CHAPTER (1) INTRODUCTION

1- CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION

1.1 - Introduction

A machine that has been designed and manufactured to perform a certain function, is
expected to do so when installed in a plant for its designed life span. However, for reasons
beyond one’s control, such a machine may fail to do so for several reasons. Some of the
reasons could be a faulty design of the machine, inferior material and workmanship,
incorrect installation and wrong operational procedure, among many others. However, in a
plant where the output could be finished goods, the failure of the installed machine would
lead to a loss of sales and loss in the earnings made by the plant. So, if care is not taken of
the machine to avoid failures, a plant owner could incur serious financial loss and lead to
bankruptcy.

1.2 - Maintenance

Maintenance and repair of machinery in different industries process plant was defined
simply as follows: "the work of keeping something in proper condition; upkeep". And we
can define maintenance as the set of activities developed to ensure proper running of
equipment and systems, ensuring that technical intervention is taken at the right
opportunities with the right scope and in accordance with good technical practices and
legal requirements, in order to avoid loss of function or reduction of efficiency and, should
any of these occur, ensure that they are returned to good operating conditions at the earliest
possible delay, all at an optimized overall cost. This would imply that maintenance should
be actions taken to prevent a device or component from failing or to repair normal
equipment degradation experienced with the operation of the device to keep it in proper
working order.
Unfortunately, data obtained in many studies over the past decade indicates that most
private and government facilities do not expend the necessary resources to maintain
equipment in proper working order. Rather, they wait for equipment failure to occur and
then take whatever actions are necessary to repair or replace the equipment. Nothing lasts
forever and all equipment has associated with it some predefined life expectancy or
operational life. For example, equipment may be designed to operate at full design load for
5,000 hours and may be designed to go through 15,000 start and stop cycles.

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Figure(1 .1): show the types of maintenance

All over the world, plant operators adopt three different types of maintenance
techniques for machines, known as the reactive maintenance, preventive maintenance, and
predictive maintenance. The benefits of planned maintenance are as follows:

 Eliminate unnecessary maintenance

 Reduce rework costs
 Reduce lost production caused by failures
 Reduce repair parts inventory
 Increase process efficiency
 Improve product quality
 Extend the operating life of plant systems
 Increase production capacity
 Reduce overall maintenance costs
 Increase overall profit.

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 CHAPTER (1) INTRODUCTION

1.2.1 Types Of Maintenance

Three types within the failure fighting role of maintenance were defined:

1) Reactive or corrective Maintenance.

2) Preventive Maintenance (PM).
3) Predictive Maintenance (PDM).

1.2.1.a- Corrective Or Reactive Maintenance

Reactive maintenance is a fire fighting approach where maintenance is performed after
a failure of the asset. In this strategy, machines are operated in a run-to-failure (RTF) mode
and the maintenance is carried out only after the functional failure of the equipment.
Usually, corrective maintenance is an unscheduled maintenance action, basically
composed of unpredictable maintenance needs that cannot be preplanned or programmed
on the basis of occurrence at a particular time. The action requires urgent attention that
must be added, integrated with, or substituted for previously scheduled work items. This
incorporates compliance with “prompt action” field changes, rectification of deficiencies
found during equipment/item operation, and performance of repair actions due to incidents
or accidents. A substantial part of overall maintenance effort is devoted to corrective
maintenance, and over the years many individuals have contributed to the area of
corrective maintenance.
This type may be classified into five major categories as shown in Fig.(1.2).
These are: fail-repair, salvage, rebuild, overhaul, and servicing. These categories
are described below.

Figure(1 .2): Types Of Corrective Maintenance

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Fail-repair: The failed item is restored to its operational state.

Salvage: This element of corrective maintenance is concerned with disposal of no
repairable material and use of salvaged material from no repairable equipment/item in the
repair, overhaul, or rebuild programs.
Rebuild: This is concerned with restoring an item to a standard as close as possible to
original state in performance, life expectancy, and appearance. This is achieved through
complete disassembly, examination of all components, repair and replacement of
worn/unserviceable parts as per original specifications and manufacturing tolerances, and
reassembly and testing to original production guidelines.
Overhaul: Restoring an item to its total serviceable state as per maintenance serviceability
standards, using the “inspect and repair only as appropriate” approach.
Servicing: Servicing may be needed because of the corrective maintenance action, for
example, engine repair can lead to crankcase refill, welding on, etc. Another example
could be that the replacement of an air bottle may require system recharging.
So in a plant, machines that are very critical and expensive obviously cannot be left to
fail by performing reactive maintenance. Usually, the less expensive and noncritical
machines can be good candidates for reactive maintenance. For example, in a steel plant
one obviously cannot afford to have the blast furnace under a reactive maintenance
program, but perhaps a water cooler in the workers’ cafeteria may be a candidate for
reactive maintenance.
Following are the attributes of a reactive maintenance program:
 High expenses involved
 High spare parts inventory cost
 High overtime labor costs
 High machine downtime
 Low production availability

