2015). Chemistry: An introduction to general, organic, and biological chemistry . Pearson.
9
Chemical reactions enable atoms to

give up or acquire electrons to
complete their outer shells.
Therefore, chemical reactions
usually result in atoms staying
close together due to being held
together by chemical bonds.
Figure 1.11 Elements and their shells (Pearson Education, 2010)

As a review of Physical Science, in
Chemistry, here are 2 major types
of chemical bonds: ionic and
covalent
Ionic bonds are formed between oppositely charged ions. When an atom loses or gains electrons, it
becomes electrically charged. Charged atoms are called ions.
Figure 1.12 Ionic bond between sodium and chloride (Pearson Education, 2010)
Covalent bond on the other hand, forms

when two atoms share one or more pairs
of outer-shell electrons. Atoms held
together by covalent bonds form a
molecule. The number of covalent bonds
an atom can form is equal to the number
of additional electrons needed to fill its
outer shell.
Figure 1.13 Covalent bond between oxygen and carbon (Google

images)
10
Water is a compound in which the electrons in its

covalent bonds are shared unequally. This causes water
to be a polar molecule, one with opposite charges on
opposite ends (Figure 1.14).
But covalency in water also has its specific type of

chemical bonding called hydrogen bond wherein there
is a polarity of water results in weak electrical attractions
between neighboring water molecules.
For a review of this chemical bond polarity in water, visit

the link below to watch the video by Benjamin Figure 1.14 Covalent bonding in water (Google images)
Cummings on Biology (2001).
Hydrogen Bond (1:17minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aH2IbYs_XjY
Bonds in compounds can also be broken down and rearrange to form other chemical composition. Cells
constantly rearrange molecules by breaking existing chemical bonds and forming new ones. Such
changes in the chemical composition of matter are called chemical reactions. Chemical reactions
include reactants, the starting materials and the end materials are called products. Chemical
reactions can rearrange matter but cannot create or destroy matter. 5
Water
Life on Earth began in water and evolved there for 3 billion

years and modern life remains tied to water. Your cells are
composed of 70%–95% water. Abundance of this
compound is the reason why Earth is habitable.
The polarity of water molecules and the hydrogen bonding

that results explain most of water’s life-supporting
properties. Water molecules stick together and have a
strong resistance to change in temperature. It is a common
solvent for life.
Water molecules stick together as a result of hydrogen

Figure 1.15 The blue planet (NASA) bonding. This is called cohesion. Cohesion is vital for
water transport in plants. Surface tension is the measure of
how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid.
BRAIN EXERCISE Hydrogen bonds give water an unusually high surface
tension.
What are the biological uses of water? Can
you enumerate at least 5 uses of water in Water – Liquid Awesome (11:16minutes)
connection to living organisms? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HVT3Y3_gHGg
11
SELF CHECK
Consider the need for a towel after a shower or a bath. Once we get out of the shower or bath, we have left the
source of water. So why do we need the towel?
Biological Significance of Ice
When water molecules get cold enough, they move apart, forming ice. A chunk of ice has fewer
molecules than an equal volume of liquid water. Ice floats because it is less dense than the liquid water
around it.
Figure 1.16 Nature of water molecules in liquid water and in ice (Pearson Education, 2010)
If ice did not float, ponds, lakes, and even the oceans would freeze solid. Life in water could not survive
if bodies of water froze solid.
Acids, Bases, and pH
All living things are water-based systems, which means that they
depend heavily on aqueous equilibria, especially acid-base BRAIN EXERCISE
equilibria. 10 Water is the main ingredient of many solutions.
A solution is a mixture of two or more substances that has the Compared with a solution of pH
same composition throughout. Some solutions are acids and some 8, the same volume of a
are bases. To understand acids and bases, you need to know more solution at pH 5 has _______
about pure water. In pure water (such as distilled water), a tiny times more hydrogen ions
fraction of water molecules naturally breaks down to form ions. (H+ ). This second solution is
considered a(n) _______.
An ion is an electrically charged atom or molecule. The breakdown
of water is represented by the chemical equation 11
2 H2 O  H3 O+ + OH-
10
University of British Colombia – Canada, https://groups.chem.ubc.ca/courseware/pH/section19/index.html
11
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-biology-flexbook-2.0/section/1.20/primary/lesson/acids-and-bases-in-biology-bio
12
To review the principles of pH and the differences between

acids, bases and pH, watch the video with the links below.
pH and pOH (11:22minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LS67vS10O5Y
Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale (4:43minutes)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gRZ-2IbLd34
Buffers are substances that resist pH change. Buffers may

accept H+ ions when they are in excess and donate H+ ions
when they are depleted.
Organic Compounds
A cell is mostly water. The rest of the cell consists mainly of