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1.2.1.b- Preventive Maintenance (PM)

Preventive maintenance strategy is a template based strategy where periodic
maintenance is carried out as per OEM recommendation/ organizational
recommendations. The schedule of the intervals is based on average
statistical/anticipated lifetime to avoid failure. This includes inspection, service /
replacement of the defective parts of the machine.
PM may be described as the care and servicing by individuals involved with
maintenance to keep equipment/facilities in satisfactory operational state by providing for
systematic inspection, detection, and correction of incipient failures either prior to their
occurrence or prior to their development into major failure.
Some of the main objectives of PM are to:

 Enhance Capital Equipment Productive Life,

 Reduce Critical Equipment Breakdowns,
 Allow Better Planning And Scheduling Of Needed Maintenance Work,
 Minimize Production Losses Due To Equipment Failures, And
 Promote Health And Safety Of Maintenance Personnel.

There are seven elements of PM as shown in Fig. (1.3).

Figure(1.3): Elements Of Preventive Maintenance.

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Inspection: Periodically inspecting materials/items to determine their serviceability by

comparing their physical, electrical, mechanical, etc., characteristics (as applicable) to
expected standards.
Servicing: Cleaning, lubricating, charging, preservation, etc., of items/materials
periodically to prevent the occurrence of incipient failures.
Calibration: Periodically determining the value of characteristics of an item by
comparison to a standard; it consists of the comparison of two instruments, one of which is
certified standard with known accuracy, to detect and adjust any discrepancy in the
accuracy of the material/parameter being compared to the established standard value.
Testing: Periodically testing or checking out to determine serviceability and detect
electrical/mechanical-related degradation.
Alignment: Making changes to an item’s specified variable elements for the purpose of
achieving optimum performance.
Adjustment: Periodically adjusting specified variable elements of material for the purpose
of achieving the optimum system performance.
Installation: Periodic replacement of limited-life items or the items experiencing time
cycle or wear degradation, to maintain the specified system tolerance.
1.2.1.c- Predictive Maintenance (PDM)
Like preventive maintenance, predictive maintenance has many definitions.
predictive maintenance is the type of maintenance which compares the trend of
measure physical parameter against known engineering limits for the purpose of
detecting, analyzing, and correcting problems before failure occurs. To some
workers, predictive maintenance is monitoring the vibration of rotating machinery
in an attempt to detect incipient problems and to prevent catastrophic failure. To
others, it is monitoring the infrared image of electrical switchgear, motors, and
other electrical equipment to detect developing problems.
The common premise of predictive maintenance is that regular monitoring of the actual
mechanical condition, operating efficiency, and other indicators of the operating condition
of machine-trains and process systems will provide the data required to ensure the
maximum interval between repairs and minimize the number and cost of unscheduled
outages created by machine-train failures.

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A predictive approach can be applied to any equipment problem if, first a physical
parameter like vibration, temperature, pressure, voltage, current, or resistance can be
measured. An engineering limits for the measured physical parameter must be established
so should be low enough to detect the problem before destructive damage occurs.
Correcting the root problem is the key to most predictive efforts.

Figure(1.4): PDM cycle

The established parameters are measured periodically (weekly, biweekly, monthly,

etc.). If the measurement exceeds the established engineering limit (established by
manufacturers, professional societies, and industrial groups) it must be analyzed further
and the fault should be repaired as shown in the PDM cycle, figure (1.4). Analysis can take
many forms. For example, a vibration signature can be taken on rotating equipment, such
as a motor or blower. A trained analyst may review the Signature for common problems,
such as misalignment and imbalance, as well as for not-so-common problems, like
resonance Once the source of the problem is determined, the best repair activity can be
chosen. If the engineering limit is set low enough, there will still be plenty of time to
correct the problem before further damage occurs. Correction of the root problem allows
the equipment to re-enter the periodic monitoring program. Finally we can say "The power
to predict is the difference between operation and failure".