carbon-based molecules. Carbon forms large, complex, and
diverse molecules necessary for life’s functions. Organic Figure 1.17 The pH scale and some examples of
compounds are carbon-based molecules. solutions with different pH level (Pearson Education,
2010)
Carbon is a versatile atom. It has four electrons in an outer shell that holds eight. Carbon can share its
electrons with other atoms to form up to four covalent bonds.
Carbon can use its bonds to attach to other carbons and form an endless diversity of carbon skeletons.
Figure 1.18 Variations in carbon skeletons (Pearson Education, 2010)
13
Carbon…So Simple (12:32minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QnQe0xW_JY4
Each type of organic molecule has a unique three-dimensional shape. The shapes of organic molecules
relate to their functions. The unique properties of an organic compound depend on its carbon skeleton
and the atoms attached to the skeleton.
The groups of atoms that usually participate in chemical reactions are called functional groups. Two
common examples are hydroxyl groups (-OH) and carboxyl groups (C=O).
Macromolecules and their Building Blocks
On a molecular scale, many of life’s molecules are gigantic, earning the

name macromolecules. The term macromolecule refers to large BRAIN EXERCISE
molecules that are built from smaller subunits. When all the subunits are
of the same type the macromolecules are called polymers and the Which of these 4
macromolecules is not a
subunits are monomers. When the subunits are of different types they are polymer? Why?
simply referred to as macromolecules.
Polymers are long, repeating chains of molecules, more specifically, monomer units, which are the
building blocks of these polymers. These polymers have unique properties, depending on the type of
molecules being bonded and how they are bonded.
There are 4 major organic macromolecules. These are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
But only 3 of these are polymers.
Most macromolecules are polymers. Polymers are made by stringing together many smaller molecules
called monomers. These monomers are linked together by way of the dehydration synthesis
reaction, and remove a molecule of water as a byproduct. A byproduct is secondary product made in
the manufacture or synthesis of something else. On the other hand, hydrolysis breaks down a polymer
into its building block by way of adding water. 12
Figure 1.19 Dehydration synthesis (A) and hydrolysis (B) (Pearson Education, 2010)
12
Hickman, C. P., Roberts, L. S., Keen, S. L., Eisenhour, D. J., & Larson, A. l’Anson H. (2017). Integrated Principles of Zoology. McGraw-Hill
Education, ISBN 978-1-259-56231-0
14
Biological Molecules – You are what you eat (14:08minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8WJ2KENlK0
Carbohydrates: Nature’s Most Abundant Organic Substance
Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon,

hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates
function mainly as structural elements and as a
source of chemical energy.
Glucose is the most important of these

energy-storing carbohydrates (Figure 1.20).
Familiar examples of carbohydrates include

sugars, starches, and cellulose (the woody
structure of plants). Cellulose occurs on earth in
greater quantities than all other organic
materials combined.
Figure 1.20 The 3 most common monosaccharides (Pearson
Carbohydrates are synthesized by green plants Education, 2010)
from water and carbon dioxide, with the aid of solar energy. This process, called photosynthesis, is a
reaction upon which all life depends, for it is the starting point in the formation of food.
Carbohydrates are usually grouped into the following three classes:
(1) monosaccharides, or simple sugars;
Simple sugars have a single carbon chain

containing 4 carbons (tetroses), 5 carbons
(pentoses), or 6 carbons (hexoses). Other
simple sugars have up to 10 carbons, but these
sugars are not biologically important. Simple
sugars, such as glucose, galactose, and
fructose, all contain a free sugar group, in
which the double-bonded O may be attached to
the terminal or nonterminal carbons of a chain
(Figure 1.20). The hexose glucose (also called
dextrose) is particularly important to the living Figure 1.21 Molecular structures of glucose in straight and cyclic
chain (Pearson Education, 2010)
world.
Glucose is often shown as a straight chain (Figure 1.21A), but in water it forms a cyclic compound
(Figure 1.21B). 12
15
(2) disaccharides, or double sugars;
Disaccharides are double sugars formed by bonding two

simple sugars. An example is maltose (malt sugar),
composed of two glucose molecules. As shown in Figure
1.22, the two glucose molecules are joined by removing a
molecule of water, causing the sharing of an oxygen atom
by the two sugars. All disaccharides are formed in this
manner. Two other common disaccharides are sucrose
(ordinary cane, or table, sugar), formed by the linkage of
glucose and fructose, and lactose (milk sugar), composed
of glucose and galactose.
(3) polysaccharides, or complex sugars. Figure 1.22 Formation of a double sugar (disaccharide
maltose) from two glucose molecules with the removal
of one molecule of water (Hickman et al., 2017).
Polysaccharides contain
many molecules of simple
sugars (usually glucose)
linked in long chains called
polymers.
Starch is the common

polymer in which plants store
sugar, and it is an important
food for animals.
Chitin is an important
structural polysaccharide in
the exoskeletons of insects
and other arthropods. Figure 1.23 Polysaccharides from glucose units (Pearon Education, 2010).
Glycogen, a multibranched polymer of glucose, is an important polymer for storing sugar in animals. It
is stored mainly in liver and muscle cells in vertebrates as globular granules, each one containing around
30,000 connected glucose subunits. When needed, glucose molecules are cleaved from glycogen and
delivered by blood to the tissues. Another polymer is cellulose, the principal structural carbohydrate of
plants. 1213
How do carbohydrates impact your health (5:10minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxzc_2c6GMg
13
Lieberman, M., & Marks, A. D. (2013). Marks' basic medical biochemistry : a clinical approach. 4th edition. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN
978-1-60831-572-7
16
Lipids: Fuel Storage and Building Material
Lipids are fats and fat-like substances. They are molecules of low polarity which are virtually insoluble in
water but are soluble in organic solvents, such as acetone and ether. There are three principal groups of
lipids are triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.
Triglycerides
These lipids are major fuels of animals which

is stored fat derived either directly from
dietary fat or indirectly from dietary
carbohydrates that the body has converted
to fat for storage.
Fats are oxidized and released into the

bloodstream as needed to meet tissue
demands, especially those of active muscle.
Triglycerides contain glycerol and three

molecules of fatty acids (Figure 1.23).
Triglycerides are therefore esters, a
combination of an alcohol (glycerol) and an
acid. Fatty acids in triglycerides are simply
longchain monocarboxylic acids; they vary in
size but are commonly 14 to 24 carbons
Figure 1.23 Molecular structure of a triglyceride (Pearson Education,
long.
2010)
Most triglycerides contain two or three

different fatty acids attached to glycerol, and
bear weighty names such as myristoyl
palmitoyl stearoyl glycerol. The fatty acids in
this triglyceride are saturated; every carbon
within the chain holds two hydrogen atoms.
There are 2 types of triglycerides: Saturated

fats, found in animals but some are in
plants, are usually solid at room
Figure 1.24 Types of fats (Pearson Education, 2010) temperature. And unsaturated fatty acids,
typical of plant oils but can also be found in
animals such as in fishes, have two or more carbon atoms joined by double bonds; the carbons are not
―saturated‖ with hydrogen atoms and are available to form bonds with other atoms. Plant fats tend to
be liquid at room temperature. 1213
What is a fat? (4:21minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QhUrc4BnPgg
17
Phospholipids
Phospholipids are important components of the cell

membranes as cell membranes ar made entirely of
lipids. They resemble triglycerides in structure,
except that one of the three fatty acids is replaced
by phosphoric acid and an organic base.
An example is lecithin, an important phospholipid of

nerve membranes. Because the phosphate group on
phospholipids is charged and polar and therefore
soluble in water, and the remainder of the molecule
is nonpolar, phospholipids can bridge two
environments and bind water-soluble molecules,
such as proteins, to water-insoluble materials.
Steroids
Steroids are complex alcohols. Although they are
structurally unlike fats, they have fatlike properties,
including low polarity. The steroids are a large group
of biologically important molecules, including
cholesterol, vitamin D3, many adrenocortical
hormones, and sex hormones.
Figure 1.25 Structures of amino acids
Amino Acids and Proteins
Proteins are large, complex molecules composed of 20 kinds of amino acids linked together by peptide
bonds to form long, chainlike polymers.
There are a number of functional importances that entail all proteins like, protection, storage, structural,
contractile, transport, enzymatic, hormonal, and cell communication. This is the reason why proteins are
the most diverse of all biomolecules. 1213
Figure 1.26 Type of proteins according to function (Pearson Education, 2010)
18
The 20 different kinds of amino

acids can be arranged in an
enormous variety of sequences of
up to several hundred amino acid
units, explaining the large diversity
of proteins found among living
organisms.
A protein is not just a long string of

amino acids; it is a highly organized
molecule. For convenience,
biochemists recognize four levels of
protein organization, called primary
structure which possess a straight
chain of linked amino acids;
secondary structures have linked
Figure 1.27 Levels of protein structure (Pearson Education, 2010)
amino acids at angular in nature
producing sheets and helical structures; tertiary provides a three dimensional structure; and lastly,
quaternary structures describes proteins that contain more than one polypeptide chain. For example,
hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying substance in blood) of jawed vertebrates comprises four polypeptide
subunits held together in a single protein molecule.
Nucleic Acids: The Genetic Materials
Nucleic acids are complex polymeric

molecules whose sequence of
nitrogenous bases encodes the genetic
information necessary for biological
inheritance. They are made from
sequences of nucleotides.
They store directions for the synthesis of

enzymes and other proteins, and are the
only molecules that can (with the help of
the right enzymes) replicate themselves.
The two kinds of nucleic acids in cells are

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which Figure 1.28 DNA and RNA as key role players in protein synthesis (Pearson
has a double helical structure, whereas Education, 2010)
ribonucleic acid (RNA) has a single
strand. They are polymers of repeated units called nucleotides, each of which contains a sugar, a
nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. The structure of nucleic acids is crucial to the mechanism of
inheritance and protein synthesis. 1213
SELF CHECK
A. Identify the B. Monomers of macromolecules are joined together to