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1.2.2 Predictive Maintenance Techniques

There are dozens of predictive maintenance technologies, and some have become a
standard in many industries. The 'standard' technologies include vibration analysis,
ultrasound, oil analysis, thermography, and others.
These techniques are quite useful for some applications and complement the major
techniques very well. Many condition-monitoring techniques can be used to monitor the
same fault condition.
For example, a problem identified by an oil sample can also be cross-checked
with vibration analysis or thermography. An electrical problem, identified with
ultrasound, can be confirmed through the use of thermography. Hence, a
confirmation of the diagnosis is possible through the use of the different
predictive maintenance techniques. This fact makes the predictive maintenance
more convincing especially when critical machinery is involved.
1.2.2.a - Vibration Analysis.
There are a number of ways in which the mechanical and operating conditions of
machines are checked. Some of the more common of these in of these include checks of
speed, load, pressure, flow, and temperature. But, in more recent years, it has been shown,
demonstrably, that vibration has become one of the most sensitive and accurate of these
indicators of machinery condition. Moreover in addition to its capability to sense
machinery defects earlier than other types of sensors, it can also be used to pinpoint the
specific source or machinery component which is defective.
As a result, many industries are now using vibration analysis in their preventive
maintenance programs to provide the basic guidance as to when maintenance and
overhauls should be performed, rather than relying on fixed calendar dates at which
machines are periodically shut down and opened for inspection.
The main idea is that any machine, even machines in the beast operating conditions will
have some vibration because of minor defects as a result of manufacturing tolerances, etc.
hence each machine will have a level of vibration which may be regarded as normal or
inherent. When machinery vibration increases or becomes excessive some mechanical
trouble is usually the reason.

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This reason may be unbalance, gears, bearings, looseness ... etc. . Each
mechanical defect generates vibration in a unique way. This makes it possible to
positively identify mechanical problems by simply measuring and noting
vibration characteristics as shown in figure (1-5).

Figure(1.5): Vibration analysis pinpoints the source of vibration

Hence, we can briefly define PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE as: A systematic method

of monitoring and trending rotating equipment on a regularly scheduled basis to determine
the condition of the machines subjected to wear, tear and vibration by measuring the
vibration level during operation because the machine condition is reflected as vibration.
1.2.2.b- Oil Analysis.
Oil analysis (OA) is the sampling and laboratory analysis of a lubricant's properties,
suspended contaminants, and anti-wear additives. OA is performed during routine
preventive maintenance to provide meaningful and accurate information on lubricant and
machine condition. By monitoring oil analysis sample results over the life of a particular
machine, trends can be established which can help eliminate costly repairs. The study of
wear in an engine 1s called tribology. Tribologists often perform or interpret oil analysis.
Oil Analysis Can Be Divided Into Four Categories:

1) analysis of oil properties,

2) analysis of contaminants,
3) analysis of wear elements from machinery, and
4) analysis of the additive package used in most motor oils.

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1.2.2-c Infrared Thermography

Any object with a temperature above absolute zero emits energy. As Infrared its
temperature rises, the energy emission also increases. thermography is a technique that
produces a visible graph or a thermography image of thermal energy radiated by objects,
shown in figure(1-6). Thermography utilizes a portion of the infrared band of the
electromagnetic spectrum between approximately 1 and 14 microns.
This bandwidth is usually associated with infrared radiated energy produced by object
temperatures of-20 °C and higher.

Figure(1.6): Thermography
Electronic instruments used in infrared thermography utilize a lens system to focus the
invisible energy radiated from an object's surface onto the infrared sensitive detector(s).
The various energy levels are measured by the detector(s) and then transformed into a
visible image with each energy level represented by a different color or gray scale level.
This image can be viewed by the user on a LCD or CRT display. The image can be stored
digitally or on video, for review, analysis and reporting at a later stage. All infrared
systems (simple to complex) are sensitive to infrared radiated energy only. They do not
actually measure temperature. They are useful in applications where a variation in
temperature, reflection, surface condition or material may cause a difference in the radiated
energy level that can be detected by the infrared camera.

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The new generation of infrared cameras is known as focal plane arrays (FPAS). High-
resolution infrared images are now possible with these commercially available instruments
due to the fact that most FPAs use over 75000 detector elements in the production of each
infrared image. Radiometric FPAs use an onboard computer system to perform a series of
complicated functions to calculate temperatures. These temperatures are only valid when a
trained and experienced operator enters a series of accurate parameters. Thermography is a
useful predictive maintenance technique in the following ways:

 It does not make contact with the surface.