a. building blocks of each macromolecules and form polymers through _____________, whereas they
b. provide examples. are broken down by ___________ reactions.
monomer 19
ex. glucose, vinyl chloride, amino acids, and ethylene dehydration synthesis reaction,
hydrolisis
Section Review 1.1
The study of Zoology encompasses biological and chemical principles in Biology. Life is characterized by its ability
to reproduce, grow and develop and evolve. Regulation and response to stimuli is demonstrated by living
organisms as energy is constantly required in all processes happening inside an organism. It also demonstr ates
order. Organisms, like non-living things are matter, made of atom units. Aggregation of atoms contitute elements,
and there are approximately 25 elements which are essential to life. Four of these are major elements found living
organisms namely carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. These elements are present in all biological molecules
specifically the macromolecules carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids in different ratio and
arrangement. Although organisms are mostly made with organic molecules, 1 inorgannic molecule i s essential to
life – water. Physiological importance entails this inorganic molecule such as cohesion, surface tension and
evaporative cooling. Seventy to ninety-five percent of a cell is made of water.
B. Cells, their Metabolism, Tissue Formation and Organ Systems in an Animal
Learning Outcomes
1. Compare and contrast the different cells and tissues of the animal;
2. Illustrate the process of cell metabolism: and
3. Illustrate the mechanism of tissue formation as the subsequent process in creating an organism.
From the molecular level, all organisms are the same. From the microscopic bacteria to the green plants
up to the largest sperm whale, all organism exhibit chemical similarities in composition, however, at the
cellular level, most organisms have differences in certain areas – cell type, some cell organelles,
presence of tissue, and tissue type. Animals have fairly, if not very small differences when it comes to
these, including organ systems which make
up the largest level when it come to the
anatomy and physiology of an animal.
Organisms are either single-celled, such as

most prokaryotes and protists or,
multicelled, such as plants, animals, and
most fungi. And if you will observed your
skin, you will see that its skin. You cannot
see the very cellular structure of your skin
by just using your eyes. You need a tool to
be able to do that because cells are too
small to see using our naked eye.
Cells as the Basic Unit of Life
Study of the cell has always been one of the

central cores of Biology and Robert Hooke, a
scientist and inventor who uncovered the
Figure 1.29 Human cheeks cells stained with methylene blue under a 40x
oblective lens (Google images)
20
structure of cells. This biological and historical discovery

entails microscopic techniques which paved way the study
of cells, Cytology.
Using a primitive compound microscope, Hooke observed

box-like cavities in slices of cork and leaves. He called these
compartments ―little boxes or cells.‖ In the years that
followed Hooke’s first demonstration of the remarkable
powers of the microscope to the Royal Society of London in
1663.
Cells form the basic units of all living organisms. All

functions of life are remarkably performed within such little
containers which are basically invisible to the naked eye and
can obly be visualized using a microscope. The idea that a
cell represents the basic structural and functional unit of life
is an important unifying concept of biology.
With the exception of some egg cells, which are the largest
cells (in volume), cells are small and mostly invisible to the
unaided eye. Consequently, our understanding of cells
paralleled technical advances in the resolving power of
microscopes.
The Dutch microscopist Antoni van Leeuwenhoek sent

letters to the Royal Society of London containing detailed
descriptions of the numerous organisms he had observed
using high-quality single lenses that he had made (1673 to
1723). In the early nineteenth century, improved design of
microscopes permitted biologists to see separate objects Figure 1.30 Sizes of organelles and cells (Pearson
only 1 μm apart, and laid the groundwork for the cell Education, 2010)
theory—a theory stating that all living organisms are
composed of cells.
In 1838 Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, announced that all plant tissue was composed of cells.
A year later one of his countrymen, Theodor Schwann, described animal cells as being similar to plant
cells, an understanding that had been long delayed because animal cells are bounded only by a nearly
invisible plasma membrane rather than a distinct cell wall characteristic of plant cells.
Schleiden and Schwann are thus credited with the unifying cell theory that guided a new era of
productive exploration in cell biology. Another German, Rudolf Virchow, recognized that all cells came
from preexisting cells (1858).
In 1840 J. Purkinje introduced the term protoplasm to describe cell contents. Protoplasm was at first
described as a granular, gel-like mixture with special and elusive life properties of its own; cells were
viewed as bags of thick soup containing a nucleus. Later the interior of cells became increasingly visible
as microscopes were improved and better tissue-sectioning and staining techniques were introduced.
21
Rather than being a uniform granular soup, a cell’s interior is composed of numerous cellular
organelles within a network of membranes.
The components of a cell are so highly organized, structurally and functionally, that describing its
contents as ―protoplasm‖ is like describing the contents of an automobile engine as ―autoplasm.‖
To recall your understanding of cells and the origin of the eukaryotic cell, read Chapter 2
of our reference book for this course. This Chapter provides detailed information on the types
of cells and organelles of cells.
Chapter 2 Cells, Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems of Animals pages 11-26
EVOLUTIONARY INSIGHTS: The Origin of Eukaryotic Cells pages 33
ISBN 978-0-07-783727-3
Check out these links to videos to support your understanding of the concepts presented in the
reference book.
Eukaryopolis: The City of Animal Cells (11:34minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cj8dDTHGJBY
Cell Structures (7:21minutes)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8
In Da Club – Membranes and Transport (11:44minutes)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dPKvHrD1eS4
Review Questions
*These are review questions extracted from the reference book for the required reading on Cells pages 11-26.
1. What are some similarities between eukaryotic cells and the prokaryotic cells of Eubacteria and Archaea?
2. If the cell radius of a cell increases 10 times, the surface area will increase by 100 times. How much will the
volume increase?
3. If the plasma membrane of a cell were just a single layer of phospholipids, how would this affect its function?
4. If you require that drugs be given to you by an intravenous (IV) process, what should the concentration of
solutes in the IV solution be relative to your red blood cells?
5. ―What is the relationship between nuclear pores, vaults, ribosomes, and the endoplasmic reticulum?‖
6. Would you expect the pores in the nuclear envelope to have a function? If so, what is it?
7. What does the theory of endosymbiosis tell about the origin of the eukaryotic cell?
22
Below is a summary of cell organelles from the reference book and moverments across the membrane.
23
Cell Metabolism: Cell Respiration
Particular processes inside cells happen in each of their organelles. Anatomy and physiology of cellular
organelles is included in your reading. Cells undergo metabolism. Cell metabolism, in this case, is the
sum of all chemical changes that take place in a cell through which energy and basic components are
provided for essential processes, including the synthesis of new molecules and the breakdown and
removal of others. 14 Before we get to the levels of organization in animals, looking at a cell being a bag
filled with functionally important organelles, how does this small chamber fulfill the need for energy
production? Page 22 of the reference book highlights the importance of the mitochondrion as the
―powerhouse of the cell‖. It is particularly important in the generation of energy to be needed by the
whole organism.
14
https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/cellular-metabolism
24
ATP or adenosine triphosphate is the energy currency of the body. It is the energy needed by every
cell in the body of an animal to do the works they are task to do.
To be able to create energy, an animal must consume food and from this food comes energy. Animals
depend on plants to convert solar energy to chemical energy of sugars and other molecules we
consume as food.
Cellular respiration is just one of the many metabolic

processes that happen inside cells. It is also the main way that
chemical energy is harvested from food and converted to ATP.
This process is also an aerobic process which requires oxygen
as cellular respiration and breathing are closely related (Figure
1.31). Cellular respiration requires a cell to exchange gases with
its surroundings. Cells take in oxygen gas and release waste
carbon dioxide gas. Breathing exchanges these same gases
between the blood and outside air.
ATP and Respiration (13:25minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00jbG_cfGuQ
A common fuel molecule for cellular respiration is glucose. The

overall equation for what happens to glucose during cellular
respiration: Figure 1.31 Cell respiration and breathing
(Pearson Education, 2010)
Cellular respiration can produce up to 38 ATP molecules for each glucose molecule consumed. During
cellular respiration, hydrogen and its bonding electrons change partners. Hydrogen and its electrons go
from sugar to oxygen, forming water. This hydrogen transfer is why oxygen is so vital to cellular
respiration.
All of the reactions involved in cellular respiration can be grouped into three main stages: (a) Glycolysis,
(b) the citric acid cycle, and (c) electron transport (Figure 1.32).
25
Glycolysis, from the word lysis

means disintegration or breakdown, it
is the breakdown of glucose molecules
into smaller molecules called pyruvic
acid or pyruvate. This stage does not
require oxygen but produces two ATP
molecules for each glucose molecules
broken down to pyruvic acid. 15
The citric acid cycle, also known as

the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA
cycle) or the Krebs cycle is a series
of chemical reactions used by all
aerobic organisms to generate energy
through the oxidation of acetate
derived from carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins—into carbon dioxide. 1516
Figure 1.32 Overview of the cell respiration stages (Pearson Education, 2010)
And finally, the electron transport chain which is the last

component of aerobic cell respiration and is the only stage
that uses atmospheric oxygen. Oxygen continuously diffuses
in animals; it enters the body through the respiratory system
via beathing. This step is a series of electron transporters
embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane that
shuttles electrons from NADH and FADH2 to molecular
oxygen. In the process, protons are pumped from the
mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, and
oxygen is reduced to form water. 17
Why does electron transfer to oxygen release energy?
When electrons move from glucose to oxygen, it is as though Figure 1.33 How ATP is created through the shuttle
of electrons (Pearson Education, 2010)
the electrons were falling. This ―fall‖ of electrons releases
energy during cellular respiration.
15
McKee, T., & McKee, J. R. (2011). Biochemistry: The molecular basis of life. 5th. New York: Oxford University Press.
16
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-microbiology/chapter/the-citric-acid-krebs-
cycle/#:~:text=The%20citric%20acid%20cycle%2C%20shown,and%20proteins%E2%80%94into%20carbon%20dioxide.
17
Michal G, Schomburg D, eds. (2012). Biochemical Pathways: An Atlas of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-
Blackwell. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-470-14684-2.
26
Levels of Organization in Various Animals: Tissues
From the molecular level to the cellular level,

animals become increasingly diverse in morphology
as the tissue level introduces the main tyoes of
tissues present in animals. Histology, the study of
tissues, familiarizes the different morphology of
different tissues and their specific functions.
Tissues are groups of cells having similar structure
and function. This is why there are different types of
tissues, because there are approximately 250 types
of cells.
There are major types of tissues in an animal body.

Figure 1.34 The major types of animal tissues
These are the epithelial tissue, connective tissue, (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cuny-csi-ap-
nervous tissue, and muscle tissue. 1/chapter/higher-order-structures-tissues-organs-organ-systems/)
Characteristics and examples of these tissues are included in the reference book.
Chapter 2 Cells, Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems of Animals pages 26-32
ISBN 978-0-07-783727-3
Check out these links to videos to support your understanding of the concepts presented in the
reference book.
Tissues Part 1 (10:42minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i5tR3csCWYo
Tissues Part 2: Eppithelial Tissue (10:15minutes)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lUe_RI_m-Vg
Tissues Part 3: Connective Tissues (10:28minutes)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-SzmURNBH0
Tissues Part 4: Connective Tissues (9:42minutes)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jvtb0a2RXaY
Review Questions
*This is a review question extracted from the reference book for the required reading on Tissues pages 26-32.
1. Why is blood considered a type of connective tissue?
because it possesses all the properties of connective tissue.