 The technique does not involve any hazardous actions.
 It can be used in hazardous zones
 It is not affected by electromagnetic waves.
 Like other predictive techniques, it is used while systems are operating.
 It provides instant information.
 Data can be collected and stored in digital format.

However, thermography has some disadvantages, such as:

 The cost of the hardware can be quite high.

 Some systems have software limitations.
 The emissivity of the object must be calculated or should be known.
 The ambience should be homogenous with respect to the thermal energy any
radiating source close to the area being monitored can affect the thermal scans.
 Distance, atmospheric conditions and temperature can affect the quality of images.
1.2.3 A Comparison Between Predictive Maintenance ,And Other Classical.
Maintenance techniques as breakdown maintenance or planned maintenance shoes
clearly the advantages of predictive maintenance over other types.
1.2.3.a- Breakdown Maintenance.
A machine is allowed to run until failure in some parts, inefficiency in production or
waste in product occurs.

 Disadvantages:
 Failure occurs in short time terms to anticipate proper tools.
 manpower, and replacement parts.
 More extensive repair in time and cost.

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 Risk of injury of life loss.

 Other parts can be affected.
 Down time is large

1.2.3-b Planned Maintenance.

This means periodic disassembly and inspection. It is sometimes called scheduled
maintenance.
 Disadvantages:
 Inspection is expensive and time consuming.
 To insure correct operation inspection periods should be small.
 Frequent disassembly causes degradation of the machine (tear and wear).
 During assembly there is a chance for improper mountings, tightening,
alignment, balancing, etc.
 Does not prevent faults completely.
 There is no assurance repair has corrected the fault.
 Some replaced parts may stay work satisfactorily.
 Some parts may fail before expected life.

1.2.3-c Predictive Maintenance

The advantages of the predictive maintenance over the other two are many. For
instance, it is economic in the long run, it provides a scope for fault prognosis, the
maintenance schedule can be controlled according to the availability of resources, the spare
parts inventory can be reduced, and the faults in a machine can be minimized. In the long
run, this type of maintenance leads to high production rates and increased profitability.
Thus the benefits of predictive maintenance can be summarized as follows:

 Lower maintenance costs

 Fewer machine failures
 Less repair downtime
 Reduced small parts inventory
 Longer machine life
 Increased production
 Improved operator safety.

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Monitoring machine condition by vibration level while operation. The machine

condition is reflected as vibration. The vibration level increases when some faults occur.
The predictive maintenance program consists of three steps, shown in figure (1.7).

Detection

Analysis

correction

Figure(1.7): PDM Steps.

1) Detection:
Vibration measurements are normally made using hand-held data collector with a
vibration transducer. The predictive maintenance software loads a list of locations that are
due for measurement into the data collector. The operator then moves around these
locations taking measurements at each point. Once completed, the measurements are
transferred to the predictive maintenance database. The vibration level is measured at
suitable intervals of time according to its condition. The vibration level is plotted against
the time. This plot is shown in fig (1.8) and fig (1.9) and is known as "trend" .In the trend,
there are two important levels of vibrations known as

1-The alarm level 2-The dangerous (shutdown) level

Figure(1.8): Without Predictive Maintenance

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When the vibration level reaches the alarm level, there are two decisions that
should be made:

 The determination of the period of time before the vibration level reaches the
dangerous level, this can be obtained from the increasing rate of vibration.
 The determination of the source of fault, this is done by the next step, which
is analysis.
2) Analysis:
The purpose of this step is to pinpoint a specific machinery problem by identifying its
unique vibration characteristics or signature. Each part in the machine has its vibration
characteristics, namely the frequency, which identifies the part, and the amplitude, which
indicates the level of the fault. The analysis of vibration requires a special instrument
known as the "analyzer". It gives a plot for the frequency versus the amplitude. This is
known as the vibration spectrum. From this spectrum it is possible to recognize the cause
of the trouble.

3) Correction:
Having determined the faulty part and the period through which the fault should be
corrected a report should be presented to management to take the necessary measures for
repair , which is suitable for the production plant . so plot will be as in figure (1.9)

Figure(1.9): with predictive maintenance.

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Disadvantages:
One of the major disadvantages of predictive maintenance is that it requires extra
investment in the initial stage for the additional instrumentation and it needs a robust
software for fault diagnosis and prognosis. Today, software with robust fault-detection
algorithms is available, but for the initial runs, one must use them with the help of trained
personnel so that no untested fault scenarios are misdiagnosed, leading to a disastrous
consequence.

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