1. It connects various body parts with each other.
2. Forms packing around various body organs so called as packing tissue.
3. It is mesodermal in origin.
4. It has all the three components of a connective tissue i.e. cells, fibers and matrix.
5. A fibroblast is the most important cell of connective tissues which is present in blood. 27
Mechanism of Animal Tissue Formation
The formation of functional organs and tissues

during embryonic development is a complex process
involving multiple cell types derived from the 3 germ
layers – ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. These
germ layers are particularly important during
embryonic development.
During the embryonic stage, cells arise from these

germ layers. As the embryo grows, cells multiply,
form tissues and eventually differentiate to the
specific morphology and function that they are
destined to. Cells, as they multiply, interact with one
Figure 1.35 The 3 germ layers from which the whole
another during the whole process. These cell types organisms comes from during the embryonic stage
interact via diverse mechanisms. Examples of such (https://biologywise.com/information-about-the3-germ-layers-
mechanisms are direct cell–cell contacts and in-animals)
paracrine signaling by morphogenic gradients.
Cell behavior during organogenesis is dynamic and is dependent on cell movements of a subset of cells.
To obtain functional organs, cells respond to environmental signals like pulsatile blood flow by activation
of adaptive signaling mechanisms, which direct tissue architecture. The timely, proper dosing and
sequential integration of all these elements during organogenesis specifies cell types and shapes the
organ's form and function in the embryo. 18 A detailed and separate discussion of this will be in the next
module.
Mechanism of Animal Tissue Repair
All animals can heal, and most can also regenerate some of their tissues and body parts. Regenerative
capabilities among animals vary from the limited wound-healing abilities of humans to the remarkable
capacity of some worms to reform their entire bodies from small clumps of cells. 19
As living beings that encounter

every kind of traumatic event from
paper cut to myocardial infarction,
we must possess ways to heal
damaged tissues. While some
animals are able to regrow
complete body parts following
injury, humans are not. Our means
of recovery following tissue damage
Figure 1.36 Stages of tissue repair in a wound (Google images)
consists largely of repair rather
than pure regeneration.
18
Karperien, M., Roelen, B. A., Poelmann, R. E., Gittenberger-de Groot, A. C., Hierck, B. P., DeRuiter, M. C., ... & Gibbs, S. (2015). Tissue
Formation during Embryogenesis. In Tissue Engineering (pp. 67-109). Academic Press.
19
https://www.biointeractive.org/classroom-resources/tissue-regeneration-animals
28
Regeneration is different from repair. Regeneration is the ability to regrow part or lost organs of the
remaining tissue as if no injury has had happened. The original state of the tissue or organ prior the
injury is regenerated. 20 On the other hand, repair in physiology, refers to the ability of the tissue to
restore of tissue architecture and function following an injury but not in the original state. Tissue repair
is mainly composed of the cells in an animal body, the extracellular matrix, and growth factors. 21
There are 4 stages on wound repair: (a) hemostasis, (b) inflammation, (c) proliferative stage,
and (d) remodeling.
A detailed discussion of this mechanism of tissue repair is included in the link for the article
below.
Tissue Repair: The Hidden Drama

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3055648/
Review Questions
1. What are the 2 main processes in tissue repair?

2. What are the 3 types of tissues in terms of cell proliferation during repair? How are they different?
3. What is a stem cell? What are its characteristics?
4. What are the three other types of cells which are critical to the process of tissue repair? Why?
5. Why is there a need for a communication between cells during this process of tissue repair?
A video on the mechanism of tissue repair is available online with the link below.
Tissue Repair (0:52minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ld_g1bLxCtc
How the wound heals itself (4:00minutes)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLVwELDMDWs
Levels of Organization in Various Animals: Organs and Organ Systems
An organ, from the Greek word organnon, which means an independent part of the body, is a group of
tissues having similar morphology and function, some organs may made up of more than one type of
tissue. 22
20
https://www.intechopen.com/books/tissue-regeneration/introductory-chapter-concepts-of-tissue-regeneration
21
Krafts, K. P. (2010). Tissue repair: The hidden drama. Organogenesis, 6(4), 225-233.
22
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Book%3A_Human_Biology_(Wakim_and_Grewal)/10%3A_Introduction_to_the_Human_
Body/10.4%3A_Human_Organs_and_Organ_Systems
29
Not all organs are similar in all animals.

There are organs that sre specialized only
in that particular animal group, whereas
some organs may be similar across higher
order animal groups. It may also be that
even though that organ is similar across
animal groups, the structure is quite
different. Example of this is the heart in
vertebrates. A heart is an organ present in
all vertebrate groups but the structure of
the heart is different. More specifically, its
chambers. Fishes have 2 –chambered
heart, whereas amphibians and reptiles
have 3 chambers. Birds and mammals
possess a 4-chambered heart.
The next higher level of structural

organization in animals is the organ
Figure 1.37 Organs found in the avian that works together to form the system. Functionally related organs often
digestive system (McGraw-Hill Companies via Google images) work together to form organ systems 22.
An organ system is formed from the

association of organs that performs an
overall, interconnecting function. Same as
organs, organ system in different animal
groups are different. For the vertebrates,
there are 11 organs systems that make up
an organism. These are the integumentary,
skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine,
circulatory, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive,
urinary, and reproductive systems
Section Review 1.2
Cells are the basic unit of life from which the Cell
Theory by Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann,
and Rudolf Virchow is based on. There are 2
types of cells based on the presence of a true
nucleus. A prokaryotic cell lacks a true nucleus
and complex internal organization. The
archaeans and bacteria comprise this type of
cell. Eukaryotic cells, on the other hand, have a
true nucleus and exhibit compartmentalization
and various organelles that carry out specific
functions. A cell needs a surface area large
enough to allow efficient movement of nutrients
into the cell and waste material out of the cell.
Small cells have a lot more surface area per
volume than large cells. An animal cell is
30
eukaryotic and has the following cellular organelles – plasma membrane, lysosomes, mitochondria, ribosomes,
vesicles, cytoskeletons, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies, cytoplasm, cilia, flagella, and chromosomes.
There are 4 major types of tissues namely epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissues. An organ is the
functional unit of an animal’s body which is made up of more than one tissue type and usually has multiple
functions. The different organ systems of a vertebrate are the integumentary, nervous, endocrine, skeletal,
muscular, circulatory, immune, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and reproductive.
SELF CHECK
A. In a tabular form, compare and contrast the cellular organelles of a plant cell and an animal. What organelles
are present in an animal cell but missing in a plant cell?
B. What are the different tissues present in the respiratory system?
C. Choose 1 invertebrate and 1 vertebrate. Choose 1 organ system in each animal you choose. Compare and
contract the organs in that organ system of your chosen 2 invertebrate and vertebrate animal.
SUMMARY
1.1 Biological Principles of Life and Its Chemical Basis

1.1.1 The study of Zoology encompasses biological and chemical principles in Biology.
1.1.2 Life is characterized by its ability to reproduce, grow and develop and evolve. Regulation and
response to stimuli is demonstrated by living organisms as energy is constantly required in all processes
happening inside an organism. It also demonstrates order.
1.1.3 Organisms, like non-living things are matter, made of atom units.
1.1.4 Aggregation of atoms contitute elements, and there are approximately 25 elements which are
essential to life.
1.1.5 Four of these are major elements found living organisms namely carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen.
1.1.6 These elements are present in all biological molecules specifically the macromolecules
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids in different ratio and arrangement.
1.1.7 Although organisms are mostly made with organic molecules, 1 inorgannic molecule is essential to
life – water. Physiological importance entails this inorganic molecule such as cohesion, surface tension and
evaporative cooling. Seventy to ninety-five percent of a cell is made of water.
1.2 Cells and their Metabolism, Animal Tissues and Organ Systems in an Animal
1.2.1 Cells are the basic unit of life from which the Cell Theory by Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann,
and Rudolf Virchow is based on.
1.2.2 There are 2 types of cells based on the presence of a true nucleus. A prokaryotic cell lacks a true
nucleus and complex internal organization. The archaeans and bacteria comprise this type of cell.
Eukaryotic cells, on the other hand, have a true nucleus and exhibit compartmentalization and various
organelles that carry out specific functions.
1.2.3 A cell needs a surface area large enough to allow efficient movement of nutrients into the cell and
waste material out of the cell. Small cells have a lot more surface area per volume than large cells.
1.2.4 A unicellular organism has only 1 type of cell, while a multicellular organisms has many types of cells
that make up its body.
1.2.5 An animal cell is eukaryotic and has the following cellular organelles – plasma membrane,
lysosomes, mitochondria, ribosomes, vesicles, cytoskeletons, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies,
cytoplasm, cilia, flagella, and chromosomes.
1.2.6 A tissue is a group of cells having the same morphology and function. There are 4 major types of
tissues namely epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissues.
31
1.2.7 An organ is the functional unit of an animal’s body which is made up of more than one tissue type
and usually has multiple functions.
1.2.8 The different organ systems of a vertebrate are the integumentary, nervous, endocrine, skeletal,
muscular, circulatory, immune, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and reproductive.
REFERENCES
Books
 Hickman, C. P., Roberts, L. S., Keen, S. L., Eisenhour, D. J., & Larson, A. l’Anson H. (2017). Integrated
Principles of Zoology. McGraw-Hill Education, ISBN 978-1-259-56231-0
 Karperien, M., Roelen, B. A., Poelmann, R. E., Gittenberger-de Groot, A. C., Hierck, B. P., DeRuiter, M. C.,
... & Gibbs, S. (2015). Tissue Formation during Embryogenesis. In Tissue Engineering. Academic Press
 Lieberman, M., & Marks, A. D. (2013). Marks' basic medical biochemistry: a clinical approach. 4th edition.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-1-60831-572-7
 Magner, Lois N. (2002). A History of the Life Sciences, Revised and Expanded . CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-
203-91100-6
 McKee, T., & McKee, J. R. (2011). Biochemistry: The molecular basis of life. 5th . New York: Oxford
University Press.
 Michal G, Schomburg D, eds. (2012). Biochemical Pathways: An Atlas of Biochemistry and Molecular
Biology (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-470-14684-2.
 Miller, S.A. and Harley, J.P. (2016) Zoology. McGraw-Hill Education, ISBN 978-0-07-783727-3
 Moser-Veillon, P. B. (1990). Zinc: consumption patterns and dietary recommendations. Journal of the
American Dietetic Association, 90(8), 1089-1093.
 Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., & Jackson, R. B. (2014). Campbell
biology (No. s 1309). Boston: Pearson
 Serafini, Anthony (2013). The Epic History of Biology. ISBN 978-1-4899-6327-7.
 Solomon, E. P., Berg, L. R., & Martin, D. W. (2008). Biology. eigth edition. Thomson Brooks/Cole, Peter
Adams.
 Timberlake, K. C. (2015). Chemistry: An introduction to general, organic, and biological chemistry . Pearson
Journals
 Krafts, K. P. (2010). Tissue repair: The hidden drama. Organogenesis , 6(4), 225-233.
 Moser-Veillon, P. B. (1990). Zinc: consumption patterns and dietary recommendations. Journal of the
American Dietetic Association, 90(8), 1089-1093
Websites
 https://www.si.edu/spotlight/buginfo/bugnos
 https://askabiologist.asu.edu/content/atoms-life
 https://groups.chem.ubc.ca/courseware/pH/section19/index.html
 https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-biology-flexbook-2.0/section/1.20/primary/lesson/acids-and-bases-
in-biology-bio
 https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/cellular-metabolism
 https://www.biointeractive.org/classroom-resources/tissue-regeneration-animals
 https://www.intechopen.com/books/tissue-regeneration/introductory-chapter-concepts-of-tissue-
regeneration
 https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Book%3A_Human_Biology_(Wakim_and_Grewa l)/1
0%3A_Introduction_to_the_Human_Body/10.4%3A_Human_Organs_and_Organ_Systems
 https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/07/150723-fukushima-mutated-daisies-flowers-radiation-
science/
 https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/index.html
32
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gain in using the textual information, imageries, and other references used in its production.
This module is only for the exclusive use of a bona fide student of Mabalacat City College.
In addition, this module or no part of it thereof may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
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FUNCORE 102 l General Zoology l Institute of Arts and Sciences SJD2022

Mabalacat City College

The Science of Zoology

SARAH JOY DIZON

COURSE STUDY GUIDE

C. Instructor’s Contact Details:

A. Biological Principles of Life and Its Chemical Basis

In this module, you will:

Welcome to blended learning in Zoology!

Blended learning starts in

Zoology is also known as animal biology. It is from the Greek words

Due to the immense variety of animals and the complexity of the

The Science of Zoology

1. Who are Aristotle and Carolus Linnaeus in the study of Zoology?

This chapter introduces the fundamental properties of animal life,

A. Biological Principles of Life and Its Chemical Basis

Biological Principles of Life

According to Serafini (2013) and Magner (2002), ―although modern

While the formal study of medicine dates back to Pharaonic Egypt

Studying Biology will always follow

So what characterize an organism as living? What are the properties

Life is characterized by 7 properties.

What is Biology (3:07minutes)

(g) Evolution. Evolution, as

Figure 1.3 Hierarchial organization of life (Reece

Organization of Life (3:57minutes)

Chemical Basis of Life

Aknowledge of chemistry is essential for

As a review of your basic Science, matter is scientifically defined as

Matter, Elements and Compounds

There are 92 naturally

Figure 1.6 Phases of matter (Google

Figure 1.7 Chemical composition of the human body (Google images)

Elements can combine to form compounds. Compounds

Each element consists of one kind of atom. As mentioned,

Isotopes are alternate mass forms of an

The nucleus of a radioactive isotope

What are radioactive isotopes?

Figure 1.10 Isotopes of carbon (Pearson Education, 2010)

For a review of chemical bonding, visit the links below online.

Atomic Hook-ups – Types of Chemical Bonds (9:45mins)

Bonding Models and Lewis Structure (11:37minutes)

Chemical reactions enable atoms to

Figure 1.11 Elements and their shells (Pearson Education, 2010)

Covalent bond on the other hand, forms

Figure 1.13 Covalent bond between oxygen and carbon (Google

Water is a compound in which the electrons in its

But covalency in water also has its specific type of

For a review of this chemical bond polarity in water, visit

Cummings on Biology (2001).

Hydrogen Bond (1:17minutes)

Life on Earth began in water and evolved there for 3 billion

The polarity of water molecules and the hydrogen bonding

Water molecules stick together as a result of hydrogen

Biological Significance of Ice

Acids, Bases, and pH

To review the principles of pH and the differences between

pH and pOH (11:22minutes)

Buffers are substances that resist pH change. Buffers may

A cell is mostly water. The rest of the cell consists mainly of

Figure 1.18 Variations in carbon skeletons (Pearson Education, 2010)

Carbon…So Simple (12:32minutes)

Macromolecules and their Building Blocks